Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 78 (2017) 1152–1187

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Review of harmonic analysis, modeling and mitigation techniques MARK

a b c d a,⁎
A. Kalair , N. Abas , A.R. Kalair , Z. Saleem , N. Khan
a
Department of Electrical Engineering, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Park Road, Islamabad, Pakistan
b
Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Gujrat, Hafiz Hayat Campus, Gujrat, Pakistan
c
Department of Electrical Engineering, Air University Islamabad, Pakistan
d
Department of Electrical Engineering, Abasyn University, Islamabad Campus, Islamabad, Pakistan

A R T I C L E I N F O A BS T RAC T

Keywords: Power quality problems are manifested in voltage, current or frequency deviations causing malfunction of
Harmonics sensitive equipment. Integration of inverter connected PV and wind power plants, and rampant rise in
Nonlinear load nonlinear loads have led to harmonic problem in power system. Nonlinear loads and switched devices energized
True power factor by sinusoidal sources or linear loads and switched devices with non-sinusoidal sources, produce harmonics in
Distortion factor
distribution system. Academic harmonic analysis study consists of modeling nonlinear loads to develop Norton
Resonance
and Thevenin equivalent circuits of devices for integration into harmonic analysis software. Experimental
Total Harmonics Distortion (THD)
researchers often use harmonic analyzers to measure the harmonics in real systems to evaluate suitable
mitigation alternatives. The distortive power losses force utilities to increase apparent power to maintain
reliable and uniform power supply. Harmonic analyzers use data acquisition hardware and inbuilt software
algorithms to perform onsite measurements. Harmonic analyzers help find true power factor, total harmonic
distortions, reactive and distortive power losses. Use of shunt capacitance at unity power factor worsens the
situation instead of supplying distortive power compensation. Active power factor correction techniques, using
smart algorithm to cancel the distortive power, have been reviewed for further research. Nonlinear physics of
harmonic phenomenon is described to explore its applications. Harmonic mitigation technologies have been
compared, current state of the art technology reviewed and demonstrated by designing a harmonic filter.
Measurement of harmonics, waveform distortions, and true power factor (TPF) of single and three phase
electronic loads is carried out to test their compliance to harmonic standard limits. Energy conservation concept
requires reduction of harmonics in distribution networks. This study found 60 ± 10% reduction in power factor
and more than 2% increase in line losses due to widespread use of nonlinear loads. Utility apparent power
demand increases due to consumers’ inadvertent violation of IEC Standard 61000-3-2 and IEEE Standard 519–
1992.

1. Introduction grid networks. The conversion of DC to AC results in injection of low

Rampant rise in population, energy demand, economic growth and
emissions have popularized renewable energy sources [1–3]. Natural
energy resources usually occur in remote places, far away from
populated load centers. Flow of currents in longer HVDC and HVAC
lines and overloaded distribution transformers cause line losses [4].
Power electronics, saturating and arcing loads cause harmonics which
increase the overall distribution losses. Renewable energy sources are
connected to national grid at distribution level through harmonic rich
inverters which increase utility line losses [5]. Inverter is heart of
modern renewable energy system providing DC to AC conversion for
synchronization of renewable energy sources with existing electrical
order harmonic in power system [6]. Harmonic analysis and mitigation
studies facilitate integration of renewable energy sources for sustain-
able power system operation. The exponentially growing offshore wind
farms across the Europe inject harmonics into active power systems
which are a great challenge in smart grid system operation [7,8].
Harmonics in wind energy conversion system deteriorate the overall
efficiency by torque pulsation, low power factor, overheating and
increased stator winding losses [9]. Schwanz and Bollen have con-
ducted a comprehensive review on solutions of harmonic mitigation
techniques using active and passive filters [10]. Das and Gupta
extended the harmonic mitigation methods to dynamic wind turbines
[11]. Jain and Sing estimated harmonics in modern power systems

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: anam.kalair@comsats.edu.pk (A. Kalair), naeemkalair@uog.edu.pk (N. Abas), 130390@students.au.edu.pk (A.R. Kalair), prof_zahid@hotmail.com (Z. Saleem),
nasrullahk@yahoo.com (N. Khan).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.04.121
Received 6 March 2016; Received in revised form 5 February 2017; Accepted 30 April 2017
1364-0321/ © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
A. Kalair et al.
narrowing down key issues and challenges [12]. Modern grids consist
of conventional and harmonics rich renewable energy power plants.
Integration of solar parks, wind farms and DC storages to national grid
at distribution level causes power quality issues such as harmonics, low
power factor and voltage instabilities [9,13,14]. Converter connected
static PV or DC storage and dynamic distributed generation systems
reduce traditional line losses but add harmonics losses due to
asynchronous THDV. Standard converters have 2–3% higher losses
than damping converters which can be improved further [15].
Harmonic currents increase hysteresis, eddy current and core losses
in generators, transformers and induction motors; multiply line losses
in conductors and cables due to higher frequencies; causing malfunc-
tion of circuit breakers, fuses, protective relays and control systems
[16]. Harmonic currents increase rms values which cause joule losses.
Distribution systems with 10% THDV may suffer 2–15% losses in
transformers, 6% losses in generators and 15–16% losses in capacitors
[17].
Harmonics affect power quality and increase system losses up to
20% out of which 27% may be attributed to harmonics [18,19]. Recent
studies reveal the additional power losses in distribution networks may
be in range of 4–8.5% for various harmonic levels [20]. Distribution
system losses vary with nonlinear loads and may peak to 110% at 100%
harmonic loads [21]. A smart grid having 1–8% THDV may face 4.7–
42.2% capacity losses [22]. Harmonics can be harvested at device,
building and distribution levels and injected back into system to repair
distorted wave shapes to improve power quality [23]. Power quality
problems are manifested in voltage, current, or frequency deviations
resulting in failure or malfunction of equipment [24]. Common power
quality issues are either temporary or steady state voltage or frequency
deviations such as impulsive or oscillatory transients, voltage sags,
swells, harmonics, flickers and imbalances. The power quality pro-
blems inflict discomfort to consumers and economic losses to indus-
tries. Capacitor switching transients, harmonics and ferroresonance
problems distort utility supply sinusoidal waveform thus the power
quality means the voltage quality [25]. Harmonics are created by
nonlinear loads and switched devices which are usually 40% of utility
load. Voltage sags and dips are caused by short circuit faults and motor
starting [26–28]. Harmonics de-rate transformers and affect high
frequency controllers, whereas transients and voltage sags influence
protection and control equipment [29–31]. Controlled AC drives ride-
through interruptions but induction motor starters and DC drives
contactors require back up RC circuits [32].
Transients are generally caused by lightning and capacitor switch-
ing operations. Flicker (1–10 Hz) is caused by intermittent industrial
loads like arc furnaces, electric hammers and inter-harmonics. Flicker
influences control devices and human eye (see IEC Standard 868-0-
1991) [33,34]. There are many types of power quality issues (see
Table 1) which impact protection and control devices [35,36].
Harmonics orders may range from 2 to 100 (even higher) yet 2–25
orders are usually considered for harmonic analysis. Higher order
harmonics are much lower than lower order harmonics. The inter-
harmonics are not integral multiple of fundamental which may range
from 0 to 600 kHz. Inter-area large and small signal power system
oscillation frequencies vary from 0.2 to 4 Hz. Voltage fluctuations and
subsynchronous resonance frequencies are often in range of 20–40 Hz.
Simultaneous voltage, current and frequency magnitudes as well as
frequency deviations affect the protection and control reference signals
which require filters to enable signal processing.
During power system disturbances low and medium frequency
transients frequencies overlap with higher order harmonics, especially
in 5–6 kHz range. Types of power quality problems have been defined
in IEEE Power Quality Standard 1159, 1995. Nonlinear loads are
usually 40–41% of electric load. Energy losses due to harmonics, in
well maintained power systems, varies from 1% to 1.5% of total energy
consumption which including technical losses may increase up to 2–
25% in harmonics rich power systems [37]. Harmonics and circulating
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 78 (2017) 1152–1187
current losses are invisible ghosts in utility energy networks generally
included in technical losses. Technical losses are less than 7% in
developed utilities and more than 20% in third world utilities. Utilities
associate line losses to power thefts and pilferages which are really
technical losses. Harmonics may increase losses by 2.1% in industrial
feeders [38]. Technical losses are usually permitted up to 5% which
automatically increase to more than 7% due to harmonics. Harmonics
can influence electromechanical meters as well as some types of smart
meters using Rogowski coil transducers [39–41].
All electric and electronic devices like transformers, compact
fluorescent lamps (CFL), light emitting diodes (LED) lamps, high
intensity discharge (HID) lamps, fluorescent tubes (FT), high voltage
fluorescent lamps, air conditioners, rectifiers, inverters, lifts, mobile
chargers, transformers cores, arc furnaces, switch mode power supplies
(SMPS), adjustable speed drives (ASD), TV, chargers and computers
produce harmonics [42]. Generators cause 1–1.5% harmonic distor-
tions in power house, and T & D transformers introduce varying
harmonic distortions depending on loads as shown in Fig. 1 [24].
Switch mode power supplies (SMPS) are used in laptops, televi-
sions, computers and a wide range of consumer electronic devices.
SMPS are major source of harmonics in homes, offices and industries.
SMPS circuit caused waveform distortion and harmonics are shown in
Fig. 2.
Residential and nonlinear loads vary from 38% to 42% of the utility
loads. Fluorescent lighting loads in the buildings vary from 40% to
70%. Lighting load in buildings consist of fluorescent lamps after
farewell to Edison’s Bulb. Fluorescent lamps are basically discharge
lamps which require a ballast to provide a high initial voltage to start
the discharge between electrodes. Once the discharge is established, the
voltage decreases as the arc current increases, to maintain light
lumens. Fluorescent lamps waveform distortions and harmonics are
shown in Fig. 3.
LED and compact fluorescent lamps (CFL) have largely replaced
fluorescent tubes. CFL and LED lamps distort waveforms and produce
more harmonics than fluorescent tubes. Studies suggest that the CFL
load should not exceed 25–30% of building lighting load to maintain
power quality. Adjustable speed drives (ASD) are used by wide range of
industries. ASDs consists of three phase current source and voltage
source (PWM) converters. Current and voltage source inverter wave-
form distortions and harmonics are shown in Fig. 4 and Fig. 5 [24].
Zillions of people hooked to computers and mobiles continuously
inject harmonics back into the power distribution system [43]. Power
electronic devices injecting harmonics are sensitive to harmonic
distortions as equipment causing voltage disturbances are themselves
sensitive to voltage disturbances [44]. Harmonics distort the sinusoidal
voltage affecting firing angle of control and data acquisition circuits
causing metering and zero crossing errors in wave shape sensitive
equipment. Transformer-less UPS with DD-DC converters and high
speed DC-AC converting switches causes LCDs and computer starting
problems. We noted this interference problem several time in power
electronics laboratory. Fourier coefficients (bn) of symmetric even
functions are zero. Nonlinear and switched loads as well as non-
sinusoidal sources cause harmonic distortion [45].
Nonlinear loads with sinusoidal voltage sources and linear loads
with non-sinusoidal voltage sources produce harmonics. Nonlinear
load injected harmonics distort the sinusoidal supply waveform which
affects other linear devices. Current waveform distortion and harmo-
nics of a non-sinusoidal source feeding a resistive load are shown in
Fig. 6.
If we add L (inductor) in series with R (resistor) using same non-
sinusoidal voltage source then THDi reduces by 40–50%. If we use RLC
type load with same non-sinusoidal source then THDi further reduces
by 70–75%. Use of inductors and capacitors in loads or in supply
sources reduces current harmonics. Distorted waveforms increase
reactive power losses due to reduction of true power factor. Lower
power factor, reactive and distortive power losses increase apparent
A. Kalair et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 78 (2017) 1152–1187

Table 1
Typical harmonics and transients distorted waveforms.

ferroresonance when positive inductive reactance equals negative

capacitive reactance. International IEC 61000 (Geneva), IEEE 519
(1992) and European EN 50159 (Brussels) standards impose limits on
emissions of harmonics yet despite compliance to standards the true
power factor remains too low. Deployment of shunt capacitance at
unity power factor further worsens the TPF. Voltage or current THD
cannot be corrected without removing harmonic sources. However,
different combinations of loads and filters can reduce harmonics.
Utilities often deploy expensive static var compensators to reduce
THD to improve the true power factor. Energy saved by consumers
with switch mode power supplies (SMPS), CFL and LED lamps
Fig. 1. Transformer magnetizing current waveform [1].
increases apparent power demand affecting the service power quality.
Power Quality (PQ) study is usually initiated with existing data and
power demand. High voltage and current THD requires utility to
fault history. If there is no data is available then it starts with
increase apparent power capacity to supply the same load . Utilities can
monitoring multiple parameters such as transients, short-duration
reduce the reactive power losses by capacitor banks but cannot improve
and sustained variations. Once the PQ problem is identified it is
the distortive power losses. True power factor being product of
monitored and recorded for reasonable time to investigate correspon-
displacement and distortion power factor remains low despite unity
dence among simulated and measured values to conclude mitigation
displacement power factor. There is high probability of resonance or

