An Experimental Study of Caving and Drawing Large Ore Bodies

BY F. S MCNICHOLAS*
AND V. C. ROGERS*
MEMBERS,
A N D M. S. WALKER,*
JUNIOR
MEMBER
A.I.M.E.
(Chicago Meeting. February 1946)

DURINGthe year of 1944 and the first siderable difficulty was experienced in
half of 1945, the Climax Molybdenum duplicating unbroken material in the
Co. made a study of some of the problems model. The results obtained are believed
in block and panel caving, with the use of a to be relatively correct, but verification
ORE 10 f T . must necessarily come from future mine
CAPPINC 5 5 f 1. operation.
n o c n 4' TO 12. Observations in the mine and glory hole,
together with statistical data, were used as
criteria for creating similar conditions in
the model.
I n 1913, George R. Lehman' experi-
mented with broken material in a model
for the Inspiration Consolidated Copper
Co. and, more recently, P. B. Bucky2
experimented with broken material with a
capping of mill tailings.
Mr. Lehman's model represented a
maximum ore height of 70 ft. capped
by 55 ft. of waste. He varied the draw-hole
spacing from 63/4 ft. to 87.4 it. and 12% ft.
The material used graduated from fines to
DRAW POINT SPACING 30-in. maximum size. Some of his con-
FIG. I.-RECORD O F TESTS 6, 8 4 K D 10, INSPI clusions were: " (I) The less the distance
RATION CONSOLIDATED COPPERCOIIPAPV'Y.
between chute centers, the greater the
scale model. The experiments dealt essen- extraction (Fig. I); ( 2 ) the higher the ore
tially with the type of rock and conditions column, the greater the extraction; (3)
a t Climax, but some experiments were the less the amount drawn at a time
carried out to simulate conditions found from each chute, uniformly, the greater
in other mines. the extraction of clean ore before the
Most of the previous experiments on the capping appeared, but not the greater the
caving characteristics of rock have dealt total extraction to a I per cent copper
with sedimentary or broken igneous mate- final product." (Fig. 2 . )
rial. The series of experiments described Professor Bucky concluded, in part:
here was designed to show the caving "(I) Drawing of ore may take place at
action of unbroken igneous rock. Con- any time from any h g e r and in any
amount without affecting materially: (a)
Manuscript received at the office of the
Institute Aug. 17. 1945.
General Superintendent, Chief Engineer. 1 G. R. Lehman: Trans. A.I.M.E. (1916) 55.
and Mining Engineer. respectively. Climax P. B. Bucky: E n g . and Min. Jnl. (June
Molybdenum Co.. Climax. Colorado. 1943).
I 56
 F. S. McNICHOLAS,
the amount of ore remaining, ( b ) the sup-
port given the sides of the block, (c)
dilution by back fill; ( 2 ) the amount of
infiltration of fill into the broken ore is
V. C. ROGERS AND M. S. WALKER I57
spacing and the length is the same as the
width of the model. One-inch holes, equiva-
lent to draw holes of 10 ft. diameter, have
been drilled through the blocks, and the

DRAW HOLE SPACING- 8;'

ORE - 35 ' -
CAPPING - 35'-
rn
MATERIAL- 4 * - I P U (COARSE)

