03 Biostat 3-DATA-jenis-olah-saji - 2016-dr Wresti

3/11/2016
Biostat_3 MDU-PPDS FKUI Wresti Indriatmi 2
Variables & Data
DATA
Jenis, Pengolahan, dan Penyajian
WRESTI INDRIATMI
Dep. IK Kulit & Kelamin
FKUI – RSCM
Jakarta
Bowers D. Medical Statistics from scratch. 2nd Ed. Chichester, John Wiley & Sons Ltd. 2008
Biostat_3 MDU-PPDS FKUI Wresti Indriatmi 3 Biostat_3 MDU-PPDS FKUI Wresti Indriatmi 4
Types of variables Types of data
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Types of data - examples Nominal categorical variables

1. The data do not
have any units of
measurement
2. The ordering of the
categories is
completely
arbitrary – the
categories cannot
be ordered in any
meaningful way
Ordinal categorical variables Continuous metric variables

1. The data do not have any units of 1. Metric continuous variables
measurement can be properly measured
and have units of
2. The ordering of the categories is
measurement.
not arbitrary as it was with
nominal variables - it is now 2. They produce data that are
possible to order the categories in real numbers (located on the
a meaningful way. number line).
3. The difference between any pair 3. The difference between any
of adjacent scores is not pair of adjacent values is
necessarily the same as the exactly the same.
difference between any other pair
4. All of the usual mathematical
of adjacent scores.
operations can be apply
4. Ordinal data therefore are not real
numbers. They cannot be placed
on the number line
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Discrete metric variables An algorithm to help identify variable type
1. Metric discrete variables

can be properly counted
and have units of
measurement – ‘numbers
of things’.
2. They produce data which
are real numbers located
on the number line.
Bowers D. Medical Statistics from scratch. 2nd Ed. Chichester, John Wiley & Sons Ltd. 2008 Bowers D. Medical Statistics from scratch. 2nd Ed. Chichester, John Wiley & Sons Ltd. 2008
Distributions of variables – Distributions of variables –

Categorical variables Categorical variables
• Nominal variable – the distribution is given by the

frequency with which different possible values of
the variable occur in the data
• Bar chart:
• The height = the frequency
• One axis showing the frequency has a scale
• The other axis describes the categories under study
Cook A, Netuveli G, Sheikh A. Basic

Cook A, Netuveli G, Sheikh A. Basic skills in statistics. London, Class Publishing Ltd. 2004 skills in statistics. London, Class
Publishing Ltd. 2004
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Distributions of variables – Descriptive statistics for a continuous variable

Numerical variables
• The strategy of representing distributions is not 1. Measures of location
possible.
 Mean is the average value
• Group data into intervals on the measuring scale –
 Median is the middle point of the ordered data
bins or class intervals
 Mode is the most common value observed
• The bins need not be of equal size
• Important differences between a histogram and a
bar chart
• bar chart, the height of the column represents the
frequency,
• in a histogram the frequency is represented by the area of
the column.
Cook A, Netuveli G, Sheikh A. Basic skills in statistics. London, Class Publishing Ltd. 2004 Cook A, Netuveli G, Sheikh A. Basic skills in statistics. London, Class Publishing Ltd. 2004
Descriptive statistics for a continuous variable Descriptive statistics for a continuous variable
2. Measures of the scale or spread 3. Measures of shape

 Range refers to the difference between the maximum  Skewness refers to the degree of asymmetry of the
value and the minimum value in the data distribution of the variable. The normal distribution has
zero skewness
 Variance is the average of the squares of the differences
between the mean and each observation. For finding the  Kurtosis refers to the ‘peakedness’ of the distribution. The
average, we do not use the number of observations but standard normal distribution has a kurtosis of 3.
the number of degrees of freedom, which is one less than
the number of observations
 Standard deviation is the square root of the variance.
Cook A, Netuveli G, Sheikh A. Basic skills in statistics. London, Class Publishing Ltd. 2004 Cook A, Netuveli G, Sheikh A. Basic skills in statistics. London, Class Publishing Ltd. 2004
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Shapes of Distributions Skewness