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A. Kalair et al.
a. SMPS waveform distortion
b. SMPS current harmonics
Fig. 2. SMPS circuit, waveform and current harmonics [1]. a) SMPS waveform
distortion. b) SMPS current harmonics.
a.Fluorescent lamp current waveforms with magnetic blast /electronic blast
b. Magnetic blast fluorescent lamp current harmonics
c.Electronic blast fluorescent lamp current harmonics
Fig. 3. Fluorescent lamps waveform distortions and harmonics [1]. a) Fluorescent lamp
current waveforms with magnetic blast /electronic blast. b) Magnetic blast fluorescent
lamp current harmonics. c) Electronic blast fluorescent lamp current harmonics .
strategy to solve the problem. Well known power quality problems need
few snapshots to calculate normal severity of problem. Harmonics are
caused by nonlinear loads in sinusoidal source waveforms as well as
linear loads with non-sinusoidal sources. Unknown cause of problem
type power quality research initiates with complete monitoring of
situation, especially at time of tripping, to decide mitigation technol-
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 78 (2017) 1152–1187
a. Current source inverter drive waveform distortion
b. Current source inverter drive harmonics
Fig. 4. Current source inverter drive circuit, waveform distortion and harmonics. a)
Current source inverter drive waveform distortion. b) Current source inverter drive
harmonics.
a. Voltage source inverter (PWM) drive waveform distortion
b. Voltage source inverter (PWM) drive harmonics
Fig. 5. Voltage source inverter (PWM) drive circuit, waveform distortion and harmonics.
a) Voltage source inverter (PWM) drive waveform distortion. b) Voltage source inverter
(PWM) drive harmonics.
ogies. Nonlinear loads drive circuits and their equivalent circuits may
be simulated in Matlab to analyze the scenario. This harmonic analysis
study was initiated by taking measurement of utility feeders, industrial
facilities, large buildings and commercial nonlinear appliances and
devices.
2. Harmonic phenomenon
A sinusoidal voltage is a conceptual quantity produced by an ideal
AC generator, built with finely distributed stator and field windings,
operating in a uniform magnetic field which does not exist in practice.
Neither the winding distribution nor the magnetic field can be uniform
in an AC machine. Generator voltage distortion is very small (1–1.5%)
which is increased in transformers and nonlinear loads. Electronic load
causes the current to vary disproportionately with the voltage during
each cyclic period. Current waveform distortion, due to network
impedance between source and nonlinear load, also distorts voltage
waveform at the point of common coupling. Harmonics are produced
by generators, transformers, nonlinear loads and switched devices.
Harmonics are integral multiple of fundamental frequency yet inter-
harmonics also exist in distribution system due to induction furnaces.
A. Kalair et al.
a. Current waveform distortion of resistive load by son-sinusoidal source
b. Current harmonics with son-sinusoidal voltage source
Fig. 6. Current waveform and harmonics of resistive load powered by non-sinusoidal
source. a) Current waveform distortion of resistive load by son-sinusoidal source. b)
Current harmonics with son-sinusoidal voltage source.
Harmonic orders may vary from 2 to 100 even more yet harmonic
studies usually analyze first 25 orders due to their significant magni-
tudes compared to higher order harmonics. Harmonics distort utility
voltage and current waveform. Total harmonic distortion (THD) is
defined as the ratio of total harmonics to the value at fundamental
frequency.
Power electronic devices, furnaces, energy saving lamps and
transformers are key sources of harmonics. Widespread emergence of
harmonics was first time noted in 1970s after introduction of power
electronic converters in consumer electronics and industries [46].
Advent of integrated circuits, computers and electronic devices further
worsened the power quality problems in 1980s [47]. Harmonics vary in
magnitude over time but a certain minimum level of pollution always
exists in distribution system which distorts utility supply waveform.
Harmonics worsen the power factor, increase line losses and utility
apparent power supply demand. Current waveforms for different loads
are shown in Table 1 [48,49].
Waveform distortion and periodic resonance events cause sustained
headache to power engineers. Utility being supplier is assumed
responsible to provide acceptable quality power supply. Harmonics
are injected by consumers, especially large industries, affecting smaller
consumers and utilities. Utilities are forced to supply more apparent
power to account for ghost distortive power. Large industries install
filters for their lower order harmonics but small consumer electronic
devices continue injecting higher order harmonics which can better be
contained at device level. Utilities install static var compensators on
distribution system to improve power factor by reducing reactive and
distortive power losses. Lower order harmonics (h=2 to 25) awfully
distort sinusoidal waveforms due to their high magnitudes but higher
order harmonics (h=26 to 50 or higher) are usually perceived too low to
be considered for harmonic analysis. Switched automatic appliances,
periodic industrial processes and Inter-harmonics produce time vary-
ing harmonics. The time varying harmonics may be represented by
complex phasor as well as three dimensional diagrams [50]. Impact of
harmonics on Point of Common Coupling (PCC) may be examined in
terms of Mobius transformation of impedance at PCC [51]. Time
varying harmonics are a great challenge to normal frequency domain
analyses techniques. Measurement of harmonics is essential for
analysis and mitigation. A combination of estimation of signal para-
meters via rotational invariance techniques (ESPRIT) and adaptive
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 78 (2017) 1152–1187
wavelet neural network (AWNN) techniques has been proposed to deal
with time varying harmonics [52].
It is often difficult to recognize the difference between nonlinear
load harmonics and oscillatory transients caused by capacitor switch-
ing as both of them involve high frequency components. Power quality
engineers can recognize the difference as the oscillatory is a short lived
transient and harmonics are a steady state phenomenon but time
varying harmonic feature again confuses experts. Harmonics derive
current from source therefore flow opposite to distorted load current to
grid. Utility is assumed to supply sinusoidal voltage to customers but
harmonic current injection into grid is controlled by consumers. If
harmonics are not within acceptable limits defined by IEEE 519–1992,
IEC 61000-2-6 (American) or EN 50160 (European Standard) etc, then
it is ultimate responsibility of electricity supply utility to provide
sinusoidal power which is difficult without consumer cooperation. To
estimate harmonic spectra of the time and frequency varying power
signals several algorithms have been proposed yet none of them
reached developed technology stage. Common harmonic analyzers
come with built in fast Fourier transforms (FFT) capable of processing
samples to determine harmonics in voltage and current signals.
Software tools facilitating harmonic analysis include Matlab
Simulink, PSCAD, EMTDC and ETAP. Signal processing based techni-
ques harmonic analysis algorithms include Taylor-Kalman-Fourier,
fuzzy logic, artificial neural networks (ANN), adaptive wavelet neural
networks (AWNN), bacterial forage optimization (BFO), estimating
signal rotational invariance techniques (ESPIRIT), least mean square
(LMS) and variable leaky LMS (VLLMS) techniques [53,54].
2.1. The harmonic distortion
Nonlinear loads cause harmonics which distort the voltage and
current waveforms. Total harmonic distortion (THD) is a measure of
the effective value of the harmonic voltage (THDv) or current (THDi) in
a distorted waveform. It is the heating value of the harmonics relative
to the fundamental. Low value harmonics with least probability of
causing disturbing effects are present in the utility network and high
value harmonics with high probability of causing disturbing effects are
found in vicinity of large industries. Harmonic standards impose limits
on voltage distortions which according to EN 50160 are assumed to
remain within limit during 95% of the 10-min averages obtained in one
week. The root mean square (rms) voltage of an ac source supplying a
nonlinear load producing h harmonics is given by [24].
1
Vrms = V12 + V22 + V32…. .Vh2max = V1,2rms + V2,2 rms + V3,2 rms…. .Vh2max, rms
2
(1)
V1, V2 …Vh refer to peak magnitudes of fundamental, second and
higher order current harmonics. The equivalent rms value of the
current is given by
1
Irms = I12 + I22 + I32…. .Ih2max = I1,2rms + I2,2 rms + I3,2 rms…. .Ih2max, rms
2
(2)
Total harmonic distortions (THDs) are referred to the fundamental
values of voltage and currents. Voltage and current THDs are given by
⎛ h max ⎞ V2,2 rms + V3,2 rms... Vh2max, rms
THDv = ⎜⎜ ∑ Vh2,rms ⎟⎟/V1 =
⎝ ⎠ V1
h >1 (3)
⎛ h max ⎞ I2,2 rms + I3,2 rms... Ih2max, rms
THDi = ⎜⎜ ∑ Ih2,rms ⎟⎟/I1 =
I1
⎝ h >1 ⎠ (4)
Voltage and current harmonics vary from h=2 to hmax and V1 or I1
refer to rms values of fundamental voltages or currents. Root mean
square value of a distorted voltage and current waveforms are given by
A. Kalair et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 78 (2017) 1152–1187

h max h max
Vrms = ∑ Vh2 = V12 + ∑ Vh2
h =1 h >1 (5)

h max h max
Irms = ∑ Ih2 = I12 + ∑ Ih2
h =1 h >1 (6)
where Vh and Ih are RMS values of harmonic components. The RMS
values of voltages and currents of distorted waveforms may be related
to THD by

Vrms = V1 1 + (THD /100)2 = V1 1 + THDpu

2
(7)
Fig. 7. Impact of excess shunt capacitance on utility supply capacity.
Irms = I1 1 + (THD /100)2 = I1 1 + THDpu
2
(8) h
D= ∑hmax V I
>1 hrms hrms
sin θh (18)
Value of THD may be in percent in first part or per unit in second
part. In the case of digital data the RMS values of voltages and currents Usually reactive power is compensated by shunt capacitance in
are estimated by [55]. which case S2 = P2 + D2. Due to distortive power the apparent power
1 1 increases even at unity power factor. When utilities add more shunt
Vrms = ∑ Vi2, Irms = ∑ Ii2, Time domain data,
(9) capacitance the apparent power demand further increases. Evolution of
N N
D is direct consequence of harmonics caused by nonlinear loads. D is in
Vrms = ∑ Vh2 + VDC , Irms = ∑ Ih2 , Frequency domain data quadrature with both P and Q so it cannot be cancelled by simply series
h h (10) or shunt reactors and capacitors. It can be compensated by capacitors if
D vector is rotated to align it in direction of Q. Depending upon the
In the case of distorted current waveforms, IEEE Standard 519–
system conditions the spatiotemporal vector diagrams of S, P, Q and D
1992 recommends to refer THDi to the fundamental peak demand load
are shown in Fig. 7 [56,57].
current (IL) rather than the fundamental current sample and call it
High voltage build up occurs on capacitors but should not exceed
total demand distortion (TDD) represented by
110%. Capacitance required to improve factor can be calculated by
2
⎛ h max ⎞ I2,2 rms + I3,2 rms... Ih2max, rms C = QL / ωVrms . In presence of harmonics, TPF < PF even if XC=XL [58].
TDD = ⎜⎜ ∑ Ih2 ⎟⎟/IL = There is no way to zilch the D without using phase shifting circuits (see
⎝ ⎠ IL Section 6). Several studies have been carried out but harmonics of
h =2 (11)
different make equipment often differ due to variations in designs. CFL,
In a linear load the active power (P) is average rate of supply of
LED and fluorescent lamps in building increase harmonic distortion
energy
yet study of various combinations of lightning loads shows the
VI
11 harmonics of different loads either cancel or minimize overall THD
P= cosθ1 = V I1rmscosθ1 = Scosθ1
2 1rms (12) based on sum of separate harmonic THDs. Table shows the 7th
harmonic is 37% for one PC but 0% for 23 PCs. Dimmers THD was
Reactive power is rate of energy storage in inductor or capacitor
reported to reduce by 50% by increasing their number from 10 to 50
VI
11 [59]. Voltage and current distortions of incandescent lamps increase
Q= sinθ1 = V I1rmssinθ1 = Ssinθ1
2 1rms (13) with increase in number of bulbs yet THD due to CFL and LED
decreases with increase of lamps. Voltage and current distortions of
Average active power consumption in a load is given by
100 bulbs increase by 100% for 300 bulbs. A simulation analysis of
1 T
bulbs, CFL and LED combinations can exactly find the optimum lamps
P=
T
∫0 v(t )i(t )dt
(14) mix causing lowest voltage and current distortion. Fifty percent bulbs
and 50% CFLs, 1.11 kW load, produce 18.61% THDi at 0.97 PF and
The apparent power (S) supplying the fundamental and harmonics
50% bulbs and 50% LED lamps, 0.56 kW load, cause 8.47% THD at
is given by
0.94 PF. Any combination of 40% bulbs, 30% CFL and 30% LED lamps,
S = Vrms × Irms (15) 0.40 kW load, lead to 13.74% THD at 0.95 power factor. A combination
Active power (P) is converted into useful energy, heat, light and of 50% CFL and 50% LED lamps, 0.15 kW load, results in 42.57% THD
motion but the reactive power (Q) performs no real task. It is natural at 0.49 power factor [60].
loss associated with the active power utilization. The harmonic voltages
and currents also have their active and reactive components. To 2.2. The power factor
differentiate harmonic reactive power from normal inductive or
capacitive reactive powers it is named as distortion power (D). This In case of a sinusoidal voltage the displacement power factor (DPF)
work refers the fundamental frequency reactive volt-amperes as VAr is defined as cosine of the angle between voltage and current. Power
and harmonic distortion volt-amperes as VAd. Active, reactive and factor is a ratio of useful power to perform real work (P) to the apparent
apparent powers may be related to distortion power by power (S) supplied by utility. Displacement power factor is given by

D= S 2 − P 2 − Q2 (16) P P1, avg

DPF = = = cosθvi
S V1, rmsI1, rms (19)
Substituting values of S, P and Q in (2.10) we obtain
In case of a linear load PF (P/S) is same as DPF (cosθ) but in the
2 2
D= VrmsIrms − V12rmsI12rmscos 2θ1 − V12rmsI12rmssin 2θ1 case of a nonlinear load the true power factor (TPF) takes into account
D= 2 2
VrmsIrms − V12rmsI12rms the contribution from all active power, including both fundamental and
(17)
harmonic frequencies. True power factor (TPF) is defined as the ratio
2
If THDv is negligible so that Vrms = V1rms then D = Vrms Irms − I12rms between the average power (averaged in a line period) and the product
so the distortion power D become of the rms values of the input voltage and current

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A. Kalair et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 78 (2017) 1152–1187

T
1
∫0 v(t )i(t )dt using one of several signal processing techniques discussed in litera-
Average power T
TPF = = ture. IEEE Standard 1459–2010 defines voltage components as follows
Apparent power 1 T 1 T
T
∫0 v(t )2dt T
∫0 i(t )2dt (20) [66]. Fundamental positive sequence power factor (PF1+)and true
power factor (TPF) are defined to be
h
max max h
Pavg = ∑h=1 Ph = ∑ V I
h=1 h,rms h,rms
cos (θ V − θi) = P1,avg + P2,avh +… P1+ P
PF1+ = , and TPF =
(21) S1+ Se (29)
Alternatively, TPF may be given by Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) technique may be used to obtain
h max harmonic content in voltage and current signals. Expressing digital
TPF = ∑ Ph /VrmsIrms ≠ DPF signal as sum of sinusoids is reported in literature [67].
k =1 (22)
The distortion factor is ratio of TPF to DPF
2.3. Negative power factor
TPF 1 I1, rms
DF = = =
DPF 1+(THD )2 Irms (23) The idea of negative power factor is attributed to active power
supplied by load back to source for instance by motor’s generator
Above equation gives a relationship between TPF, DPF and THD. action, compensating capacitors or solar panels. Concepts of negative
Power quality monitoring equipment provides DPF and THD values power factor and negative power are relatively newer ideas in electrical
from which TPF may be calculated. Distortion factor (DF) has no power engineering [68]. Power correction can be improved to unity but
it and may also be given by [61]. distortion power factor is limited to presence of harmonics. When we
1 1 try to compensate power factor of nonlinear loads it leads to negative
DF = ×
1 + (THDv , pu )2 1 + (THDi , pu )2 power factor. Smart loads consist of electric springs (ES) to buck or
(24)
boost voltage under varying power quality conditions [69,70]. Smart or
Typical THDv varies from 1.37% to 10% and typical THDi varies conventional loads having capacitors lead to negative power factor as
from 10% to 150%. Eq. (20) may be written in terms of THDv and THDi well as negative power. Negative power is often supplied by laptop,
as [62]. mobile and DSL router chargers with negative power factor. It may be
Pavg P1, avg attributed to ENERGY STAR guidelines to build self power factor
1 1
TPF = = × × correcting electronic devices [71]. Analog electromechanical power
VrmsIrms V1rmsI1rms 1 + (THDv /100)2 1 + (THDi /100)2 factor meters cannot measure true values. Modern digital meters and
(25) harmonic analyzers are preferred for measurements in case of non-
THDV is often few percent of THDi. Assuming negligible THDv Eq. linear loads. Porcelain insulator testing under wet/dirty conditions also
(22) reduces to exhibit negative power factor due to current flow through ground [72].
The power factor of an ac electrical power system is defined as the
P1avg 1 ratio of the real power flowing to the load to the apparent power in the
TPF = ×
V1rmsI1rms 1 + (THDi /100)2 (26) circuit. In case of harmonics the real power is sum of all real powers of
harmonic components. Due to electric (0.5CV2) or magnetic energy
TPF in terms of displacement power factor and distortion factor (0.5LI2) stored in the capacitive or inductive load and returned to the
may be given by [62]. source, or due to a non-linear load that distorts the wave shape of the
TPF = DPF × DF (27) current drawn from the source, the apparent power is always greater
than the real power [68]. The power factor may vary from −1 to +1 as
DPF, THDi and THDv data is available from Harmonic Analyzer
illustrated in Fig. 8.
measurements to calculate dPF using (2.20). Accurate TPF is obtained
The concept of negative power factor due to negative power is
from (2.17) but approximate TPF may be obtained from (2.18). TPF ≤
widely accepted in electrical engineering today, especially in co-
dPF < DPF but generalized harmonic-adjusted power factor (HPF)
generation and smart storage environment [73]. IEEE standard
may be given by [63].
1459–2010 does not explicitly refer to negative power factor which is
h max h max an unavoidable consequence of the power factor equations [68,74].
HPF = Pavg / ∑ Ch2Vhrms
2
∑ Dh2Ihrms
2
According ANSI/IEEE Standard 141–1986, the power factor may be
h =1 h =1 (28)
leading or lagging, depending on the direction of both the active and
Where Ch and Dh are weighting coefficients which lack consensus reactive power flows. If these flows are in the same direction, the power
among researchers. A smart power factor meter based on Eq. (26) factor at that point of reference is lagging.
would be an innovative instrument but requires huge numerical If either power component flow is in an opposite direction, the
computations [64,65]. The active power increases only slightly com-
pared to the apparent power as the additional reactive power loss is
supplied by the utility. Apparent power with harmonics is significantly
higher than fundamental frequency S. Electronic energy meters can
measure the TPF which is significantly lower than DPF. Power factor
penalties to industrial consumers are generally based on DPF.
Adoption of CFL, LED and high voltage fluorescent lamps for building
lighting increases distortive power loss due to harmonics. Smart meters
can compute the TPF with help of reactive (var) and distortive powers
(vad). Smart meters facilitate utilities to charge true power factor
penalties to all consumers which perceived as bad news for energy
efficient lamps users. As TPF < DPF, the TPF based penalty factor is
reasonably higher than simple DPF based penalty factors imposed on
industrial users. Measurement of power in three-phase balanced and
unbalanced non-sinusoidal operating conditions may be accomplished Fig. 8. Four quadrant power factor diagram.