EVEN DRAW EACH CHUTE EACH CHUTE

10 TONS DIRECT T O CAP- DIRECT TO CAP-
$ CAP- EVEN DRAW 10 TONS

CAP
2
FIG.~.-~IoDEL
DRAW, CONSOLIDATED
INSPIRATION COPPERCOMPANY.
small and negligible when the block volume
ore height is considered."
At Climax, the model and the size of
material used were scaled to I in. equals
10ft. The model represents a section 780 ft.
long, 480 ft. high and IOO ft. wide. I t has a
boxlike frame with plate-glass sides and a
bottom that can be changed to permit
different draw-hole spacings to be used.
The draw holes and undercuts are repre-
sented by blocks of wood, which can be
raised and retraced 5 ft. The width of the
blocks is the same as the draw-hole
undercutting has been duplicated by
reaming the upper part of the holes to a
conical shape.
Crushed material, assaying between
0.500 and 0.600 per cent MoS2, was used
as ore; sand and gravel were used as waste.
The waste was colored with a water-
soluble dye, to permit its diluting action
to be photographed. The different stages
of all experiments were photographed for a
permanent record..
Unconsolidated material was used in the
first experiments, but no arches occurred
1 5 ~ A STUDY OF CAVING AND DR:AWING LARGE ORE BODIES
(from 50 to IOO ft. across) that approxi-
mated those noted in the mine. For this
reason, i t was necessary to use a cementing
agent. Four per cent moisture was added
and the material well rodded, which
permitted arches to form comparable to
those in the mine. After the material had
caved, it reconsolidated. Since reconsolida-
tion of the caved rock in the mine occurs
only to a limited degree, it was decided
that water was not a satisfactory cernent-
ing agent. Large boulders, of a size en-
countered in the mine, were accepted as a
necessary part of the charge and these
could not be made with water as the
cementing agent.
The moisture was then frozen by adding
dry ice with the material, but the amount
of freezing proved too difficult to control
and this method was discarded.
I t was then decided to try Cal-Seal, a
gypsum-base cement, as the consolidating
agent. After considerable experimenting, a
satisfactory mixture was produced that
simulated unbroken rock in the mine, and
it was used in all the later tests. The
results reported are based on experiments
in which thls cementing agent was used.
I n the mine, the size of the rocks that
reach the draw holes vary from fines to
boulders 30 it. across. I n two instances,
boulders greater than 50 ft. across have
reached the draw holes. T o form these
large rock units in the model, a mixture of
rock that varied from fines to one inch
was cemented together with Cal-Seal
and water. The strength of these boulders
was great enough to withstand abrasion
in the model, but the rocks broke under
the pressure exerted by a $/4-in. rod a t the
draw point.
The proportion of various sizes of
material used to charge the model was
determined by actual observation of draw
points in the mine. Examination showed
that the size of material reaching thc draw
points can be placed in three groups, as
follows:
I. Small-a fairly even distribution
from fines to boulders with a maximum
dimension of 5 feet.
2 . Medium-a group in which 35 ranged
from fines to a 5 f t . maximum dimension
and 33 from 5 to 10 ft. maximum.
3. Large-a group with three sizes:
2 0 per cent fines to 5 ft. maximum, 40
per cent from 5 to 10 ft. maximum and
40 per cent graduating from 10 to 30 ft
maximum.
The most successful method of duplicat-
ing unbroken rock proved to be with
material that would predetermine the
size of rock reaching the draw hole and
cementing the mass with Cal-Seal and
water.
Whilc drawing the material, it was noted
that there was a tendency for weight to
concentrate over one draw point. When
this draw point was pulled, a considerable
area moved downward suddenly. A propor-
tionate weight underground would crush
the rock and the downward movement
would be slo\ir.
More movement of the broken ore was
caused by breaking large boulders a t the
draw holc, which could be compared to
secondary blasting. -4s a result, a greater
infiltration of fine waste occurred than
would reasonably be expected underground.
These factors influenced the recovery
figure, but i t is believed that the results
are relatively correct.
The draw of the material was carried
to the point a t which each draw hole
showed greater than 50 per cent capping.
T o make the results of the experiments
comparable, they were adjusted to jo
per cent ore and 50 per cent capping.
The dilution curve for experiment 2 5
which is typical, is shown by Fig. 3. In
this experiment, samples were taken
proportionally over the period each draw
point showed dilution. These samples were
grouped and the composite samples were
assayed (points I , 2 and 3, Fig. 3). All
material showing dilution was assayed
 P. S . MclilCHOLAS, V. C. ROGERS AND M. S . WALKER
The last sample was a composite of material
taken from each draw point after each
showed greater than 50 per cent capping.
Point A , Fig. 3 , represents the true
50 per cent mark. A line drawn from the
POUNDS
FIG. 3.-DILUTION CURVE.
point ol the average dilution assay to
the last sample, through the 50 per cent
point B shows the error to be less than I
per cent. This is well within the accuracy
of the experiment. Since it was not con-
sidered practical to assay every finger
on each draw showing dilution, the shorter
method was used in all adjustments.
I t must be emphasized that the results
secured from these experiments are not
ubsolute but relotiz1e only. These experiments
show trends that may be applicable to
many caving problems. By comparing
conditions seen in the model with those
known in the mine, unknown conditions
in the mine may be deduced from condi-
tions shown in the model.
I59
EXPERIMENT
NO. 1 7
This experiment (Figs. 14 to 19) is
typical of those using Cal-Seal as the
cementing agent. The model was filled
DRAWN
with 2 5 0 ft. of ore and 195 ft. of capping.
The ore assayed 0.547 per cent MoSz arid
the capping 0 . 0 2 8 per cent. Although the
hanging-wall assays in the mine diminish
slowly, a sharp demarcation was used in
the model to facilitate calculations.
The I 5 wooden blocks, each representing
a stope in the mine, had three draw holes
each. The spacing of the draw points was
37 by 3 7 ft. The blocks were raised 5 ft.
before the model was filled and the blasting
of the pillars and the complete removal
of the support underground was repre-
sented in the model by lowering the blocks.
The size of the rock used was 10 ft.
maximum; i.e., the medium size material.
The charge consisted of 64 per cent of
I 60 A STUDY OF CAVING AND DRAWING T.ARGE ORE BODIES

rock graduatingfrom 5 to 10 ft., 3 2 per cent
graduating from fines to 5 ft., 2 per cent
Cal-Seal, and 2.0 per cent water.
The cutoffs were formed on an 82" angle
with the horizontal and consisted of
quantity of ore over the adjacent row,
the amount drawn was doubled every
second time. When the top of the ore had
been moved downward 10ft., at which time
about 20 per cent of the calculated tonnage

LONGHOLES
<!! '

DRAW HOLE

SECTION
F ~ G4.-TYPE
. OF C U T O F F SIMULATED IX XVDEL

screened sand that passed a No. 8 screen
and was retained on a No. 32 screen.
I t was dry and did not contain Cal-Seal.
(This type of cutoff (Fig. 4), has been
used in the mine where the sublevel blast
drifts were driven, the back and bottom
of each was longholed, and the holes
blasted with the adjoining stopes.)
The first five rows, representing a hori-
zontal distance of 185 ft., were caved
by lowering the blocks. No arches with
that span have been noted in the mine.
The draw commenced in rotation from the
first three stopes and was continued until
had been removed, stopes 6 and 7 were
caved and stopes 4 and 5 were added to
the draw list. After these last two stopes
had been drawn to 10 per cent of their
calculated tonnage, two additional rows
were caved and 6 and 7 were added to the
draw. This same procedure was continued
until the entire panel had been caved. Thus
the draw was always adjacent to a caved
stope, or a cutoff, and not against solid
rock.
Rate of Draw
Per Cent I Tons per Draw '/ Pt' Over
37 by 37 Pt.

the caving had moved the top of the ore o to 20.. . .. . . 260 2.3
downward 10 ft. Because the first row
50 plus.. ..... . 4.6
affected approximately 1% times the-

Recovery, Based on Calculated Ore,
Per Cent
Sample 1 Ore Waste
. .
Total d r a w . . . . . . .
Adjusted recovery.. . . . / 9 1 .S
89.4 / 6.8
3.9
Discussion of Photographs of Experiment 17
I . Taken to show the model fully
charged (Fig. 14a).
2. The first sublevel caved and the
caving action penetrated into the waste
leaving a small arch a t the top. The first
subdrift has caved (Fig. 14b).
3. By the time 10 per cent of the calcu-
lated ore had been drawn from 4 and 5 , the
caving had penetrated into the waste
but had not reached the surface. The first
four sublevels had caved. Stope No. 4
had drawn into the adjoining area in which
the draw was more advanced (Fig. 15a).
4. The caving reached the surface
(Fig. 15b).
5. A line of retreat was being formed
(Fig. 16a).
6 . The cutoff on the right had drawn
satisfactorily (Fig. 16b).
7 . The line of retreat was being main-
tained. A line of break was formed from
row 14 and curved into the caved area
below row 10 (Fig. 17a).
8 . The large mass has been broken by
tension cracks and then the blocks moved
down vertically (Fig. 17b).
9. The line of retreat prohibited exces-
sive dilution (Fig. 18a).
10. The overhanging of the waste is
typical and has been noted in the glory
hole (Fig. 18b).
11. The cutoff on the left-hand side
also caved satisfactorily (Fig. rga).
12. All the draw points had been pulled
until they showed, by visual inspection,
more than 50 per cent waste (Fig. ~ g b ) .
OGERS AND M. S. WALKER
A general outline of the model experi-
1 Total ments is as follows:
I . The problem of duplicating the known
attributes of the mine in the model.
2. The study of the principles of panel
and block caving, and draw.
1 98.3
93.3 3. The application of the model to
actual mine problems.
The foregoing discussion concerned No. I
and now the general principles of block
caving will be examined.
Arching and Funneling
A stable arch can be defined as one that
does not fail as the draw progresses a t the
desired rate. I n a small, isolated area under-
ground, the undercuts and the pillar were
blasted. A stable arch formed after the
pillar rock had been drawn. This arch,
approximately I O O ft. wide, 2 0 0 ft. long
and 75 ft. high, did not fail until the caved
area was enlarged.
The distruction of a similar arch in the
model was accomplished in the same
manner (Fig. 5, stage I ) . When the broken
rock in the model was drawn from the
enlarged cave area, the caving progressed
upward. The cross section of the zone
decreased in size until it was only some-
what larger than the original arch (stage
2). The width of the caved zone remained
constant until i t reached an area where the
rock strength changed. If the rock mass
was weaker-the stable arch that i t could
support would be smaller-the channel
formed by the caving rock would decrease
(stage 3 ) . If the rock strength then in-
creased, the caving would stop and another
stable arch would form, until such a time
as the broken rock was pulled down, re-
moving the support given to the walls of
the channel. The caving would then
progress upward with an enlarged cross
section (stage 4).
I t follows that the width of the channel
caused by the caving action of rock over a
162 A STUDY OF CAVING AND DRAWING LARGE ORE BODIES