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power factor at that point of reference is leading [75,76]. Under certain
conditions generator absorbs power from grid which leads to negative
power factor [77]. Negative power factor refers to power generation in
doubly fed induction generator wind turbines [78,79]. A similar
negative power factor scenario was reported in hysteresis motors [80].
Values of power factor and displacement power factor are same for
linear loads but different for nonlinear loads. Some experts refer
positive factor to flow of power from DC to AC source and negative
power factor to flow of power from AC to DC source [81]. Concept of
negative power must not be confused with negative sequence compo-
nents. In order to differentiate between positive and negative power
factors let us consider decomposition of power factor in unbalanced
three phase system. Apparent power may be defined as scalar
arithmetic (SA) as well as vector (SV) apparent power [82].
SA = Sa + Sb + Sc (30a)
Or
SA = VaIa + VbIb + VcIc (30b)
factor and 50% current unbalance reduces 11% power factor due to
nonlinear dependence.
2.4. TPF calculation procedures
Distortive power appears whether a sinusoidal source energizes a
nonlinear load or a non-sinusoidal voltage source energizes a linear
load. Let us demonstrate calculation procedure for both cases one by
one. It harkens back electric circuit analysis basic yet the procedure is
illustrative for researchers. To find true power factor of a circuit let us
consider its voltage and current equations [58].
v(θ ) = 220 2 sinθ
i(θ ) = 20 + 40 cos(θ−30°) + 30 cos(2θ−45°) + 10 cos(3θ−60°)
Find phase angle between v(θ) and i(θ), I1,rms and Irms currents
40
φ1 = ∠v − ∠i = 30°,I1, rms = = 28. 28,
2

Or ⎛ I2 I2,2 rms I3,2 rms ⎞

Io2 + ⎜⎜ ⎟ = 41. 23A
1, rms
Irms = + +
⎝ 2 2 2 ⎟⎠
SA = Pa2 + Qa2 + Pb2 + Qb2 + Pc2 + Qc2 (30c)
Vector apparent power may be represented by Average values of DF, P, Q, D, S, DPF and TPF are given by
I1, rms 28. 28
SV = VaIa* + VbIb* + VcIc* (31a) DF = = = 0. 68
Irms 41. 23
SV = (Pa + Pb + Pc )2 + (Qa + Qb + Qc )2 (31b) P = VrmsI1, rmcosφ1 = 220 × 28.28 cos30° = 5.388kW

SV = Pt2 + Qt2 (31c) Q = VrmsI1, rmsinφ1 = 220 × 28.28 sin30° = 3.11kVAr

In case of three phase four circuit both line and phase voltage and 2
D = Vrms Irms − I1,2rms = 220 41.232 − 28.282 = 6.621kVAd
line and neutral currents need to be considered. Effective voltages and
currents also have zero sequence components [83]. The effective power S= P 2 + Q2 + D 2 = 5.382 + 3.112 + 6.622 = 9.10kVA
factor is ratio of active and apparent powers
PF = cos30° = 0.87 ≠ DPF (P ÷ S )
Pt 3(P+ + P−)
PFE = =
SE 3 (V+ + V −2 )(I+2 + I −2 )
2 P 5.38
(32) DPF = = = 0.59
S 9.10
P+ and P- are positive and negative sequence powers. Negative
TPF = DFxDPF = 0.68 × 0.59 = 0.41
sequence power component (P-) does not mean negative power (-PR)
that flows from cogeneration to utility. In case of balanced source and Now let us add capacitor to make Q =0 then see what remains the
unbalanced load PFE is PF and TPF when DPF =1. The capacitance (C) may be calculated as
⎛ 4 ⎞ Q 3110
PFE = CF +CF+ = PF+⎜1/ ∑i =1 ui2 ⎟⎠ C= 2
= = 204μF
⎝ (33) ωVrms 2π 50 ×220 2

Load current unbalance and reactive power flow affect the effective For C =204μF, source impedance negligible, Q =0, DPF=1 (θ=0°)
power factor. In case of balanced three phase system it requires three the Snew, PFnew and TPFnew are
line to line voltages and currents alone but in case of three phase four
Snew = P2 + D2 = 5. 382 + 6. 622 = 8. 54kVA
wire network due to phase to neutral voltages it require both six voltage
and current measurements. It requires measurement of magnitudes P 5. 38
DPFnew = = = 0. 61
and relative phase angles of voltages and currents. According to NEMA Snew 8. 54
the unbalance factor may be given by [84].
TPFnew = DF × PFnew = 0. 68 × 0. 61 = 0
max ( Vab − Vbc , Vbc − Vca , Vca − Vab )
UV = 3
(Vab + Vbc + Vca ) (34) In case of a linear load energized by non sinusoidal voltage source
the consumed P is given by
Developed country’s utilities have typically < 3% voltage unbalance ∞
in distribution system which due to single phasing and low phase to v(θ ) = Vo + ∑ Vhcos (hθ − θh,v )
neutral connections is too high in third world country’s utilities having h =1
kunda cultures like KESCO, HESCO, QESCO and PESCO in Pakistan ∞
[85,86]. A first order approximation may be to ignore voltage un- i(θ ) = Io + ∑ Ihcos (hθ − θh,v )
balance and consider only current unbalance as THDV is ignored and h =1
THDi maintained in calculation of true power factor. If UV is ignored ∞
then effective power factor (PFE≈TPF) may be given by p(θ ) = Po + ∑ Vh,rms Ih,rmscos (θh,v − θh,i )
h =1
PFE ≈ PF+ / (1+UI2 ) (35)
In case of a non-sinusoidal voltage source and linear load v(θ) and
As a rule of thumb 15% current unbalance degrades 1% power i(θ) are given by

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v(θ ) = 220 + 100 sin(θ−30°) + 30 cos(4θ + 45°) Series capacitors do cause catastrophic overvoltage during fault. Series
capacitors also cause resonance with synchronous/induction motors
i(θ ) = 20 + 16 cos(4θ + 15°) + 3 cos(6θ−60°)
and ferroresonance with transformers. However, it is argued the series
Fundamental and forth harmonics in voltage and current signals capacitors can reduce flicker. Shunt capacitors reduce I2R losses and
are in phase. Therefore current in lines and transformers by increasing voltage. Capacitors are
30 × 16 generally connected in shunt with load and utility bus at grid. Percent
p(θ ) = 220 × 20 + cos(30°) = 4. 61kW line current reduction by shunt capacitors is given by [24].
2
In case of a non-sinusoidal voltage source and a nonlinear load v(θ) ⎛ cos θold ⎞
%ΔI = 100⎜1 − ⎟
and i(θ) are given by ⎝ cos θnew ⎠ (39)
v(θ ) = 220 + 110 sin(θ−45°) + 50 cos(2θ−30°) + 20 sin (4θ−15°) Where θold is the power factor angle before correction and θnew is
i(θ ) = 20 + 10 sin(θ −30°) + 6 sin(2θ + 45°) + 4 sin (3θ + 15°) power factor angle after correction. Shunt capacitors reduce current
and percentage loss reduction by installing capacitors is given by
p(θ ) = 220 × 20 = 4. 40kW
⎡ ⎛ DPFold ⎞2⎤
(no harmonic components in phase). %Lossreduction = 100⎢1 − ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎢ ⎝ DPFnew ⎠ ⎥⎦
Parameters like DF, Q, S, DPF and TPF can be calculated as ⎣ (40)
illustrated above.
In order to improve the DPF from θold to θnew the kvar size of
capacitance may be given by
2.5. Power factor correction
k var = kW (tan θold − tan θnew ) (41)
Utility supply voltage may be increased by tap changing transfor-
mers and regulators. The capacitor can increase voltage and reduce 1 1
kW = −1 − −1
current by improving the displacement power factor. Static var DPFold DPFnew (42)
compensators (SVC) can regulate utility voltage by supplying or
consuming reactive power on cycle by cycle basis. A thyristor controlled A summary of kW multiplier factors (tanθold – tanθnew) to estimate
reactor (TCR) scheme uses fixed capacitor bank to supply leading kvar is shown in Table 2.
reactive power and demand based reactive power. The capacitors are To determine capacitor kvar requirement to increase existing PF
configured as filters to clean up harmonics. A thyristor switched from 0.50 to 0.96 the kW multiplier from table is 1.440. In case of
capacitor (TSC) operates by switching multiple steps of capacitors to 100 kW load the desired kvar to raise power factor from 0.50 to 0.96
match the desired power factor and load requirement. The switching may be calculated as follows
point is controlled by gating fully on to minimize harmonics and kVAr = kW × Multiplier = 100 × 1.440 = 144 (43)
switching transients. Power factor can be corrected by installing
capacitors but THD cannot be improved without reducing harmonic When installing capacitor take care the voltage rise at low load is
sources. The cost of additional hardware to improve the power factor is not more than 110% otherwise switch off some of the capacitors. If
given by harmonic problem occurs then try to avoid certain switching combina-
tions, which is the least option. It is also helpful to use some of
1 capacitors as filter to remove resonating harmonics. Active, reactive
PF Correction Cost ∝
PF (36) and distortive power losses may be expressed by
If PF of a connected load is 0.59 then cost of additional hardware to h max h max
2 2 2
improve the power factor would be about 69%. Suitable combinations Ploss = ∑ IhrmsRh = ∑ IhrmsR = IrmsR
of capacitance and inductance may stabilize power factor on desired h =1 h =1 (44)
target and reduce harmonic by filtering harmonic. DC power systems of
Conductor resistance at 25th harmonic is 2–4 times greater than
utilities, ships and submarines use combinations of series and shunt
50/60 Hz resistance [87]. Impacts of the “skin effect” increase with the
electric springs (smart loads) to reduce THD [70]. Electric springs are
size of conductor in distribution system. Current density in conductor,
an emerging technology for DC systems akin to FACTs devices for AC
due to skin effect, varies from middle to outer surface [88]. Frequency
power systems [70]. Line voltage is often kept at 105% on grid which
dependence of resistance is basis of derating in power transformers
declines to 103% for consumers at end of line. At peak load the voltage
may fall to 95% for terminal consumers. Voltage may be improved by
Table 2
capacitors. If the capacitor is connected in shunt with load the voltage kW multipliers for kVAr estimation.
increase along the line. Voltage rise at the capacitor is given by
PF New power factors
100(Vwith − cap − Vno − cap )
%ΔV =
Vwith − cap (37) 0.80 0.84 0.88 0.92 0.96 1.00

Voltage rise at terminal consumer bus by installing capacitor in Old power factors 0.50 0.982 1.086 1.192 1.306 1.440 1.732
0.52 0.893 0.997 1.103 1.217 1.351 1.643
shunt with step down transformer is given by [24].
0.56 0.729 0.834 0.940 1.053 1.188 1.479
k varcap × Ztx (%) 0.60 0.583 0.687 0.794 0.907 1.042 1.333
%ΔV = 0.64 0.451 0.555 0.661 0.775 0.909 1.201
kVAtx (38) 0.68 0.328 0.432 0.539 0.652 0.787 1.078
0.72 0.214 0.318 0.424 0.538 0.672 0.964
where Ztx is transformer percentage impedance. 0.76 0.105 0.209 0.315 0.429 0.563 0.855
In case of shunt capacitors the voltage rise is independent of load 0.80 0.000 0.104 0.210 0.324 0.458 0.750
but causes harmonic problems. In the case of a series capacitor the 0.84 0.000 0.106 0.220 0.354 0.646
voltage rise is minimum at low load and maximum at peak load. 0.88 0.000 0.114 0.248 0.540
0.92 0.000 0.134 0.426
Voltage rise in series capacitors depends on load current which is
0.96 0.000 0.292
independent of load in shunt capacitors. Series connected capacitors 1.00 0.000
neither provide reactive power compensation nor reduce system losses.

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[89]. In delta connected transformer primary winding the 3rd harmo-

nic produces core flux but does not appear in supply line current.
Reactance of power system at hth harmonic is h times higher than at
fundamental frequency. Due to change in system imped9+ance asso-
ciated inductive and capacitive THDs become [90].

h ⎛ Vh2 ⎞
=2 ⎜ h β ⎟
∑hmax h
⎝ ⎠ ∑hmax
=1
(hVi2 )
THDind = , THDcap = , where β = 1 … 2
V1 V1
(45)
It is possible to improve DPF by static capacitor, synchronous
motors and phase advancers fitted with individual equipment.
Capacitors are connected in delta as star connected capacitors draw Fig. 10. Impact of capacitor on line impedance [69].
more charge current. Charging current drawn by each capacitor in a
three phase bank is given by
⎛ var ⎞ ⎛ var ⎞
IC = ⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟
⎝ VL ⎠delta ⎝ VL / 3 ⎠ (46)
star

Star connected capacitors draw 3 times more current so their size

is greater than the delta connected capacitors with same DFP improve-
ment effect.

2.6. Devices’ nonlinear behavior

Harmonics are created by nonlinear loads. Usually values of

resistors, inductors and capacitors do not change with voltage and
current magnitudes, however, components response is affected by
temperature of resistors, magnetic core saturation of inductors and
polarization of capacitor dielectric materials. Resistors, inductors and
capacitors do not bear absolute values as these differ with change of
frequencies [91]. Each of R, L or C components is a different type of
RLC circuit. The series and parallel RLC circuits are shown in Fig. 9.
Simulation software often show no harmonics due to defined linear
behavior of components but real components due to varying manu-
facturing tolerances exhibit nonlinear behavior. AC system harmonic
impedance becomes 4–10 times higher during resonance. The harmo-
nic voltage amplification is ratio of capacitor impedance and sum of
capacitor and net impedance without capacitor [ZC/(ZC + Znet)].
Typical harmonic voltage amplifications should not exceed 1.3 at 2, 4
and 6 order harmonics, 1.2 at 3rd harmonic and 1 at 5th and higher
order harmonics. Impact of utility capacitors on line impedance is
shown in Fig. 10.
Akin to varying THD levels, the harmonic impedance of different
phases may be different. Reactive power compensation devices and C-
type filters affect the harmonic impedance [93,94]. Impact of
STATCOM and C-Filter on line harmonic impedance is shown in
Fig. 11.
Harmonic in HVDC systems can be removed by active DC filters in
substations which is far easier than HVAC systems [95]. Each of RLC
components has integrated values of other components. Differential
equation of a series RLC circuit for u input and v output voltages may
be written as second order differential equation
Fig. 11. Impact of STATCOM and C-Type Filter on harmonic impedance [69].
In case of a small resistor in series RLC circuit the current magnitude
is high. It causes voltage drops of ωLV/R and V/ωCR across inductor
and capacitor which due to opposite polarities cause voltage multi-
plication depending upon value of Q. The resistance of arc or nonlinear
load is not constant. Behavior of RLC components in frequency doubling
circuits is nonlinear [96]. Several simulation modeling studies have been
carried out on equivalent circuits of resistors, inductors and capacitors
[97,98]. Inductors and capacitors store energy and release with different
time constants. An electric frequency multiplying circuit a shown in
Fig. 12.
We may use two center tapped transformers containing two diodes
in between as frequency doubling circuit [99]. LC circuit based
frequency multiplier acts as optical parametric oscillator (OPO) in
optics. DC flows through the material, AC flows on surface and high
frequencies propagate through air. At frequencies > 100 MHz R, L and
C behave entirely different compared to their lower frequencies values
[100,101]. Departure from Ohm’s Law is sign of nonlinear behavior.
Resistor is a temperature and frequency dependent component.
Voltages and currents in inductors and capacitors may be represented
by
di ⎛ π⎞
v (t ) = L = ωLIocos ⎜ωt + ⎟,Where permeability μ = IL/A
dt ⎝ 2⎠ (48)

d 2v(t ) R dv(t ) 1 1 dv ⎛ π⎞
+ + v (t ) = u (t ) i (t ) = C = ωCAcos ⎜ωt + ⎟,Where permittivity ε = qd/AV
dt 2 L dt LC LC (47) dt ⎝ 2⎠ (49)

Energy stored in inductor is E =0.5LI2 and in capacitor is E

=0.5CV2. Parameters, ε and μ, do exhibit frequency dependent
behavior. Complex impedances of inductors are capacitors are given by

Fig. 9. Equivalent RLC series and parallel circuits. Fig. 12. Electric frequency multiplier.