limited area will be just large enough to
allow the forces, that induce caving, to
overcome the strength of the rock. This
action causes funnels to form in the ore
body.
lDE AL SECTION
Draw-point spacing with regard to re-
covery of ore is more complex. The spac-
ing should be small enough to permit con-
trol over the movement of all the rock in the
stope as drawing progresses. The test of

SURFACE

STRONG ROCK

WEAK ROCK

MEDIUM

STRENGTH

ROCK

UNDERCUTS

, ...........
,
STAGES OF D R A W
J, -- - ----
2.- -- 4-. -

Draw-point Spacing the control is whether or not a line of

general, the draw-hole spacing is
determined by the cost of development,
maintenance and by ore recovery. The
fewer the draw points for a given area,
the less the development costs. But for a
given height of ore, the fewer the draw
points, the greater the amount of ore that
must be drawn from each finger (with the
attendant increase in maintenance cost).
retreat can be formed and maintained.
I n experiment No. 16 (Figs. 20 to 24) the
model was charged with small material and
25 by 25-ft. draw-point spacing was used.
A line of retreat was formed. When the
draw-point spacing was increased to 37 by
37 ft., and again to 50 by 50 ft. (Experi-
ments 19 and 28), there was no semblance
of a line of retreat and the recovery of
 F. S. McNICHOLAS,
ore dropped from 8 6 to 59 and j j per cent,
respectively. Fig. 6 shows that for a given
size of material, the recovery decreases
with the increase in the draw-point spacing.
V . C. ROGERS A N D M. S. WALKER 163
mine the area from which rock will move
into the draw hole, thus determining proper
draw-point spacing. Static zones of broken
ore may be formed and have as their

PERCENT REGULAR ORAW

1 5 '1
~5' ~ 5 ~ x 2 5 ' 37k37' 50~x50'
ORAW P O I N T S P A C I N G
FIG. 6.-ADJUSTEDORE RECOVERY.
Curves indicate maximum size; average for 30-ft. curve.

Our Geologic Department has made a
detailed study and mapped mine workings,
diamond-drill core, and other related data
for the purpose of predetermining the
degree of cavability of various parts of the
ore body, the mining needed to produce de-
sired caving, the size of material reaching
the draw point thus indicating the de-
sired draw-point ~ p a c i n g . ~
The size of the broken rock as it reaches
the draw point depends upon the fracture
pattern of the rock and the amount of
fragmentation that the rock undergoes. The
broken rock keys together and forms small
arches. The larger the rock, the larger
the size of the arches. These arches deter-
R. U . King: A Study of Geologic Structure at
Climax in Relation to Mining and Block Caving.
This volume, page 145.
base the area over the apexes that cannot
be affected by blasting (Experiment 1 6 ) .
The size of the static zones is not so
important because of the amount of ore
lost in the zones, but because they may
support much larger blocks of unbroken
rock (Experiment 19, No. 1 2 , Fig. 2 jb).
I t follows that as the distance between the
draw holes is decreased, the static zones
become smaller and the opportunity to
lose ore is diminished.
Before fragmentation has penetrated the
entire stope, the draw has a tendency
to pull into the broken ore column or into
any line of weakness. Any great differential
between the spacing of draw holes is
undesirable, since the draw may follow
the plane of weakness established by pulling
164 A STUDY OF CAVING AND DRAWING LARGE ORE BODIES

STOPES PER CEKTDRAWN

the draw holes with the minimum spacing,
1 , 2, 3 70 to exhaustion
resulting in a loss of ore.
4, 5 50

Method of Draw 6, i 35
8, 9 20
After the draw-hole spacing, which 10,11 10
will permit control over the movement of 12, I 3 Caved but not drawn
ore, has been established, the method of I Ij Uncaved