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⎛ π⎞ χ2 = Ns < cos 3θ > α2, sss (58)

ωLsin⎜ωt + 2 ⎟
v (t ) ⎝ ⎠ π
ZL = = = ωLe j 2 = R + jX Here NS is adsorbate crystal (say KDP or BBO) density and α2 is
i (t ) sin (wt ) (50)
polarizability. Frequency doubling is an intensity dependent nonlinear
v (t ) sin(ωt ) 1 π behavior given by
ZC = = = ωLe−j 2 = R − jX
i (t ) ⎛ ⎞ ωC
π
ωCsin ⎜wt − 2 ⎟ I (2ω,ℓ) = I (ω, o)tanh2(гℓ) (59)
⎝ ⎠ (51)
Where, г = ωdeff Eo / nc . Examples of frequency doubling effects include
In terms of complex frequency for AC system, XL = jω = sLand SHG, THG, OPO, optical rectifier, Pockel effect, Kerr effect, three wave
XC = 1/jω = 1/sL , and in case of DC system s=0 so the R =R, XL=0 mixing etc.
and XC=undefined. Any undefined parameter may take any value. Light electric field (100 MV) can polarize atoms in molecules. This
Chaotic behavior of RLC circuit, for instance metal oxide varistor, leads interaction is linear at lower intensities and nonlinear at high
to nonlinear behavior. If v is system voltage and Vo is protection voltage frequencies akin to iron core saturation at higher currents [107].
then Crystals lacking inversion symmetry, like magnetic materials exhibiting
⎛ v ⎞γ hysteresis, show nonlinearity giving rise to harmonics generation like
i(t ) = Io⎜ ⎟ , γ = 10 to 50 magnetic saturation [108]. Permeability and permittivity are focused at
⎝ Vo ⎠ (52) power frequencies, Permeability, permittivity, susceptibility and polar-
The charging and discharging characteristics of inductors and izability at microwave to terahertz and susceptibility and polarizability
capacitors are always nonlinear. A nonlinear resistor under periodic at IR and optical frequencies. GaP has been reported to double
excitation voltage absorbs power at certain frequencies and supply frequency of THz waves [109].
power at other frequencies, however, efficiency of generating nth Magnetic component of electric field is dominant at power frequen-
harmonic is limited to 1/n2. The ferromagnetic materials are used in cies and electric field component at optical frequencies. In optics, three
routine to produce harmonics in microwave circuits [102]. Magnetic wave mixing technique is used to produce third wave at different
saturation of iron cores leads to creation of harmonics. All semicon- frequency other than those of mixing waves.
ductor components are nonlinear and produce harmonics [103]. Linear E (t ) = Re(E (ω1)exp(jω1t ) + E (ω2 )exp (jω2t ) (60)
circuits do not distort signals but nonlinear elements have specific
transfer functions. Typical examples of linear systems include ampli- For instance addition of 10.6 µm (CO2 laser) and 1.06 µm waves
fiers, integrators and differentiators. Examples of nonlinear systems gives 0.96 µm wave. It is not arithmetic sum or difference, rather, a
include modulators, mixers, rectifiers, digital logic circuits, diodes, complex nonlinear vector addendum. Frequency and phase matching
transistors and iron core inductors [104]. methods lead to development of optical parametric oscillators com-
A frequency doubling or in general a frequency multiplication mercially available in market. A nonlinear electric load may be used to
phenomenon in AC nonlinear systems may be explained by considering produce different frequencies voltages instead of using variable fre-
i(t ) = Iosin (2πft ) signal. Distorted signal in terms of Fourier series in quency voltage sources such as cycloconverters. Harmonic voltage
frequency domain becomes magnitude depends upon load or saturation of core as photon mixing
depends on light intensity. In terms of frequencies and light intensities
∞
Ckei2πkt the three waves mixing may be giving by Manely-Rowe relation
i (t ) = ∑
(53)
d ⎛ I1 ⎞ d ⎛ I2 ⎞ d ⎛ I3 ⎞
k =−∞
⎜ ⎟= ⎜ ⎟=− ⎜ ⎟
Nonzero Ck representing harmonics is given by dz ⎝ ω1 ⎠ dz ⎝ ω2 ⎠ dz ⎝ ω3 ⎠ (61)
1 T
Ck =
2π
∫0 i (t )e −i 2πft / T
dt
(54)
Phase matching in collinear three waves mixing may be given by
ω1 + ω2 = ω3 (62)
Power is spread across all harmonics. A half wave rectifier has all
non-zero coefficients. The even harmonics are cancelled and odd triple In terms of refractive indices in three directions we can rewrite
harmonics are removed by star-delta connection the first deadly above
harmonics are 11th and 13th. Triple multiples due to magnetic ω1n1 + ω2n 2 = ω3n3 (63)
saturation are usually cancelled in the generators. Typical THD is
The phase matching condition is obtained by solution of complex
1.37% in wind turbine generators. RLC components need to analyze for
ellipsoid equation
their behavioral dependence on susceptibility ( χ) and polarizability in
addition to permittivity and permeability. Magnetization of an iron 1 cos 2θ sin 2θ
= 2 + 2
core is usually given by 2
n (θ , ω ) no (ω) ne (ω) (64)
J = JS − b / H2 (55) After phase match n(θ,ω) = no(2ω). A similar experiment may be
When magnetic field H≈4πJS the behavior transition occurs. carried out at power frequency using two coupled RLC oscillators
Saturation occurs when peak magnetic field is twice of steady the state [110].
magnetic fields. At 1 Tesla THD is 16.92 for 0.62 TPF and at 2 Tesla
THD becomes 75.66% at 0.054TPF. The TPF worsens with rise of THD 2.7. Harmonic mitigation technologies
in magnetic circuits [105]. Empirical relation describing new behavior
is given by Harmonic currents appear in electric distribution system due to a
large variety of nonlinear loads and switched devices. Harmonic
a b
J = JS − − 2 + cH distortion power cannot be reduced like reactive power (VAr) yet
H H (56)
mitigation devices can reduce the magnitudes of harmonics which
It leads to magnetic saturation giving harmonics [106]. indirectly reduces distortive power (VAd). Common harmonic mitiga-
In case of optical fields frequency doubling behavior is described by tion techniques include linear reactors, isolation transformers, k-factor
E (2ω) = χ2 E (ω)E (ω) transformers, tuned passive harmonic filters [111,112], IGBT based
(57)
fast switched harmonic filters, low pass harmonic filters, high pulse
The nonlinear susceptibility tensor of crystal may be given by rectifiers [113], phase shifting transformers [114,115] and active

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Table 3 are different. Harmonics of different types of nonlinear loads are

Costs and performances of harmonic mitigation technologies. cancelled within load groups [146]. Multiple nonlinear loads exhibit
lesser THD than their individual contributions which is recognized as a
HMT 20HP 100HP 400HP THDi THDi
Price ($) Price ($) Price ($) (100% NL) (50%NL) self harmonic canceling phenomenon. Measurement of harmonic
distortion gives idea of THD level to design suitable harmonic mitiga-
Reactor (5%) 520 1100 3800 35% 17.5% tion device [147,148]. To suppress the parallel resonance often shunt
Isolation T/F 2650 6340 18000 35% 17.5%
power injection suffices [134] and to reduce harmonic distortion
13 K-Factor 5300 11,000 48 35% 17.5%
T/F usually passive and active filters are deployed due to high prices of
Tuned Filter 2800 3900 7000 15–20% 3–12% active power filters. K-transformers, ferroresonant transformers and
Low Pass 2400 5600 13,000 8–15% n/a waveform stabilizers can be second choice. Power factor correction and
Filter harmonic control leads the way forward for complete power quality
Active Filter n/a 27,000 65,000 5% 5%
control [149–151]. Harmonic cancellation is done by inverse injection
of harmonic currents, suitable self canceling load combinations.
harmonic filters [116,117]. Active filters reduce THDi down to 5% akin Concept of smart impedance can be used to overcome physical
to 18 pulse rectifiers. Twelve pulse rectifiers reduce THDi up to 10%. constraints on tuned notch filters. The smart hybrid active filters can
Phase shifting transformers akin to twelve pulse rectifiers reduce THDi improve PF and reduce THD [152].
down to 5–15%. Cost and performance comparison of mitigation
technologies is shown in Table 3 [118]. 2.7.1. Line reactors
Several techniques have been developed for mitigation of harmo- Line reactors are simplest and cheapest method to attenuate
nics in AC drives [119], DC drives [120], ASDs [121], induction motor harmonics. Active and passive reactors are connected in series with a
drives [122], multi-motor drives [123], hybrid EV [124], PHEV [125], nonlinear load like arc furnaces [153,154]. Reactors not only attenuate
PMSG [126], electronic devices [127], medium voltage industries harmonics but also absorb the swells, impulsive and oscillatory
[128], utility distribution feeders [129], Three level PWM converters transients which trip the adjustable speed drives on overvoltage.
[130], five level inverters [131] and multilevel H-Bridge converters Reactors can improve transient recovery voltage after faults on high
[132]. Harmonic mitigation is carried out using series power line voltage transmission lines [155]. Current waveform distortion depends
conditioning [133], shunt active power compensation [134], current on the effective source impedance. Maximum power transfer occurs
injection [135], adaptive neural learning algorithm based APF [136] when source impedance equals load impedance and DC motor back
and fuzzy logic based APF techniques [137]. Software and hardware emf voltage is half of terminal voltage. Transformer and reactor
based active filter harmonic mitigation techniques have reported in effective impedance decreases with load. A 6% name plate impedance
literature [6138]. Harmonic mitigation technologies are available but decreases to 3% at 50% load. Line reactors advantages include low cost,
most of them are not cost effective for harmonic rich home appliances reduction in current distortion and enhanced rectifier protection.
consisting of utility’s 40% load. A series reactor reduces 50% of Disadvantages include impractical for large drives, does not meet
harmonics at 60 times lesser cost than an active power filter. A harmonic regulation levels itself and needs to handle full current of
comparison of available harmonic mitigation techniques is shown in load.
Table 4.
Presence of harmonics reduces power delivery system and indus-
2.7.2. Passive harmonic filters
trial processes’ efficiency. Harmonics and ripples affect electroplating
Harmonic distortions may be attenuated by shunt passive filters.
plant’s efficiency. In an electrochemical plant the mass (m) of metal
After series reactors, passive filtering is simplest and cheapest [156].
settled at cathode is proportional to the amount of electricity (Im)
Filters attenuate harmonics by bypassing high frequency components
flowing through the electrolyte for a certain interval (Δt), i.e. m =
to ground. Commonly used filters are shown in Fig. 13.
aImΔt, where “a” depends on THD and ripples [139]. Widespread
A C-type filter is often used to reduce harmonic distortion, improve
integration of renewable energy sources worsens power quality due to
system performance, and compensate reactive power to improve the
injection of harmonics in distribution system which can reasonably be
power factor. C-type filters, as compared to other broadband filters,
improved by shunt reactors [140,141]. Active filters are recommended
have advantage of better performance at higher frequencies along with
for industries as well as domestic consumers to reduce harmonic
no losses at fundamental frequency. A C-type filter is similar to
distortion [142].
broadband high pass filters except having a capacitor in series with
Trap filters can remove any disturbing harmonic. DC link choke and
the inductor. The C-type filters are connected in parallel to the
three phase input reactor (3%) reduce 45% current distortion [143]. To
nonlinear loads producing harmonics or inter-harmonics. An equiva-
cancel harmonics in three phase four wire systems a four branch star
lent circuit of source impedance (XS), shunt filter and harmonic source
filter may be recommended [144]. Real time current harmonic
(load) is shown in Fig. 14.
cancellation using particle swarm optimization algorithm reduces
At fundamental frequency, the inductor Lm and the capacitor Ca
THD to acceptable limits [145]. Harmonics of different nonlinear loads
become series resonant to render R short circuited. Due to this feature,
C-type filters have greater acceptance in market as compared to other
Table 4 broadband filters. The capacitor Cm is selected as per var compensation
Costs and performances of harmonic mitigation technologies. requirements at fundamental frequency. The reactance of capacitor Cm
Solution THDi (%) Efficiency THDV (%) Cost ($/hp)

No filter 45–75 98% 14–18 0

Series reactor 29–49 96.5% 8.9 11
Passive filter 19–29 96% 6 56
12-Pulse 12–23 94% 3.1 < 110
18-Pulse 4–13 92% 2.9 110
Active front 5 94.5% 650
end 2–8 96.5% > 650

6-Pulse ASF
Fig. 13. Passive harmonic filters.