30 FOOT MAXIMUM S I Z E MATERIAL

W A S T E RECOVERED I N
DILUTED ORE
O R E RECOVERED I N

rm] U N D I L U T E D O R E
FIG. 7.-RECOVERYON REGULAR DRAW

draw must be decided. Its objective is to
produce maximum fragmentation and a
high recovery of ore with minimum
dilution.
I n the model, two methods were used; the
regular draw in rotation and the irregular
draw. The regular draw (Fig. 7) on the
panel experiments was not only in rotation
but a t a progressive rate. The rate of draw
used in experiment No. 17 was typical
of those involving the panel problem.
The differentials in the percentage of
calculated ore drawn from the succeeding
groups of stopes were (Fig. 16b) :
This sequence permits the draw to be
against caved rock, which is believed to
assist in fragmentation of newly caved
areas. The progressive rate of draw permits
a regular line of retreat to form and the
greatest amount of fragmentation to take
place. In the first stages of the panel
draw, the caving action takes place over a
limited area. The arching tendency is
prominent and the fragmentation thorough
as the caving action moves upward.
As the area enlarges, the fragmentation
is restricted to a zone just above the draw
points. The rock mass subsides as a slightly
 F. S. McNICHOLAS, V. C. ROGERS AND M. S. WALKER
fractured unit, with a minimum of grizzly-
ing action.
At the same time, tension cracks form
a t the surface and cause the capping to
50 FOOT MAXIMUM
METHOD
WASTE RECOVERED I N
@ ORE RECOVERED I N
UNDILUTED ORE
FIG.8.-COMPARISOY
OF REGULAR AND IRREGULAR DRAW.
breakinlarge blocks (Fig. 226). Fragmenta-
tion becomes more complete during the
last stages of each individual draw, which
permits the rate of draw to be increased
without an excessive amount of dilution.
The fragmentation of a block of ore,
settling as a unit, is caused by relieving
the support ht over one draw point
and then over the adjoining draw point.
The shifting of the support under the block
sets up stresses that cause fragmentation.
Since this zone is low, the amount of
crushing due to the movement of the rock
is minor. I n the glory hole, the settling of
165
large rock masses was notably similar to
that seen in the model.
Fig. 8 shows the average results obtained
by regular and irregular draw. I t is to
S I Z E MATERIAL
OF DRAWING
DILUTED ORE
be noted that the total recovery by regular
draw is usually slightly higher than by
irregular draw. H ~ with irregular
~ ~ ~
draw the period of dilution begins much
sooner and lasts much longer than when
regular draw is used. The total amount
of waste drawn is much greater with
draw.
Results secured by irregular draw were
quite erratic and unpredictable,
those secured by regular draw were rea-
sonably similar and predictable. I t is
evident that a regular draw is desirable,
I 66 A STUDY O F CAVING AND ORAWING LARGk ORE BODIES

particularly where ore is low grade and Four types of cutoffs have been used a t
capping is waste. Climax-shrinkage stopes, sublevel blast
Fig. 9 shows that the irregular draw of drifts, powder drifts, and alternate raises
unconsolidated material shows the same and pillars. The first two have proved most
5 0 FOOT MAXIMUM SIZE MATERIAL
PERCENT 5 0 ' 50'
~ DRAW POINT SPACING
RECOVERY

CON. UNCON. 1 CON. UNCON.

REGULAR
DRAW
I IRREGULAR
DRAW

WASTE RECOVERED IN
ORE RECOVERED IN

UNDILUTED ORE
} DILUTED ORE

FIG. 9.-COMPARISON
Oli CONSOLIDATED AN11 UNCONSOLIDATED Y A T E R I A L .

characteristics as that on consolidated successful. The shrinkage stopes produced

material and the conclusions are the same.
Fig. 10 shows recovery of consolidated
material with an irregular draw.
Boutzdary Cutoffs
For the purpose of this article, a bound-
ary cutoff is defined as a plane of weakness
formed along the perimeter of a block of
ore to define its outline and to promote
caving within the block. This applies to
standard block caving only. I n panel
caving, boundary cutoffs are necessary on
the footwall and may be necessary on the
hanging wall.
the best defined cutoff but the draw fol-
lowed the line of weakness, limiting
fragmentation of the ore in the stope.
Because of previous mining on the footwall,
broken waste adjoined unbroken ore. The
shrinkage-stope cutoff caused the initial
draw to pull into this waste, which, in
turn, supported the ore and limited frag-
mentation, and recovery was low.
The sublevel blast drifts (Fig. 4) used
in the mine produced varying results.
I n one area the pillars between the sub-
level drifts were blasted with the stopes
below. The ore shows every indication of
 F. S. McNICHOLAS, V. C. ROGERS AND M. S. WALKER
caving satisfactorily. I t is planned, in
future work, to maintain entries to the
blast drifts so that they may be blasted
progressively and results observed.
3 0 FOOT MAXIMUM
1WASTE RECOVEREO
ORE RECOVEREO
1 UNDILUTED ORE
I n the model, the same conditions were
affected. When a shrink was simulated,
it formed a channel through which waste
was drawn. I n experiment 16, No. 11
(Fig. 24b) the sublevels were not close
enough to weaken the rock sufficiently,
and it did not cave along this line of weak-
ness. Fig. ~ g shows
b that correctly spaced
cutoffs work satisfactorily.
A series of experiments was made with
the cutoffs on 4s0, 6s0, 75' and 82" angles,
to determine the angle a t which cutoffs
cave most efficiently (Figs. 27b, 26, 27a).
Fig. 11 shows that as the angle of the
cutoff steepens, the percentage of recovery
167
of calculated ore increases. However, the
results shown in Fig. 12 indicate that,
within the accuracy of the model, the
absolute amount of ore recovered did not
SIZE MATERIAL
DILUTED ORE
change appreciably as the angle of the
cutoff varied. There was a slight decrease
in the amount of dilution as the angle was
increased.
I n broken rock, the draw affects an
expanding column of ore, which permits
ore to be drawn outside the vertical.
The steeper the angle of the cutoff (up
to 8z0), the higher the recovery of calcu-
lated ore. However, the actual tonnage of
ore recovered did not change with a change
in the cutoff angle (Fig. 12). A shrink
forms a channel through which waste
rock can move and it does not assist
fragmentation materially. Sublevel blast
 I 68 A STUDY OF CAVING AND DRAWING LARGE ORE BODIES

drifts should be blasted progressively as of draw in filled stopes will probably bc

the caving advances, to be certain of form- steeper.
ing a cutoff and to avoid establishing a line
of weakness prematurely. Observation Angle at Which Rock in Place Caves

30' MAXIMUM S I Z E MATERIAL Fig. 24b shows rock caving toward a

3 7 ' X 3 7 ' DRAW POINT SPACING broken ore column a t about So0. However,
this is only for a certain distance, until
tht: strength of the rock is overcome and
it shears vertically.

Application of Model to a Miue Probleln

To apply the preceding information to
an actual mine problem, the section (Fig.
13) along the footwall was simulated in
the model. The upper stopes were con-
sidered caved and all the ore drawn. 'The
problem was to determine the manner of
caving and drawing 220-8 and 220-9
stopes.
The fracture pattern in the mine
indicates that boulders up to 30 ft. across
ANGLE O F CUTOFF
could be expected. The chart (Fig. 6)
FIG.11.-COMPARISON OF ORE RECOVERY WITH
VARYING ANGLES O F CLXOFF. indicates that a high recovery could be
expected with 37 by 37-ft. spacing. This
drifts would be useful to check the efficiency spacing was also adaptable to the general
and time of blasting. The start of the cutoff mine layout.
should be the same distance from the draw The cutoff on the left, figured from thr
point as the apex of the stope, in order present mine workings, was 89'. The cutofl
that the caved rock may not draw directly on the right was chosen as plus 75'.
into the line of weakness. Weak rock may The latter angle was a compromise.
not need the assistancc of cutoffs to According to our experiments (Fig. I I ) .
promote caving; however, they are believed it permitted a good recovery of its calcu-
desirable to delimit and control caving. lated ore, and any ore remaining would
They are increasingly necessary as the form a blanket between the broken n.aste
strength of the rock increases. and the unbroken ore to be drawn from
lower levels. The cutoff on the left was
Arzgle al Which Ore W i l l Drau~in a Filled extended to within 60 ft. of the exhausted
stope above, leaving a pillar between the
Slope
sublevel and the broken waste.
As seen from the experiments described, I n determining the method of draw,
ore will draw well when the cutoff is a t two main factors were considered: ( I )
a n 82O angle, will draw with fair recovery that from experience in the mine, broken
when the cutoff is a t an angle of 7s0, waste adjoining unbroken ore presented a
will draw poorly a t a 65' cutoff and will serious threat of dilution; ( 2 ) that in panel
draw very poorly a t a 45' cutoff. caving, i t had been noted that migration
When ore breaks finer than a t Climax, of ore occurred toward the area where the
and has a tendency to funnel, the angle draw was more advanced. The plan
 F. S . M t N I C H O L A S , V . C. R O G E R S AND M. S. WALKER

30' MAXIMUM S I Z E MATERIAL

37'X 3 7 ' DRAW POINT SPACING

REGULAR DRAW

n- n-n-

45. 6 5. 7 5. 8 2.

ORE
IIII]
WASTE

F I G . 12.-COMPARISON OF TONNAGE DRAWN WITH VARYING ANGLES OF CUTOFF.