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V2
R= V 4 − hT4QF4k 2ω02Lm2
hT3QF2kω0Lm (75)
Where k is the ratio of system current to filter current at tuned
harmonic and given by
Is(hT )
k=
IF (hT ) (76)
First order harmonic filter causes power losses at fundamental
Fig. 14. Equivalent circuit to derive C filter specifications.
frequency and high pass filters allow most harmonic frequencies pass
to ground. Second and third order harmonic filters provide good
at fundamental frequency may be estimated by [157,158].
filtering action with least power losses. The series harmonic filter
V2 advantages include more effective compensation of harmonics than
Xcm =
QF (65) line-choke, reduction in current distortion and enhanced rectifier
protection. Disadvantages include overloading possibility, non-flexibil-
Where V (in kV) is the voltage applied to the filter, QF is the required ity, leading power factor, full load current handling and inability to
var (in MVAr) compensation. Value of capacitor Cm may be calculated control inrush currents. Passive shunt filters advantages include more
by effective compensation of harmonics than a line-choke and ease of
1 retrofitting. Disadvantages include possibility of overloading, inflex-
Cm = ibility, sensitivity to grid conditions and interaction with power quality
2πf0 Xcm (66)
signatures.
Real component of filter impedance RF (hT) at tuned harmonic hT
may be given by [24]. 2.7.3. Active harmonic filters
Active filters are the current state of art technology which allows
1
RF (hT ) = hT Xs / −1 integration of mitigation philosophy at rectifier stage of converters and
ISF (hT )2 (67) inverters. Active filters monitor distortions and inject inverse currents
Where Xs is the equivalent reactance of the power system at funda- to cancel the harmonics. Active filters often cancel 2–50 order
mental frequency and ISF (hT) is the per unit current at tuned harmonic harmonics (even higher) to reduce THDi down to less than 5%. It is
frequency flowing through system reactance. The value of resistor R is useful to measure harmonics with analyzer and select the dominant
given by harmonics before deployment of active filter. Harmonics from residen-
tial loads may be attenuated by injecting inverse currents derived from
⎛ Xc ⎞2 main supply or solar panels [160–162]. Proportional integral (PI)
RF (hT )2 + ⎜ h m ⎟
⎝ T⎠ control method is normally used to control the grid connected inverter
R= as it is simple using DC in d and q-axis. PI control method often fails to
RF (hT ) (68)
track sinusoidal reference so it is not good to compensate voltage and
The reactance due to reactor Lm and capacitor Ca is given by current harmonics. Normally selective methods use PI control in
rotating reference frame of harmonics and others employ the resonant
⎛ Xc ⎞2
RF (hT )2 + ⎜ h m ⎟ controller. A proportional resonant (PR) can be used in rotating as well
⎝ T⎠ as stationary frame of reference. Proportional integral resonant (PI-R)
XLm = Xca =
⎛ Xcm ⎞⎛ hT 2 −1 ⎞ controller has been proposed for selective harmonic compensation in
⎜ h ⎟⎜ h ⎟
⎝ T ⎠⎝ T ⎠ (69) active power filters as well as grid connected inverters [163]. This
method increases computational burden on controller as it requires
At fundamental frequency Lm and Ca are in series resonance, separate controller for each harmonic. Non selective strategies use
therefore repetitive, predictive and sliding mode control (SMC) methods [164–
1 166] Repetitive control method is robust but predictive control method
ω0 L m =
ω0Ca (70) causes instability under parameters variations. SMC schemes compen-
sate harmonics under diverse grid conditions but it’s chattering
Where ωo is fundamental angular frequency and Lm can be given problem leads to poor power quality and instability of system.
[159]. Integral SMC (ISMC) and sliding mode harmonic compensation
1 (SMHC) methods seem promising. A novel SMHC scheme using digital
Lm = signal processor (DSP) TMS320F28335 have demonstrated successful
ω0 2Ca (71)
harmonic compensation in a 2 kVA grid connected inverter experiment
As the C-type filter is tuned so the resonant frequency ωr is given by as well as simulation [166].
Active power factor correction (PFC) techniques improve the power
1
ωr = CaCm factor but do not reduce harmonics. The THD correction feature may
Lm C (72) be integrated into PFC devices [167,168]. Several control designs for
a + Cm
PFC with harmonic mitigation function have been reported [161].
The resonant frequency is harmonic order times the fundamental IEEE Standard 519–1992 requires each harmonic to be within limit
frequency, therefore and overall THD to not exceed 5%. THD causes distortive power losses
ωr = hT ω0 (73) which reduce true power factor. It is impossible to improve TPF
without removing THD with injection of external currents at harmonic
The parameters Ca and Lm in terms of hT are given by frequencies or filtering all harmonics using intelligent active power
Ca = Cm(hT2 −1) filters. Normally PFC designs pass THD test but fail to clear individual
(74)
harmonics distortion tests. Texas Instrument UCD 3138 provides
The Cm may be calculated as explained earlier and resistance R can injection facility to compensate any harmonic [169]. The basic idea is
also be calculated by to generate a specific order of sinusoidal harmonic signal and inject it

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A. Kalair et al.
into the PFC current control loop. The magnitude of the sinusoidal
harmonic signal can be dynamically adjusted based on operating
conditions, such as load and input voltage, to maximize the harmonic
suppression. In a digital controlled PFC, the firmware is divided into
two major loops, a background loop for low priority and low speed
tasks, such as housekeeping; and an interrupt loop for high priority and
time critical tasks, such as PFC state machine [170]. The flow chart of
harmonic injection interrupt loop consists of checking zero crossing
[171], synchronizing harmonic signal and injection into PWM duty.
UCD 3138 reduces THD from 3.5% to 2.5% at 90 kW load and from
1.7% to 1.2% at 200 kW load. UCD 3138 and similar devices
significantly reduce PFC harmonic distortion and improve THD. It
can inject any order of harmonics simultaneously [172]. Active PFC
approaches can be a source of additional switching activity and
associated EMC which causes operational problems. However, this
noise is high frequency in nature and can be controlled by filters
utilizing physically small components, often at only one location in the
power system. Active PFC improves PF and reduces harmonic distor-
tion by modifying the input stage of the off-line converter [173]. For
active PFC a converter with switching frequencies higher than the AC
line frequency is placed between the output of the diode rectifiers and
the bulk capacitor. A continuous conduction mode (CCM) boost
converter with active PFC and THD reduction capability [174–176]
Schneider 60A active power conditioner (Accusine) reduces THDi from
92.6% to 2.9% and improving PF from 0.73 to 1.0 as shown in Fig. 15.
Active series filters advantages include efficient suppression of
harmonics, excellent power factor, ability to feed energy back to grid
and insensitivity to network unbalance. Disadvantages include full load
power handling capacity, large and complex size, harmonics compen-
sation tied to drive, switch ripple on grid side, higher switch ripple on
motor side due to boost voltage, higher losses, expensive, impossible to
retrofit, bad redundancy for being tied to drive, combination of LCL
filter and low switching frequency constraint and unpredictable grid
interactions. Active shunt filters advantages include efficient compen-
sation simple to retro-fit, tunable to the problem at hand, compact,
allows redundancy to be designed into the system (due to being
separate from load), smaller than series solution, losses lower than
multi-pulse, AFE and series filters, simple to compensate groups of
different load, cannot be overloaded, can provide VAR compensation
and insensitive to network unbalance low switch ripple than AFE.
Disadvantage is introduction of switching ripple which is not good for
metal and plastic electroplating plants [177–179].
2.7.4. Isolation transformers
Isolation transformers use their own reactance (hXf) to reduce
harmonic distortion of nonlinear loads. Isolation transformers are used
in D-Y configuration. Shield between primary and secondary winding
attenuates noise, transients and zero sequence components. The THD
of six pulse rectifier reduces from 100% to 35% by increasing input
circuit impedance from 0.5% to 5%. Isolation transformer and reactor
impedance depends upon load current. A reactor rated at 5% impe-
dance at full load exhibits 3% impedance at 60% load. This transformer
or reactor would show 44% THDi instead of 35% expected at full load.
Fig. 15. Accusine power conditioner performance.
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 78 (2017) 1152–1187
Isolation transformer should be used at matching load for excellent
performance [180]. Advantage of isolation transformer over the line
reactor is that it reduces common mode disturbances in addition to
reduction of total harmonic current distortion. It costs $50 to $150 per
horse power (HP) which is higher than simple reactor.
2.7.5. K-Factor transformers
K-Factor transformers incorporate eddy current losses and come in
K-1 to K-50 designs. It supplies harmonic content in addition to its
normal rating within safe temperature range. ANSI/ IEEE Standard
C57.110–1986, specifies the K-Factor ratings. K-1 means standard
transformer and K-4 means four times high eddy current handling
capacity than standard transformer. K-4 handles 16% of the funda-
mental as 3rd harmonic current, 10% of fundamental as 5th, 7% of
fundamental as 7th, 5.5% of fundamental as 9th and a little percent of
fundamental for higher order ( < 25th) harmonics. K-9 and K-13 have
163% and 200% higher harmonic load handling capacities. Price of
higher K-Factor transformers are more due to their higher harmonic
current handling capacities without overheating. K-factor may be
estimated by harmonic analyzer as well as hand-held meters
[181,182]. Harmonic loss in terms of K-factor may be estimated by
40 40
K = ∑h =2 h 2Ih2 /∑h =2 Ih2=2 . Choice of suitable k-transformer does not
exhibit overloading during operation. Harmonic analyzer may be used
to determine K-Factor. Adjustable speed drives, hospital loads and
control equipment use isolation transformers to reduce harmonics
[183].
2.7.6. Multiple pulse converters
Single pulse half-wave rectifiers produce all odd and even harmo-
nics, two pulse full wave rectifier produce odd harmonics and three
pulse three phase half wave rectifiers produce all odd and even
harmonics except triplen harmonics. Multiple pulse harmonics are
given by h = kq ± 1, where q is pulse number and k=1, 2, 3,,n. Three
pulse half wave rectifiers produce abundant harmonics. Harmonic
current distortions of 6, 12 and 18 pulse converters are > 80%, 15%
and 12% respectively. Multiple pulse converters have < 5% THDi but
are expensive to manufacture. Regenerative IGBT control circuits of
fans and pumps have < 5% THDi. Low cost reactors lead to THDi <
40% and same is true for capacitors. One simple way to reduce
harmonics is to increase pulse numbers of converters. Three phase
controlled rectifiers produce maximum harmonics. Reduction of har-
monics with increase of converter pulse number is shown in Table 5
[184].
Multi-pulse transformer advantages include more effective com-
pensation of harmonics than a line-choke reduction in current distor-
tion and additional rectifier protection. Disadvantages include sensi-
tivity to voltage unbalance, sensitivity to transformer asymmetry,
inflexibility, large and heavy, optimal cancellation only with symmetric
drive loading and hard to retro-fit.
2.7.7. Phase shifting transformers
Utilities and industries use harmonic canceling phase shifting
transformers (PST), phase angle regulators (PAR) and quadrature
A. Kalair et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 78 (2017) 1152–1187

Table 5
Harmonics (in %) in various pulse converters.

Harmonic orders # Pulse Rectifiers

6 12 18 24 36 48
Fig. 16. Utility powerhouse to grid and consumer T & D network.
3
5 20 – – – – –
7 14.3 – – – – – mers use Dz1 or Dz11, distribution transformers use Dzno (reduce 75%
11 9.1 9.1 – – – – harmonics in secondary) and furnace transformers use Ynyno connec-
13 7.7 7.7 – – – – tions. Effect of phase shift angle on delta connected autotransformer
17 5.9 – 5.9 – – –
leads to smaller size and cost due to 3 windings instead of five windings
19 5.3 – 5.3 – – –
23 4.3 4.3 – 4.3 – – [195]. Transformer connections from power house to an electric grid
25 4 4 – 4 – – and distribution levels are shown in Fig. 16.
29 3.5 – – – – – A PST controls active power by regulating the voltage phase angles
31 3.2 – – – – –
difference between two nodes. It reduces lagging of lines and loop flows
35 2.9 2.9 2.9 – 2.9 –
37 2.7 2.7 2.7 – 2.7 –
in meshed system to reduce system technical losses. The operating
41 2.4 – – – – – principle is the voltage series injection into line by series connected
43 2.3 – – – – – transformer which is fed by tapped shunt transformer. Quadrature
47 2.1 2.1 – 2.1 – 2.1 boosters also facilitate loading of a transformer during parallel opera-
49 2 2 – 2 – 2
tion of transformers which becomes necessary when percentage
impedances do not match. We can change the phase by suitable
Table 6
combinations of RLC circuits [196].
Transformers’ vector groups & phase angles. Phase angle of harmonics determines the impact on the reduction
of THDi. Any PST with 30° phase such as DY1, DY11 and Dz0 are
Phase Connections Best considered best choice for distribution systems yet there is room for
further investigations [197]. Delta Star connections may take the form
0° Yd0 Dd0 Dzo Dz0
−30° Yd1 Dy1 Yz1 DY1 of DY1, DY11, DY5 and DY7 out of which usually DY1 is chosen. DY1
−60° Dd2 Dz2 advantages include distribution isolation from utility side SLG faults
−120° Dd4 Dz4 and utility isolation from distribution side third harmonics. DY1
−150° Yd5 Dy5 Yz5
disadvantages include grid voltage relay inability to detect distribution
180° Yy6 Dd6 Dz6
+150° Yd7 Dy7 Yz7 side SLG faults, ferroresonace in cable fed loads, excessive harmonics
+120° Dd8 Dz8 currents in secondary side neutral and resonant voltage build up on
+60° Dd10 Dz10 arrestors. Delta Delta connections include Ddo, Dd2 and dzo. Dd0 or
+30° Yd11 Dy11 Yz11 DY11 ungrounded YD advantages include load isolation from ground faults
on utility side and load side does not feed utility side ground faults. The
NW: + means leading and − means lagging
disadvantage may include difficulty of utility side SLG faults detection
or switching, voltage build up on arrestor and ferroresonance. Dy11 is
boosters to reduce harmonics in distribution system [144,146,185–
akin to Dy1 buy grounded Y-D advantages include easy detection of
192]. PSTs, unlike filters, remove 3rd to 21st harmonic orders. Use of
utility side faults, generator triplen harmonics are blocked permitting
12 pulse transformers meets IEEE 519–1992 requirements. A PST
parallel operation and no protection problem. Disadvantages include
controls the flow of real power in complex three phase power system
high fault currents, sympathetic tripping during faults on parallel
and creates phase displacement between input and output voltages. It
feeders, increasing sag severity, high ground fault pick up and delay
helps reduce harmonics as well as allows Dynamic Voltage Restorer
required and transformer thermal or overload failure during faults
(DVR) to mitigate the voltage sags [193]. HVDC system convertors
[24].
inject harmonics which can be reduced by changing vector group
between transformers. A vector group like Dy# means delta (primary
winding), star (secondary winding) and hour of the clock (round the 2.7.8. PFC and THD management
clock). The phase relationship of two voltages depends upon which way Distribution static var compensators (DSTATCOM) are often used
round the coils are wound and connected. Both clockwise wound to improve power factor and reduce THD in power distribution system.
windings have dot (dot) on same side and two clock and anti clockwise The DSTATCOM neither draws nor inject any real power so the average
wound windings have dots (positive) on opposite sites. DYn11 means power consumed is zero. In practice, the ideal source currents are
primary delta, secondary star with neutral taken out with clock hour 11 supplied by voltage source inverters. The inverter circuit along with
(+30° leading). Clock hours 1–6 are lagging and 7–11 are leading interface transformers/inductors is called DSTATCOM. The VSI inject
phase angles. Dot notations allow two three phase delta or wye phase currents independently. Smart grid use digital technology which
windings to be connected in six different ways each as shown in increases harmonic pollution in distribution system. Renewable energy
Table 6 [194]. sources like wind farms and solar parks inject harmonics in grid
Vector groups (IEC method) categorize three phase transformer connected systems. An impedance sources inverter (ZSI) has lower
windings to remove harmonics, allow parallel operation of transfor- harmonics than voltage (VSI) and current source inverters (CSI). ZSI
mers and earth fault detection. We choose Dyn11, DYn21 and Dyn31 integrated solar parks and fuel cells have < 5% THD [198]. A dynamic
configurations with 30° phase shift for furnaces and VFDs. Generator voltage restorer (DVR) is often desired to provide ride-through during
side is delta and load side is star. Yd or Dy is standard for all unit voltage sags and interruptions. When DVR (series) and DSTATCOM
connected generators. Ddo or dd6 are good large voltage transformers (shunt) are used together the resulting device is called unified power
as they handle large imbalance of loads, attenuate triple harmonics and quality conditioner (UPQC). The UPQC employ two separate sets of
can operate in open delta (V) meeting 585 of the balanced loads. Step voltage source inverters (VSI) and common DC power supply. First set
up transformers use Yd1 or Yd11, step down transformers use Dy1 or of VSIs inject voltage in series through secondary of a transformer and
Dy11, generating power transformers use Dyn1, grounding transfor- second set of VSIs inject current in shunt to cancel harmonics. A single

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Table 7
IEEE Standard THDV and THDi limits.
Source: IEEE standard 519–1992, table 11.1

Bus voltage at Individual harmonic Total voltage

PCC, Vn (KV) voltage distortion (%) distortion,THDVn (%)

Vn ≤ 69 3.0 5.0
69 < Vn ≤ 161 1.5 2.5
Vn > 161 1.0 1.5
Fig. 17. Single line diagram of a shunt/series UPQC.