SECTION SHOWN I N PICTURES

I WHITE LEVEL
i..?o / -.'
*. I
I \ 4
?+' -_ I
I-- \ KL--- -I---.
' \. 7 0 5 LEVEL
? ?
0 0
,
N N
N N

100 300
FEET
Fro. 13.-MINE PROBLEM.
 IT0 A STUDY O F CAVING AND DRAWING LARGE ORE: BODIES

outlined was to cave the rock over rows I
and 2 , and when the draw had penetrated
into the capping, the draw was to be
started on rows 3 and 4, with the emphasis
on row j. I t was planned to start the draw
on the hanging wall and retreat toward
the footwall, so that by the time the draw
had reached the waste-filled stope above
fragmentation would be complete.
The starting setup is shown b y Fig.
2 8 a (Experiment 25, No. I ) . After the
picture had been taken, both stopes were
blasted by lowering all four rows and the
draw started on rows I and 2. The rate of
draw was as follows:
T U N >P E R DRAW
C A I . C U L A . ~ORE
ED
I l o w ~ . otozopercent . . . . . .
20 per cent to exhaus-
Picture No. 4 (Fig, z9b). The cxtcrlt
of fragmentation throughout the ore zone
can be noted.
Picture KO. j (Fig. 300).AS the l~roken
ore moved donn, a thin pillar of ore
remained betwccn thc caving ore and
the broken waste.
Picture No. 6 (Fig. 30b). All the sub-
lcvcls on the lcft had caved. Only minor
dilution can be noted a t the top of the
broken ore.
Pictures 7 to 11 (Figs 31 to j3a) show the
continued downward progress of the ore.
Adjusted Recovery
Recovery was: ore, 89.9 per cent; waste,
4.6; total drawn, 94. j.
PER FINGER
2i.j
The results obtained in the model sus-
taincd the procedure outlixled by deductive
~.

Stope 220-9
Row 2. o to 20 per cent.. . . . .
20 to j o per cent. . . . .
j o per cent to exhnus-
tion . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Picture KO. 2 (Fig. 28b) shows the
caving proceeding upward along the
cutoff. IJnderground the sublevels noultl
be blasted individually as the caving
progressed.
Picture No. 3 (Fig. 29u). The caving
had penetrated into thc waste and immedi-
ately after this picture had been take11
rows j and 4 were added to the tiraw list
a t the following rates:
TONS PER DRAW
CALCLLATED ORE
Row 3 . o to 2 0 per cent. . . . . .
2 0 per cent to exhaus-
tion.. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Row 4. o to 32 per cent.. . . . .
32 per cent to exhaus-
tion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
415
reasoning. having a l~ackgroundof operat-
ing experience combined with results shown
b y experimental work.
The next step is to apply the procedure
277
indicated t)y deductive reasoning and
qr5
model verihcatioll to mining operation.
554 We believe many mining problems may
be solved by the use of this method.
Grizzlying EJcrt
Experiment KO. 21 (Figs. j 4 to 39)
shows the grizzlying effect produced by
caving coarse material, back-filled with
mill tailings.
I n the early stages of extraction, a
regular retreat angle was formed with
little grizzlying action apparent (Fig 3611).
As the draw progressed (Fig. 36b), the
grizzlying action became more pronounced.
until, during the final stages, this action
PEW FINGER caused an excess of dilution and loss of ore.
27; The period of dilution was short but
in tense.
gjq Ore recovery was 73.7 per cent compared
with 86 per cent ur~dcrnormal conditions
with rock capping.
138 Waste drawn was 3. j per cent compared
with 6 per cent on regular draw. (See
544 Fig. 7 for comparisons.)
1.'. S. MCNICROLAS, V. C. R O G E R S r\h'D M. S. \ V A L K E R 17I

~ NNOS.
FIG.~ ~ . - E X P E R I L17, T I ((1) AND 2(b)
172 A STUDY OF CAVING A N D DRAWING LARGE ORE BODIES

FIG. IS.-EXPERIYENT17, NOS. 3 ( a ) AND 4 ( b ) .

I?. S. XcNICHOLAS, V. C. ROGERS AND M. S . WALKER '73
I74 A STUDY OF CAVISG AND DRAIVING LARGE ORE B0DIF:S
F. S, hIcNICHOLAS, V. C. ROGERS AND M. S. WALKER '75
1 7 ~ A STUDY OF CAVING AND DRAWING LARGE ORE BODIES

FIG.I ~ . - ~ ~ ~ ' E R ~ A ~ E17,

P \ NOS.
'T II(a) AND I 2 ( b ) .
F. S . McNICHOLAS, V . C. ROGERS AND M . S . WALKER '77
1 7 ~ A STUDY O F CAVING A N D DRA\IIING L A R G E O R E B O D I E S
i P: S . : McNICHOLAS, V. C. ROGERS AND M.' S. WALKER ' I79
FIG. EXPERIMENT 16,NOS. 8(a) AND 9(6).
 F. S. MCNICHOLAS, V. C. ROGERS A N D M. S. WALKER 181

FIG.24.-EXPEXIMENT16, NOS. IO(Q) AND 1 1 ( b ) .

b (NO.$ 1 ) shows small-size material, 2 j by z j - f t . dram-point spacing
182 .\ STUDY OF CA\'ING AND DRAM'ING LARGE ORE BODIES

Frc. ~j.-ESPERIXENT28, NO. ;I(") A X D EX~ER;.IIENT I", S O . i 2 : h ) .

Both small-size material: a , 50 by jo-ft. draiv-point spacing; 6 ; 37 by 37-ft draw-point spacing.
):;' I'IG. ~ ~ . - E S P E R I > ~ E N T 2 2 , NO.12(a) AND E X P E R I X E N T 23, NO. 1 2 ( b ) .
> I .
e:,.. Both 3 7 by 37-ft. draw-point spacing: a., plus 4 j o cutoffs; b, plus 6 j 0 cutoffs.

G
184 A STUDY O F CAVING A N D D R A W I N G LARGE ORE BODIES

FIG.Z~.-EXPERTXENT 24, NO.12(a) A N D EXPEIUhIENT 18, NO.12(b).

B o t h 37 by 37-ft. draw-point spacing: a, 75' cutoffs; b, 82" cutoffs.
 F. S. NcNICHOLAS, V . C. ROGERS AND M. S. WALKER 185

FIG. 28.-EXPERIJ~NT2j, NOS. ~ ( a A)N D 2 ( b ) .

No. r(o) maximum size material, 37 by 37-ft. draw-point spacing.
I 56 A STUDY OF CAVING A N D D R A W I N G L A R G E ORE BODIES

I>IG.?~.-EXPERI\IC\'T
Zj, NOS.
3 ( a ) AND 4 ( b )
P. S. McNICHOLAS, V . C. R O G E R S AND 31. S. W A L K E R 187

FIG. 30.-EXPERIJIENT25, NOS. S(Q) AND 6 ( b )

188 A STUDY OF CAVING AND DRAWING LARGE ORE BODIES

FIG.31.-EXPERIMENT
2 5 , NOS. 7 ( a ) AND 8 ( b ) .
P. S . McNICHOLAS, V . C. ROGERS AND M . S. WALKER 1 ~ 9
IgO A STUDY OF CAVING AND D R A W I N G .LARGE O R E BODIES
 F. S. UcNICHOLAS, \I. C. ROGERS AND 31. S. WALKER I9*

--

FXG.~ ~ . - E X P E R I ~ 2~1 E N T ~ ( a AND

, NOS. ) ~(b).
a, 35 by 37-ft. draw-point spacing. Ore, maximum size; waste, mill tailings a s back fill.
FIG.3 j.-EXPERILCENT
21, NOS. 3 ( ~ AND
) 4(b).
P.'S. hIcNICHOLAS, V . C. ROGERS .4ND M . S. WALKER I93

FIG.36.-ESPERIXENT2 1 , NOS.
S(Q) AND 6(b).
I94 A STUDY O F CAVING AND DRAWING LARGE ORE BODIES

FIG.~ ~ . - E X P E R I X E N T 21, NOS. 7(0) AND 8(b).

F. S. McNICHOLAS, V. C . ROGERS AND M. S. WALKER '95

FIG.~~.-EXPI:RIAIENT
2 1 , NOS. 9(0) AND 10(6).
1 9 ~ A STUDY O F CAVING A N D D R A W I N G L A R G E ORE BODIES
 F . S. McNICHOLAS, V. C . ROGERS AND M. S . WALKER
SWELL
As seen from experiments correlated
with mine observations, the swell of ore
in caving is less than the usually assumed
jo per cent. Our experiments show that
the caved area breaks fine enough to cause
swell only a short distance above the
draw hole. Although our data on this
particular phase of caving are limited, we
believe the swell to approximate 30
per cent.
CONCLUSION
A considerable sum of money has been
expended in conducting these experiments
on several problems encountered in block
197
and panel caving. More must be spent on
direct experimental work in the mine to
prove the findings of the experiments.
However, if the results obtained prove
applicable to mine operation, as applied
to caving and extraction of ore, the
expenditure can be considered negligible.
The model has provoked considerable
discussion among those interested in mine
operation a t Climax. This discussion has
resulted in the clarification of ideas on
block and panel caving. If, as is believed,
the relative results obtained by model work
prove applicable to mine work, we have
an excellent method of solvii~gproblems
encountered in the mine.