line diagram of a UPQC is shown in Fig. 17. Table 8

Shunt and series connected compensating devices do not mitigate IEC Standard 61000-3-2 harmonic limits for LV to MV systems.
all power quality issues due to their own harmonics. Hybrid LCL and
Harmonics (n) Class A (A) Class B (A) Class C (% of Class D
active filters have 7% and 3% current harmonic distortions. ASD drives
fund) (mA/W)
having has 72% THDi can be reduced to 39% and 33% by adding 3%
inductance in AC lines or in DC links. Sinusoidal PWM output Odd harmonics
harmonics at modulation index ma =0.4 and frequency ratio mf =9 are 3 2.30 3.45 30×λ 3.4
5 1.14 1.71 10 1.9
m f ± 2, m f ± 4, 2m f ± 1, 2m f ± 3, 3m f , 3m f ± 2 etc (77) 7 0.77 1.155 7 1.0
9 0.40 0.60 5 0.5
Harmonics of bipolar sinusoidal PWM inverter are higher which 11 0.33 0.495 3 0.35
can be reduced by over modulation or uni-polar switching. Harmonics 13 0.21 0.315 3 3.85/13
15 ≤n ≤39 0.15×15/n 0.225×15/n 3 3.85/n
decrease in higher level PWM inverters. Harmonics of space vector
modulation are comparable to uni-polar switching. Trapezoidal mod- Even harmonics
ulation technique reduces the harmonic amplitudes and the THD at 2 1.08 1.62 2 –
expense of broadening harmonic spectra [199]. A power distribution 4 0.43 0.645 – –
network with nonlinear loads may be represented by harmonic current 6 0.30 0.45 – –
8 ≤n ≤40 0.23×8/n 0.345×8/n – –
sources injecting harmonic current back into utility network. Nonlinear
load’s harmonics can be determined from models and measured
directly by harmonic analyzers. In case of induction furnaces the 2.8.2. Harmonic indices
inter-harmonic pairs may be estimated by Harmonic indices provide no guarantee for good supply quality but
2fo ± f f , 4fo ± f f , … give a benchmark metric value of utility service quality. Power
(78)
engineers take periodic few minutes measurements which sometimes
Where ff and fo are fundamental system and furnace operating miss the intermittent phenomenon, especially inter-harmonics. THD
frequencies. Arc furnaces may be represented by equivalent voltage may follow daily, weekly and seasonally, therefore, harmonics are
source with trapezoidal waveforms. recorded for long time, about a weak, to diagnose the THD issue if
problem persists with initial mitigation measures. Voltage THD
2.8. Harmonic standards and indices histogram and cumulative frequency graph gives 95th percentile values
(CP95) for multiple monitoring sites. Histogram of CP95 values for
Harmonic problems are more severe in consumer facilities than in voltage THD on 54 sites is shown in Fig. 18 [24].
the utility grid. Utilities are still responsible to provide good quality Harmonic indices provide an overview of utility supply quality for
supply to consumers. Utilities ask consumers to reduce harmonic executives without going into technical details. Harmonics related
current injections yet the permitted levels also cause significant voltage indices include STHD95, SATHD and SAETHDRITHD. In addition to
distortion. Harmonic indices are used to estimate the average quality of harmonic standards power quality engineers refer voltage variations to
power supply in relation with harmonic distortion problems. Power IEEE Standard 1159 which classifies RMS variations as a temporary
quality indices allow executives to evaluate the performance of phenomenon. Utilities often use system average interruption frequency
distribution companies. index (SAIFI), system average interruption duration index (SAIDI),
customer average interruption frequency index (CAIFI), customer
average interruption duration index (CAIDI) and average system
2.8.1. Harmonic standards
Harmonics are governed by IEEE 919 (1992), IEC 61000-2-2 to3-6
(1996), EN 50160 (1994) and NRS 048-02 (1997) standards. IEEE
Standard C57.110–1986 describes recommended practice for estab-
lishing transformer capability when supplying non-sinusoidal load
currents. IEC Standard 61000, part three, describes harmonic limits
in MV and HV power systems. IEEE standards describes as function of
ratio of short circuit level and load currents (ISC/IL). IEEE Standard
519–1992 also describes voltage and current limits in terms of total
harmonic voltage (THDV) and current distortion (THDi) limits as
shown in Table 7 [200].
IEC Standard 61000-3-2 classifies equipment into A (balanced 3ϕ
equipment), B (portable tools), C (light lamps/dimming devices) and D
(equipment with input < 600w with special waveshape) classes.
Harmonic current limits of A, C and D class equipment/appliances
are shown in Table 8 [201].
Constraint on harmonics is loose in LV to MV systems but very
strict on HV to EHV levels. Fig. 18. Histogram of CP95 values for THDv at 54 monitoring sites.

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A. Kalair et al.
availability index (ASAI) indices to quantify the quality of service.
Common SAIFI, SAIDI, CAIDI and ASAI target values are 1, 1–1.5 h,
1–1.5 h and 0.99983 respectively. System average RMS (variation)
index (SARFIx) is used to represent the frequency of rms variation
events outside the voltage tolerance curve. Subscript x refers to ITI,
CBEMA, SEMI or any defined % value, say 80%, etc. [202,203]. Power
quality indices give the idea how frequently faults occur on distribution
network. Consumers and utilities often negotiate on frequency of
indices. If any consumer has at least one outage then CAIDI, SAIDI,
CAIFI and SAIFI may be related by [199].
CAIDI CAIFI
= = Customers with outages≥1
SAIDI SAIFI (79)
3. Harmonics analysis techniques
Harmonic analysis is a branch of mathematics concerned with the
representation of functions or signals as the superposition of basic
waves. Harmonic analysis often begins with the hypothesis that a
distorted signal is composed of a sum of individual oscillatory
components. Basic approach is often to describe the system by the
differential equations to predict the essential features such as ampli-
tude, frequency and phases. Harmonic analysis may be conducted in
frequency as well as time domain. Simple method is frequency scan
which involves solution of [Yn][Vn]=[In] where Yn is admittance matrix,
Vn is nodal voltage and In is current vector. It determines system
response as function of frequency. Current source injection method
works well for one type of nonlinear loads but loses accuracy in case of
multiple nonlinear loads encountered in practice. Harmonic load flow
method requires nonlinear load currents be represented as function of
harmonic voltages existing at the device terminals and control variables
applicable to the load such that In = F (V1, V2….. Vn, Ca, Cb…). Time
domain harmonic analysis can be done in PSCAD/EMTP or EMTDC
software. Utility network impedance can be represented by models of
the components primarily responsible for the impedance properties of
the system. Harmonic sources may be described by [204].
n
i(t ) = I1cos(ωt + θ1) + In ∑ cos (nωt + θn )
2 (80)
π
θn = nθ1 + (n +1)
2 (81)
The switching function can be used to determine a state space model
for a converter. Harmonic analysis process consists of modeling non-
linear load and delivery system for frequency response. Experimentalists
prefer to measure harmonics instead of developing device physics based
complex mathematical models. Harmonic measurement is often used to
determine harmonics in existing systems and simulation analysis for
future augmentation [205]. Harmonic analysis is initiated either by
circuit modeling or measurement of voltage and current harmonics to
estimate total harmonic distortions and true power factor. Modeling and
simulation render harmonics analysis task even more interesting [206].
The workhorse harmonic analysis method is the harmonic penetration
method. This method is based on modeling current injection at each
frequency that nonlinear load produces. These harmonic currents at
different frequencies do not take into account the existing voltage
harmonics in supply source. It also does not include partial harmonic
attenuation by the self-correcting-effect reported by many researchers
[207]. Parallel operation of multiple devices reduces affective harmonic
distortion as 3% choke in ASD circuit reduces harmonics. Voltage
current relationship during magnetic saturation is to some extent
predictable but in the case of arc furnace at melting point it depends
more on supply voltage waveform and peak values than switching
devices. It is useful to include the V-I characteristics of nonlinear devices
in harmonic simulation packages. Iterative and Newton methods have
been proposed for accurate modeling of nonlinear devices [208].
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Earlier nonlinear loads were simulated by analog transient network
analyzers (TNA) in 1970s, digital Harmflow, network frequency
response analysis (NFRAP) or MEHAP, CYMHARMO and V-HARM
(Pascal) programs in 1980s, PSSE and ETAP (HVAC) in 1990s and
PSCAD/EMTDC (HVDC) etc in 2000s. ETAP, PSSSE and Spectrum are
still used for large scale networks. Matlab/Simulink allows researchers
build and simulate electric circuits containing linear and nonlinear
elements [209]. IEEE Task Force on harmonics modeling and simula-
tion developed a test system for typical harmonic analysis of power
system [210]. When a group of different nonlinear loads such as CFLs
is operated together in the same low voltage network the resulting
harmonic emission is lower than the sum of harmonics emitted by
individual loads. This harmonics cancelation effect is attributed to
difference in phase angles of different loads similar harmonics due to
their different load characteristics. The ETAP software simulates
harmonic current and voltage sources to determine harmonic distor-
tion limit violations. It performs comprehensive load flow and fre-
quency scan calculations using detailed harmonic source models with
magnitudes and phase angles and power system component frequency
models. It allows user to model voltage and current harmonic sources
and create harmonic filters to shift resonance points to less harmful
frequencies. Spectrum software offers single or multiple frequencies
current and voltage source models for electronic devices to study
impact of nonlinear loads.
Inter-harmonic frequencies may approach flicker frequencies below
system frequency. A cycloconverter is used to convert source frequency
to fixed 25 Hz for electric traction system. It uses aperiodic power to
produce (fs ± 2nfo) frequencies [211]. Similarly rotor is fed at slip
frequency in DFIG wind turbines which cause similar excitations in
stator windings. ASD also inject non harmonic currents in system.
Evaluating time-varying harmonics present a great modeling and
simulation challenge. Current time-domain techniques might have to
be replaced with frequency domain techniques which would involve
complex statistic and stochastic computations [212]. Harmonic analy-
sis techniques vary in terms of data requirements, modeling complex-
ity, problem formulation and solution algorithms [45]. Frequency scan
is the simplest and most common used technique for harmonic analysis
[90]. The objective of harmonic analysis is to verify standard limit
compliance which is under revision to extend to 8% THDv total and 5%
individual THDv below 1kv distribution systems. Nowadays discharge
lamps, LED lamps, current transformers, fluorescent lamps with
electronic and magnetic blasts are being analyzed using PSpice and
Matlab-Simulink software [213–219]. MATLAB/SIMULINK performs
offline simulations but addition of RT-EVENT, ARTEMIS and RT-LAB
can help envision real time simulator. Simscape Power Systems block
set in Simulink is replaced by real time stamped (TS) RT-EVENT,
ARTEMIS supplies solution algorithms and real time experimental
laboratory (RTX-Lab) allows real time execution of time varying
harmonics [220]. Equivalent circuit models have facilitated analysis
and harmonic reduction in commercial lighting, consumer electronics,
industrial loads and renewable energy systems [221–225].
HVDC power systems, smart grid, electric vehicles, abundant digital
devices and integration of wind farms and solar parks have increased
harmonic pollution in utility networks [226–230]. If voltage THDi on
PCC or current THDi on consumer bus exceeds 5% then harmonic
analysis is conducted by system modeling and simulation. The model
depends upon the extent of system and single or three-phase equivalent
requirements. Single phase model is simple but it cannot analyze
unbalanced loading due to single phasing. Utility high voltage supply
system needs only positive sequence model, distribution system on
PCC needs both positive and negative sequence models and consumer
bus needs all positive, negative and zero sequence models. However, if
industry load has delta winding in supply system then zero sequence
part can be ignored which reduces it to normal load flow study which
does not incorporate unbalanced harmonic sources. High voltage
equivalent source impedance is usually enough but part of HV is
A. Kalair et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 78 (2017) 1152–1187

modeled if utility bus has a capacitor bank. Harmonic flow analysis of

power system is done using steady state linear circuit solution
techniques. The harmonic sources are replaced by the equivalent
harmonic voltage and current sources connected to distribution
system. The values of the harmonic voltages and currents may be
taken from onsite measurements or assumed inverse of their order (i.e.
20% for 5th harmonic), except PWM drives and SMPS. The nonlinear
loads are usually 40–42% of the utility loads.
Power system analysis and simulation software have facilitated Fig. 19. A model of a nonlinear load (top) and its equivalent circuit (bottom).
power engineering practice. There are dozens of power system simula-
tion software such as ETAP, PSS/E, SimPowerSystem (MathWorks), shown in Fig. 19.
EasyPower, Spectrum, DigSILENT, CYME, NEPLAN, EDSA and THDi is often much more than THDv, so Norton equivalent circuits
UWPFlow etc [231]. The ETAP and PSS/E software are more popular are used instead of Thevenin equivalent circuits. Harmonics propagate
among utilities for harmonic modeling and simulation studies to utility bus to cause parallel resonance on shunt connected 11 kV
[232,233] but academia relies on Matlab/Simulink [234]. Simulation capacitor bank but in the case of a power factor correction capacitor in
packages were used in past to solve the non-linear load flow problems any nearby facility these harmonics divert to cause series resonance on
and calculate short circuit currents, but today their use has been this capacitor in series with inductor. Harmonic current in parallel and
extended to power system stability, protection coordination and harmonic voltage in series resonance magnify by a factor Q (=XC/R =
harmonic analysis. Harmonic analysis has become essential element XL/R)
in power system planning and design due to widespread proliferation Vp QXcIh
of power electronic devices [235,236]. IEEE has published guidelines Irp = = = QIh
Xc Xc (84)
on modeling and simulation of the propagation of steady state and time
varying harmonics in power system [45,220]. Harmonics analysis of Xc X
industries and utility distribution system may be carried out using Vrs = Vh ≈ c Vh
Xt + Xc + R R (85)
several techniques like Fourier analysis [237], modified Fourier
analysis [238], time series [239], signal analysis [240], parametric Shunt and series resonant harmonics may be estimated by
method [241], frequency coupling matrix technique [242] and Xc
Harmonic balance technique [243]. There are several ways to analyze hrp = 0, and hrs = xc / xt
Xt + Xs (86)
steady state harmonics but no way to examine and mitigate time
varying harmonics. Standards committees are thinking to incorporate The parallel resonant frequency is always smaller due to source
time varying harmonics in next revisions. Switched automatic appli- impedance than series resonant frequency on consumer power factor
ances, periodic industrial processes and Inter-harmonics create a time correction capacitor. Parallel resonance is less fatal than series
varying harmonic feature which is seen in live monitoring of harmonics resonance yet sometime blows up utility capacitor banks. Utility design
but hard to catch by periodic snap shots. engineers often simulate the equivalent circuits of nonlinear electronic
The time varying harmonics may be represented by complex phasor loads to evaluate harmonics and their impact on equipment de-rating
and 3D diagrams [50]. Impact of utility as well as consumer injected at planning stage to account for subsequent overload problems.
harmonics on PCC may be evaluated in terms of Mobius transforma- To study parallel and series resonance of harmonics on utility and
tion of impedance at PCC [51]. This approach has to be reviewed to consumer buses often distribution system’s Thevenin or Norton
involve the time varying harmonics. Universal grid analyzer [244], equivalent circuits are recommended [267]. Most of researchers use
phase measurement unit (PMU) techniques [245] and Zigbee, GSM or Norton equivalent circuits but few go for Thevenin equivalent circuit
WiFi based smart phones [246] type hand held devices have been models [268,269]. To analyze parallel and series resonance phenom-
proposed to monitor sags, swells, transients and harmonic signatures enon Thevenin and Norten equivalent circuits are shown in Fig. 20.
anywhere in distribution system. Digital revolution has caused a digital All the nonlinear loads cause voltage waveform distortion in utility
divide between old power experts and modern electrical engineers. The power supply, which starts acting as non-sinusoidal source for the rest
software based 3D representation improves physical recognition of of linear loads . When an electric network with linear loads is supplied
invisible events. Alternatively, time varying harmonics may be repre- by any periodic non-sinusoidal source, the current drawn is also
sented by direct time, frequency and magnitude plots of individual periodic and non-sinusoidal. Applied non-sinusoidal voltages and
harmonics and resultant distorted wave. harmonic currents to linear loads in terms of the Fourier series may
be expressed by
3.1. Modeling and simulation ∞
V (θ ) = Vo + ∑ Vncos (hθ − ϕh,v )
Simulation models for utility network [247–249], transformers h =1 (87)
[250], CTs [251], electric vehicle fast and wireless chargers [252,253], ∞
televisions [254], low power electronic loads [255,256], high intensity i(θ ) = Io + ∑ Incos (hθ − ϕh,i )
discharge lamps [257], compact fluorescent lamps (CFL) with electronic h =1 (88)
or magnetic blasts [258–261], fluorescent tubes [262,263] and LED
driver circuits [264–266] have been reported in literature. Resistance
and DC link capacitance of a generic CFL model is given by [146].
R CFL = 2.868 = 0.6851 × PCFL (82)

Cdc = 0.24 × 10−6 × PCFL (83)

Harmonic analysis is conducted by three phase simulation software
package discussed earlier but the individual harmonic loads may be
modeled by their equivalent circuits. A typical utility network, dis-
tribution system, industrial load and its equivalent circuit model are Fig. 20. Thevenin and Norton equivalents for study of harmonic resonance.

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Fig. 21. Nonlinear power diode and equivalent Norton model.

Professional power quality engineers use commercial harmonic

analyzers to record voltage and current harmonic spectra to choose
recommend mitigation techniques.
Low power electronic loads are one of major sources of harmonic Fig. 23. Nonlinear iron core CT and equivalent Thevenin model.
diction. Common single phase electronic loads such as computers,
televisions, light dimmers and battery chargers use bridge rectifiers. ∅ ∅
imk = + sign(∅)Isk = + S∅k
Diodes can be modeled as switching elements as well as nonlinear L mk L mk (97)
linear resistors. Resistor current within the kth linear segment of
Where IL m and Isk are given by
resistor curve may be given by [255].
∅sk +1 − ∅sk
uR u L mk =
iR = + sign(uR )Irk = R + Sk isk +1 − isk
Rk Rk (89) (98)

Where Rk and Irk are given by ∅sk

Isk = isk −
urk +1 − urk L mk (99)
Rk =
irk +1 − irk (90) Several types of current transformer models describing different
feature have been reported in literature [250,251].
urk
Irk = irk − Inductor stores energy in its magnetic field and capacitor in its
Rk (91) electric field. A Thevenin equivalent model of capacitor may be
It is possible to create the nonlinear resistor equivalent model using obtained as shown in Fig. 23.
a linear resistor Rk and current source Sk as shown in Fig. 21. After AC to DC converter the DC to AC inverter is the second most
State space equation describing low power electronic loads behavior common load used in homes, offices and industries. If LC filter and
is expressed by load resistance is taken as plant then the state space equations for
variable vC and iL are given by [271].
dX (t )
= Ak1, k2, k3, k4 X (t ) + Bk1, k2, k3, k4U (t ) = F (X , t ) ⎡ −1 1 ⎤
dt (92) ⎡ vC ⎤ ⎢ RC C ⎥ ⎡ vC ⎤ ⎡ 0 ⎤ ⎡ vC ⎤
⎢ i ⎥ = ⎢ −1 ⎥ ⎢ i ⎥ + ⎢ 1 ⎥u , y = [1 0]⎢ i ⎥
Where X(t) and U(t) are given by ⎣ L⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎢
⎣L⎦ ⎥ ⎣ L⎦
⎣ L0⎦
L
(100)
X (t ) = [uC iL ]T (93) Or x ̇ = Ax + Bu , y = Cx (101)
T
U (t ) = [e(t )Sk1Sk2Sk3Sk4] (94) A discrete time model using forward method and sampling rate TS
may be given by
A similar approach may be applied to transformer iron core
saturation modeling for simulation in Matlab. The nonlinear resistor x (k +1) = Ad x (k ) + Bd u(k ), y(k ) = Cdx (k ) (102)
R is replaced by Lm, linear resistor Rk by Lmk, nonlinear source Sk by Where
o o
Sϕk and currents iR and iRk by imk and imk as shown in Fig. 22.
T
A nonlinear curve may be broken down into N small linear regions. x (k ) = [vc(k )iˆL (k )] , Ad = 1+TsA, Bd = TsB (103)
In a peace wise linear curve the input magnetizing current IL m and
magnetic flux ∅ L m are given by [270]. Harmonic filters are connected between source and load to remove
harmonics from distribution system. An equivalent circuit of a passive
IL m = [is1, is2,…isN ]T (95) c-type notch filter is shown in Fig. 24.
It is exigent task to develop a mathematical model for a nonlinear
∅ L m = [∅s1, ∅s2 ,…∅sN ]T (96) load to create an equivalent circuit for simulation analysis in Matlab
Simulink. Simulation models for distribution systems, transformers,
The magnetizing current for kth linear region, k=1,2.. N-1, is given high current electric vehicle chargers, switch mode power supplies,
by rectifiers and lighting lamps have been extensively studied and

Fig. 22. Nonlinear iron core CT and equivalent Norton model. Fig. 24. Equivalent circuit of n harmonics nonlinear load.

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Fig. 25. Hioki 3197, 3198 and Fluke 43B PQ analyzers.

Fig. 26. Voltage and current waveforms and harmonics of 11 kV mixed load feeder.

reported in literature [189,248,250]. It is possible to generate power 3.2. DFT tool and FFT algorithm
quality disturbances and harmonics to evaluate performance of pro-
posed protection and control schemes inside Matlab/simulink [234]. Harmonic analyzers are used to measure harmonic pollutions in
residential and industrial distribution systems. Utilities engineers use

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Fig. 27. Voltage and current THDV, THDI and Vector diagram of mixed feeder.

Fig. 28. CIIT EE Block voltage & current waveforms and red phase harmonics. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web
version of this article.)

harmonic analyzers to check consumer equipment THD level compli- N-1 is given by [207].
ance to harmonic standards worldwide. Harmonic analyzers use N−1
voltage and current sensors for live data acquisition and DFT/FFT X(k) = ∑n=0 x(n)e−jnwk (105)
based software to process the signals. Fourier analysis technique
consists of decomposition of the distorted signal waveform into a where ωk = 2πk / N is frequency of the kth sinusoid. DFT is implemented
sum of sinusoidal signals of different frequencies. Fourier’s theorem with a form of the FFT that reduces computational complexity of DFT
states that any periodic function x(t) may be decomposed into an from N2 to Nlog2N to give amplitude and phase
infinite series of sine and cosine functions
X (k ) = {Re(X (k )}2 + {Im(X (k )}2 ,k = 0, 1, 2, …N − 1 (106)
∞
x (t ) = ao + ∑n =1 (ancosnwot + bnsinnwot ) (104)
⎡ Im{X (k )} ⎤
where an and bn are Fourier series coefficients. Time domain ∅(k ) = tan−1⎢ ⎥,k = 0, 1, 2, . . .
⎣ Re{X (k )} ⎦ (107)
waveform does not show frequencies, however, DFT can indicate
frequencies and amplitudes. If we have N samples of periodic or Fourier series and DFT are related so the DFT outputs may be taken as
aperiodic sequence x(n) for 0≤ n ≤ N-1, the N point DFT X(k) for 0≤ k≤ scaled Fourier series coefficients in MATLAB based simulations [272].

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Fig. 29. CIIT EE THDV, THDI, PF and vector diagram of 3ϕ 4w distribution system.

Fig. 30. Induction furnace voltage & current waveforms and red phase harmonics. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web
version of this article.)

ao = X (0)/ N an = + 2Re{X (k )} bn = − 2Im{X (k )}/ N (108) 2

An = X (k )
N (111)
To represent a digital signal as a sum of sinusoids the sine and
cosine terms in the Fourier series may be combined into a single ∅n = ∅(k ) + 90° (112)
sinusoid with phase shift by
a ncosnωot + bnsinnωot = A nsin(nωot + ϕn ) First find frequency domain representation of X(k) of digitized
(109)
signal then use the frequency domain data to get the original signal.
Where An and ϕn are given by After obtaining frequency contents of voltage and current signals
substitute TT into SS to get
An = an2 + bn2
∞
⎛a ⎞ v(t ) = Vo + ∑n =1 (AnV sinnwot + αn ) (113)
−1
∅n = tan ⎜ n ⎟
⎝ bn ⎠ (110) ∞
i(t ) = Io + ∑n =1 (AnI sinnwot + βn ) (114)
From above equations it is possible to find An and ϕn as function of
the DFT coefficients RMS values of all nth voltage and current harmonic are given by

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Fig. 31. Induction furnace THDV, THDI, PF and three phase vector diagram.

Fig. 32. Rice mill voltage & current waveforms and red phase harmonics. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of
this article.)

AnV AnI
Vn = , In =
2 2
All power terms at fundamental and harmonic frequencies, as
discussed earlier in sect. 2.3, may be computed to estimate the
distortion and true power factors. Knowledge of displacement and true
power factors enables us to estimate increase in apparent power
demand and line losses.
3.3. Measurement of harmonics
A power quality (PQ) analyzer measures, records and analyzes all
types of voltage, current and frequency deviations from standard rated
values. Popular PQ analyzers come with built in waveform, vector,
DMM, harmonics and flicker displays. It displays real time RMS
(115) voltage, current and harmonic fluctuations. It shows active and reactive
powers as well as displacement and distortion power factors. PQ
analyzers usually start recording sags and swells at 90% and 110%
values and the interruptions at 10% values. A few PQ analyzers such as
HIOKI 3196 come with standard CBEMA and ITI curves to show sags
and swells. There are many types of power quality analyzers in market
offering varying features and functions like smart phones. Two types of
commercial PQ analyzers are shown in Fig. 25.
Hioki 3197 PQ analyzer was chosen to carry out measurements under
this harmonic analysis task. Maximum voltage and current ranges are 1.7
to 780V AC (1103V peak) and 500 mA/5 kA to 500A/5000 kA. Power
measurement range depends upon transducers. It is 300W for 500 mA
sensor and 9 MW for 5 kA current sensor. It refreshes readings once every

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Fig. 33. Rice mill THDV, THDI, PF and three phase vector diagram.

Fig. 34. Homage 2 kVA UPS voltage and current waveforms and harmonics.

second. It has 4MB internal memory which can record for 125 days.
Recording intervals may be set from one minute to 1 h. In case of any
transient, it records waveform 20 ms before detection, 200 ms upon
detection and 30 ms after detection. It may be set to record voltage
fluctuation 500 ms before and 2.5 s after detection. It records inrush
current 500 ms before and 29.5 s after detection. Sensor accuracy may be
added to harmonic accuracy to estimate absolute true measurements.
Hioki 3196 can measure inter-harmonics from 0.5 to 49.5 Hz using
rectangular window. Other measurement features include peak voltage
and current, k-factor, voltage unbalance factor and average of any periodic
time series. It can provide daily average, maximum and minimum energy
demand profile. This device can work reliably at −10 to 50ºC 80%
humidity and 2 km height. To set up first time choose supply type (i.e.
3P4W), wiring vector diagram (i.e. 9694) and toggle between screens for
desired settings.
3.3.1. Harmonic analysis of 11 kV feeders
Harmonic analysis of GEPCO distribution system was carried out in
220/132 kV grid station Ghakhar on 11 kV industrial (SS Board),
domestic (Noora Kot) and mixed load (New Ghakhar) feeders. The
voltage and current signals were tapped from PT and CTs of feeders in
11 kV control room. Voltage and current waveforms and harmonic
spectra of the mixed load 11 kV feeder are shown in Fig. 26.
The magnitude of THDV was found to vary from 1.9% to 2.0% as
shown in Fig. 27. The residential and industrial load was mixed type
which had unbalance factor of 0.4%. Negative power factor shows
presence of capacitor compensation. This feeder has no real harmonic
problem.
3.3.2. Harmonic analysis of academic block
Harmonic analysis of Comsats Institute of Information Technology

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Fig. 35. Homage 2 kVA UPS voltage and current THDs and PF.

Fig. 36. Sony Trinitron TV voltage and current waveforms and their harmonics.

distribution system was carried out on 11 December 2015. Measurements
were taken on LV side of the 11 kV/440V, 300 kVA transformer feeding to
Electrical Engineering and Physics Departments. Load consists of hun-
dreds of computers, servers, fans, UPS, motors, heaters, variety of
chargers, fluorescent tubes, CFLs, LED lamps, lifts and air conditioning
system. Load was 196A and CT ratio was chosen 20. The LV busbar had
two cables per phase for all phases. Current sensors were clamped around
one of two conductors due to space limitations and voltage leads
crocodiles were connected to three phases and neutral. Harmonics are a
steady state phenomenon but during monitoring period some harmonics
were found to vary over time. These varying harmonics was recorded for
subsequent analysis. Voltage and current waveforms and their harmonics
are shown in Fig. 28.
Voltage THDV was found to vary from 2.0% to 2.2% on different
phases. Current THDi varied from 7.7% to 10.1%. Power factor varied
from −0.947 to 1.0 for different phases. Negative power factor indicates
existence of capacitors on this phase. The transformer derating k factor
varied from 1.3 to 1.4 for different phases. No phase shift was found as
shown in Fig. 29.
3.3.3. Harmonic analysis of industries
To estimate harmonic pollutions in industries an induction furnace
and a rice mill were selected. The measurements were taken in a
routine working day in Gujranwala, Pakistan.
3.3.3.1. Harmonic analysis of induction furnace. To measure the
harmonics of a three phase 100 kW induction furnace, equipped with
harmonic filters and power factor correction capacitors, the analyzer
was set as follows.

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Fig. 37. Sony Trinitron TV voltage and current THDs and PF.

Fig. 38. Voltage and current waveforms and their harmonic spectra of CFL.

as well as THD problem so better go for PF improvement and THD

Date: 26-12-2015.
CT Ratio: 1:10.
PT Ration: 1:1.
Connection: 3P3W.
Power Factor: DPF.
Induction furnace supply voltage and current waveforms were
found highly distorted and rich of tens of harmonics as shown in
Fig. 30.
Induction furnace voltage and current THDs on red, yellow and blue
phases were measured to be 6.2%, 5.95%, 6.0% and 26.6%, 26.1%,
26.2% as shown in Fig. 31. The THDV for this induction furnace was
found to exceed standard limit of 5%. This facility has genuine harmonic
problem which can be mitigated by harmonic filters. This site has low PF
reduction options.
3.3.3.2. Harmonic analysis of a rice mill. To measure the harmonics
of a three phase 15 kW rice mill, equipped with power factor correction
capacitor, the analyzer was set same way as explained above. Rice Mill
supply voltage and current waveforms were found highly distorted and
rich of harmonics as shown in Fig. 32.
Rice Mill voltage and current THDs on red, yellow and blue phases
were measured to be 2.2%, 5.3%, 5.2% and 86.7%, 91.7%, 88.7%
respectively as shown in Fig. 33.
The THDV and THDI for this Rice Mill induction motor were found
to exceed standard limit of 5%.

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Fig. 39. Magnitudes of voltage and current THDs and power factors of CFL.

Fig. 40. Philips CFL voltage and current waveforms and harmonics.

3.3.4. Harmonic analyses of appliances and devices 3.3.4.2. Harmonic analysis of television. Television is an integral part
Harmonic measurements of 2 kV UPS, water pumping motors, of every home. Abundant cable channels provoke consumers use TV
lighting lamps, computers, chargers, television and model homes were day and night. Voltage and current waveforms and harmonics of a Sony
carried out to estimate magnitude of harmonics. Trinitron TV are shown in Fig. 36.

3.3.4.1. Harmonic analysis of UPS. Due to load shedding the UPS has
become an integral part of every home. Voltage and current waveforms
and harmonics of Homage make 2 kVA UPS are shown in Fig. 34.
Homage 2 kVA UPS voltage and current distortions and power
factor are shown in Fig. 35.
Homage 2 kVA UPS THDV was measured to be 5.1% which exceeds
standard limits and THDI was measured to be 34.7% which is well
within standards.
Sony Trinitron TV voltage and current distortions and power factor
are shown in Fig. 37. Sony Trinitron TV THDV was measured to be
3.1% which is within limits but THDI was measured to be 139.3%
which sounds higher.
3.3.4.3. Harmonic analysis of CFLs. Compact Fluorescent Lamps
(CFL) are used in every building. CFL produce harmonics due to
electronic blasts. Electronics blasts use lesser power than magnetic
blasts but produce more harmonics. A 25W Sogo make CFL voltage and

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Fig. 41. Phillips 25 W CFL voltage and current THDs and PF.

Fig. 42. Average home load voltage and current waveforms and harmonics.

current waveforms and harmonics are shown in Fig. 38.
CFL voltage and current distortions and power factor are shown in
Fig. 39.
Sogo make CFL THDV was measured to be 3.9% which is within
limits but THDI was measured to be 127% which sounds to be on
higher side. To compare performance of Sogo make CFL with branded
CFL the voltage and current waveforms and harmonics of 25 W Philips
CFL are shown in Fig. 40.
Philips 25 CFL voltage and current distortions and power factor are
shown in Fig. 41.
Philips CFL THDV was measured to be 3.3% which is within limits
and THDI was measured to be 89.8% which less than other CFL yet is
on higher side. Sogo CFL PF was 0.95 which is more than Philips 0.87.
3.3.4.4. Harmonic analysis of a model home. Harmonic measurement
study was initiated from mains supply board of a home with single phase
meter connection. The current sensor (Hall effect CT) was clamped
around phase and voltage sensor leads were connected to the phase
voltage (230 V) and neutral. The harmonics were found to vary by
increasing and decreasing the number of appliances. Measurements of
recorded for the routine load at 7:50 pm. Voltage and current waveform
distortions and their harmonics are shown in Fig. 42.
Voltage and current harmonics and vector diagram for this home
are shown in Fig. 43.
This home THDV is 4.5% which is less than 5% yet too high and
THDI is 11.6%. High negative power factor means presence of
capacitor type AC motor.

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A. Kalair et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 78 (2017) 1152–1187

Fig. 43. Home voltage and current harmonics and their total harmonic distortions.

Table 9 demonstrate the principle as it requires lot of money and permission to

C-type filter design using Dugan approach. test it in industry or utility 13.8 kV level. To demonstrate application of
filters for harmonic mitigation a broadband 220 V AC size broadband
Parameter K=0.1 K=0.3 K=0.5
filter is designed. It is assumed the harmonic spectra and the reactive
Cm(μF ) 69.6435 69.6435 69.6435 compensation requirement for the filter are known. For 1 kW size load
R(ohm ) 86.9189 28.2277 16.0049 the filter reactance XCM can be calculated by
L m(mH ) 3.4541 3.4541 3.4541
Ca(μF ) 2.0371 × 103 2.0371 × 103 2.0371 × 103 2202
XCM = = 48. 4Ω
1000 (116)

Table 10
C-type filter design using Klempka’s technique.
Design Parameter K=0.1 K=0.3
Cm(μF ) 69.6435 69.6435
R(ohm ) 86.9189 28.2277
L m(mH ) 3.4541 3.4541
Ca(μF ) 2.0371 × 103 2.0371 × 103
4. Harmonic filter design
Dugan and Klempa’s methods were used to design a C filter for
utility 13.8 kV bus level to mitigate harmonics in distribution system.
Matlab simulation results for a C filter consisting of 5MVAR capacitor,
1 Ω reactor, 5.5 hT and 13.8 kV bus of a 50 Hz distribution system
using Dugan and Klempka methods are shown in Tables 9, 10.
The values of Cm and Lm do not depend on k but value of damping
resistor decreases by increasing value of k. Ultimate impact of k is to
sharpen the curve for lower values and flattening it at higher values. A
comparison of response using both methods is shown in Fig. 44.
The shapes of both curves are similar. Values of R obtained by
Klempka’s method are smaller compared to Dugan’s method. The peak
around 4th harmonic is relatively smaller. For instance, the peak
around 4th harmonic is 12.51 pu in RHS is smaller compared to
12.94pu on LHS for k=0.1. By using Dugan’s method the accurate level
of desired attenuation is obtained with the calculated values at tuned
harmonic; whereas in case of Klempka’s method the values of
attenuation appear with minor errors. For instance, the current to
system in Dugan’s method is 0.1pu at tuned harmonic as compared to
0.1003 in Klempka’s method for k =0.1. This c filter was designed to
Suppose the third harmonic has greater current among all harmo-
nics and we have to keep the tuning harmonic order near to the third
harmonic in order to diminish the major part of third harmonic whilst
K=0.5 attenuating harmonics. Taking ht =3 various parameters for the “C”
filter were calculated as shown In Table 11.
69.6435
16.0049
3.4541 5. Results & discussions
2.0371 × 103
Literature review of earlier harmonics studies and our analysis of
common domestic and commercial appliances and devices goods vary
from manufacturer to manufacturer. True power factor, current
harmonic distortions and dominant harmonics of common domestic
and commercial electric and electronic appliance are shown in
Table 12.
As part of this study the harmonic measurements of utility 11 kV
feeders, 440 V industrial, 220 V commercial and domestic loads as well
as appliance and devices were carried out using Hioki 3197 harmonic
analyzer. Harmonic current distortions, distortion factor, true power
factor and apparent power demand rise for common electric and
electronic appliances is show in Table 13.
Harmonics induced loss calculations were carried out using mea-
sured THDi and power factors (displacement) to calculate the distor-
tion factor to estimate the true power factor. These values were used to
determine losses and rise in apparent power demand. Results for a
model home, industrial loads and utility grid are shown in Tables 14–
16 respectively.
Harmonic analyzers give value of transformer derating factor (K)
which may also be calculated using harmonic spectrum data. Measured
40 40
and calculated (rice mill using K = ∑h =2 h 2Ih2 /∑h =2 Ih2=2 ) values of for
k and power factor are shown in Table 17.
Harmonic analyzer gives voltage harmonics spectrum as percentage

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A. Kalair et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 78 (2017) 1152–1187

Fig. 44. Response of C filter to different harmonic numbers.

Table 11 Table 13
Broadband filter parameters. Losses due to Harmonics in House Hold Electronic Appliances.

Parameters Values Parameters values Equipment THDI% PFdisp PFdist PFtrue Pf Prms Watts

XCM 48.4 Ω XL 6.070 Ω Branded PC 24.3 0.901 0.897 0.808 75.60 78.79 3.199
RF (hT ) 0.943 Ω Cm 65.7 μF Unbranded PC 197.5 0.997 0.58 0.578 63.14 82.36 19.223
R 276.96 Ω CA 524.3 μF Branded UPS 61.2 0.940 0.853 0.802 17.00 17.12 0.12
XCA 6.070 Ω LM 19 mH Unbranded UPS 37.1 0.287 0.8540 0.245 67.66 62.26 5.4036
Branded MW 2.4 0.999 0.988 0.987 974.7 974.8 0.08
Unbranded MW 204.3 0.993 0.5732 0.5692 33.94 41.54 7.6070
Branded Charger 253.8 0.858 0.5316 0.4562 1.957 3.456 1.499
Table 12
UB charger 254.5 0.510 0.5311 0.2708 1.159 2.043 0.88
Measured harmonics in common electric appliances.
CFL 138.3 0.939 0.647 0.6082 19.04 19.47 0.432

Device TPF THDi% 3rd % 5th % 7th % 9th % 11th % Ref

CFL 0.57 11.1 10.7 2.0 1.8 0.9 0.6 P,shini rampant rise in nonlinear loads have led to harmonic problem in power
0.58 12.3 11.6 1.9 2 0.87 0.58 This system. Devices with nonlinear voltage and current relationships include
iron core reactors and arcing appliances such as generators, transformers,
Amplifier 0.71 48.1 32.1 30.7 14.2 7.8 2.6 P,shini
motors and arc furnaces. Devices involving electronic switching include
0.73 47.1 31.1 32.4 15.3 6.7 1.9 This
static power converters. Switching process is synchronized to system
Computer 0.53 60.1 52.8 43.5 31.6 19.3 8.4 P,shini frequency causing distortion on switched waveforms. In case of periodic
0.51 62.0 54.1 46.2 29.8 17.5 7.4 This voltage sources the distortion may be studied by Fourier series method.
1 PC 79.3 50 45 37 23 – Rana Most devices operate similarly in positive and negative half cycles
23 PC 61.4 58 25 0 9 – Rana
Freezer 0.44 61.8 11.0 4.7 11.0 7.1 7.1 P,shini
eliminating even harmonics. Third harmonic currents of phase b lag
0.47 62.2 12.5 5.1 12.1 6.9 6.1 This those in phase a by 3×120°=360° and in phase c would lead a by
3×120°=360°. The third harmonic currents are in phase appearing as zero
Photocopier 0.68 69.9 37.7 40.2 30.7 21.9 15.2 P,shini sequence components. These harmonics flow through lines and ground in
0.65 68.9 36.1 39.3 31.6 20.4 14.9 This
grounded wye systems but do not appear in line in delta and ungrounded
Television 0.66 72.5 55.1 36.8 20.3 11.4 10.8 P,shini systems. Third harmonic and its multiples are often cancelled by delta-
0.69 68.2 53.2 35.3 20.1 9.3 9.4 This star windings. Fifth and seventh harmonics can be reduced by winding
pitch factors of generators. Significant harmonics are 11th and 13th
Printer 0.49 83.6 46.7 41.3 36.2 28.6 21.5 P,shini harmonics, though, 17th, 19th and higher order harmonics need atten-
0.48 85.2 47.8 42.1 37.1 28.5 20.6 This
tion. Single phase loads, computers, mobile phones and lights produce
Laptop 0.52 83.8 49.6 43.8 36.2 27.5 17.7 P,shini single horn shape waveform distortions with 3rd ( < 85%), 5th ( < 45%),
0.55 79.1 47.3 41.4 34.1 26.1 15.7 This 7th ( < 15%), 9th ( < 7%) and 11th ( < 5%) current harmonics. Three
phase loads, variable speed drives and lifts produce rabbit ears waveform
distortions and 5rd ( < 75%), 7th ( < 60%), 11th ( < 40%), 13th ( < 30%),
of fundamental voltage but current harmonics as magnitudes of 17th ( < 6%) and 19th ( < 4%) current harmonics. Voltage distortions
currents. The measured currents for CIIT Academic block as percent cause excessive temperature rise in motors and transformers, and
of the fundamental currents for three phases are shown in Table 18. electrical noise to trip sensitive equipment. Harmonics cause over sizing
of UPS, gensets, transformers and cables due to de-rating of equipment.
Harmonics reduce effective lifetime of equipment and cables. Harmonic
6. Conclusions currents flow through neutral, raise PEN voltage and trip circuit breakers.
Harmonics increase input apparent power demand increasing utility line
Integration of inverter connected PV and wind power plants, and

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Table 14
Loss calculation for a model home.

Load Rating kW THDI % p.fdisp p.fdistort P.Ftrue Pfunda Vf* If kW Prms Vfrms* Irms kW Loss= Prms - Pfunda kW

Home 1.36 11.6 0.919 0.993 0.912 1.359 1.370 0.011

CT Ratio: 1:1, PT Ratio 1:1, Date: 21-1-2016, Power loss due to harmonics Ploss= Prms – Pf

Table 15
Loss calculations for induction furnace and rice mill.

Name of Equipment Rating kW THDI % p.fdisp p.fdistort P.Ftrue Pfunda Vf* If kW Prms Vfrms* Irms kW Loss= Prms - Pfunda kW

Induction Furnace 100 26.33 0.932 0.967 0.901 77.381 81.0218 3.640
Rice Mill 15 88.3 0.577 0.577 0.577 9.1762 12.6411 3.464

CT Ratio 1:1, PT Ratio 1:1 on Date: 26-12-2015, Power loss due to harmonics Ploss= Prms – Pf

Table 16
Power factor calculations for induction furnace and rice mill.

Feeders Phases V (KV) I (KA) THDI (%) p.fdisp p.fdistort P.Ftrue Feeder Type

SS Board Red 10.69 0.0508 6.2 0.501 0.998 0.449 Industrial

Yellow 10.78 0.058 6.7 0.547 0.997 0.545
Blue 10.72 0.062 5.1 0.542 0.997 0.540

Kot Noora Red 10.65 0.055 4.4 0.569 0.999 0.568 Residential
Yellow 10.74 0.053 4.1 0.513 0.999 0.512
Blue 10.67 0.051 3.9 0.587 0.999 0.586

New Ghakkhar Red 10.63 0.137 6.1 0.673 0.998 0.671 Residential + Commercial Feeder
Yellow 10.71 0.133 5.9 0.607 0.998 0.605
Blue 10.66 0.123 5.9 0.659 0.998 0.657

Table 17 operation of commercial and industrial appliances. When accumulative

Measured and calculated values of PF and k factors. economic losses due to power quality problems exceed mitigation cost
then it is worthwhile to deploy the power conditioning equipment. Electric
Order Current (%) Order Current (%)
circuit behavior is compared to photonic crystals to recognize physics of
1 100 11 1.368 nonlinearity. This research consists of simulation modeling of common
2 0.2105 12 0.1053 nonlinear circuits and measurement of harmonics produced by common
3 7.052 13 1.053
consumer electronic devices. Simulation modeling results will be com-
4 0.2105 14 0.1053
5 3.68 15 0.842
pared to measured harmonic spectra of the nonlinear load equipment
6 0.1053 16 0.1053 used in homes, offices and industries. This paper consists of nonlinear
7 3.68 17 0.53 load models, equivalent circuits and their simulation modeling and
8 0.105 18 0.1053 mitigation techniques to test their compliance to the harmonic standards.
9 4 19 0.2105
10 0.10526 20 0

7. Future work

Table 18
CIIT Block red phase current harmonics.
The scope of this research project was limited to the measurement
of harmonics, estimation of true power factor and design of harmonic
Load Type PF sum KF Remarks/ filter to demonstrate mitigation technique. The experimental measure-
Comments ments and simulation model have been compared to recognize the
R Y B R Y B
difference between real and theoretical results to propose suitable
Furnace 6.2 5.9 6.0 0.932 4.5 4.5 4.5 High corrective actions to reduce distortive power losses in utility distribu-
Rice Mill 5.2 5.3 5.2 1.0 4.0 4.1 4.0 High tion system. True power factor cannot be measured directly like
CIIT Block 0.995 0.874 −0.924 0.996 1.2 1.3 1.4 Low displacement power factor for linear loads. We need to know apparent,
active and reactive powers to calculate the distortive power. We also
CT Ratio =1:10, PT Ratio =1:1, IF=140 Amps
need to know voltage and current THDs to calculate distortion power
factor to determine the true power factor. A true power factor
losses. Residential, mix and industrial 11 kV feeders in various substa- estimating system needs data acquisition system having four channels
tions were found to exhibit 40.6%, 5% and 6.2% THDV which exceeds for voltage and four for current signals. We need a fast Fourier
IEEE 519–1992 limits. This paper consists of literature review of transform based numerical algorithm to perform calculations to
harmonics, experimental measurements, simulation modeling and dis- determine true power factor. Unlike normal power factor meter it is
cussion of results and conclusions. Reactive power can be reduced down a true power factor measuring systems which needs a high speed
to unity power factor farther compensation worsens situation rather than microprocessor. The power quality analyzers and smart meters also
doing any improvement. Distortive power losses reduce power factor by give distortion power factor not the true power factor. This feature
60–70% even for the acceptable total harmonic distortions (THD). All needs to be integrated into existing harmonic analyzers. Ultimate
power quality issues cause economic losses by affecting the smooth objective of harmonic analysis and mitigation technologies is to over-

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come distortive power which unlike reactive power cannot be compen-
sated using SVC, SSSC, PQFC and FACTS devices. Concept of virtual
resistance based active power factor correction techniques capable of
distortive power phase shifting using CERDIC algorithm may provide
an engineering solution. Once the distortive power is in phase with
reactive power then it can compensated using capacitors. Another
alternative is to filter harmonics and convert them into DC to inject
back into power system using a VSC inverter and series transformers. A
UPFC may consist of series or/and shunt transformer(s). The series
transformer controls active power and voltage and the shunt transfor-
mer controls reactive power and DC link voltage which in this case is
powered by filtered and converted harmonics. CERDIC algorithm
based phase shifting capability integrated into normal UPFC, APFC
and FACTS devices can mitigate harmonics to improve power quality
and reduce the utility invisible power losses.
Appendix A. Supplementary material
Supplementary data associated with this article can be found in the
online version at doi:10.1016/j.rser.2017.04.121.
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