SYMMETRIC: • Skewness measures the degree of
 histogram in which the right half is a mirror image of the left half. asymmetry exhibited by the data
SKEWED TO THE RIGHT:
 histogram in which the right tail is more stretched out than the – Positive skewness – More observations below
left.(long tail to the right) the mean than above it
SKEWED TO THE LEFT:
 histogram the left tail is more stretched out than the right.(long
– Negative skewness – A small number of low
tail to the left) observations and a large number of high ones
NUMBER OF MODAL CLASSES:
 the number of distinct peaks in a histogram
BELL-SHAPED:
 A histogram looks like a bell.
Skewness Kurtosis
• Kurtosis measures how peaked the
histogram is
• The kurtosis of a normal distribution is 0
• Kurtosis characterizes the relative
peakedness or flatness of a distribution
compared to the normal distribution
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Kurtosis Statistic and Parameter

• Platykurtic– When the kurtosis < 0, the • Measurement of the characteristic in the sample is
frequencies throughout the curve are closer to be called a statistic, and
equal (i.e., the curve is more flat and wide) • The value of the characteristic in the population is
– Thus, negative kurtosis indicates a relatively flat known as a parameter.
distribution
• Statistical inference therefore involves
• Leptokurtic– When the kurtosis > 0, there are high estimating a population parameter from a sample
frequencies in only a small part of the curve (i.e, the statistic.
curve is more peaked)
– Thus, positive kurtosis indicates a relatively
peaked distribution
Cook A, Netuveli G, Sheikh A. Basic skills in statistics. London, Class Publishing Ltd. 2004
Estimation Varians dan Standar deviasi

• The most basic case of statistical inference is point estimation -
estimating a population mean from the mean of a sample. Varians = (SD2) = ∑(X – X)2
• The sample mean will be an unbiased estimator if the n-1
expectation of the population mean from repeated sampling
equals the true population mean. • SE = SD
• The dispersion of sample means from repeated samples is a
good indicator of how far our point estimate might lie from the
• Standard Error = SD
true population mean.
• The standard deviation – the most widely used measure of
√n
dispersion, or variation, of a frequency distribution –
summarizes how widely dispersed data are around the
population mean.
• Standard error, refers to the standard deviation of a
sample estimate; this value is used to calculate confidence
intervals.
Cook A, Netuveli G, Sheikh A. Basic skills in statistics. London, Class Publishing Ltd. 2004
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Varians dan Standard Error Data Presentation Techniques

•tinggi badan dari lima anjing dewasa  TEXT
• X (mm) Mean-X |Mean-X|2
820 258 66564  TABLES
650 88 22704 • the best way of showing structured numeric
information
310 -252 63504
550 -12 144  GRAPHS / CHARTS
480 -82 6724 • better for showing relationships,
Total = -6 32632 • making comparisons
• indicating trends
Mean = 2810 / 5 = 562 mm • it is usual to include a table to show the data from which it
Varians = 32632 / 4 = 8158 mm2 was drawn
SD = √8158 = 90,32 mm
SE = (90,32) / √5 = 40,39 mm
Useful Questions To Ask When Recommendations For The

Considering How To Display Information Presentation Of Numbers
 What do you want to show? Summarising Summarise
• It is vital to have a clear idea about what is to be displayed categorical data continuous numerical
- is it important to demonstrate that two sets of data have • both frequencies and
data,
different distributions or that they have different mean percentages can be • use the mean and
values? used. standard deviation,
 What methods are available for this? • If percentages are • if the data have a skewed
reported, it is important distribution use the
• what the main message ? that the denominator (i.e. median and range or
total number of interquartile range.
 Is the method chosen the best? Would observations) is given.
another have been better? • For all of these calculated
• if a chart has been used would a table have been better or
quantities it is important
to state the total number
vice versa? of observations on which
they are based.
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When to use a TABLE & when to use When to use a TABLE & when to use
a GRAPH? a GRAPH?
• Using a sentence (text) if one is presenting only • Use figures or graphs to highlight relationship
one or two numbers
• When using either tables or graphs to
• Tables: when one has more data, or wants to present study data
present exact numerical values
– the figure should have a clear, concise title
• Graphical figures: to give context and
interpretation to numbers – the data given in the figure should be able to
be understood without needing to refer to
the accompanying text.
Presenting Summary Data Golden Rules for Reporting Numbers

• A common error when presenting summary data • In a sentence, numbers less than 10 are
either in a table or directly in the text is to words
present the ± sign after a mean without
specifying what the figure after the sign – In the study group, eight participants did not
represents. complete the intervention
• ‘The mean age of the physiotherapy group was 55.4 ±
13.4 years’. • In a sentence, numbers 10 or more are
• A more correct presentation of the same data numbers
would be, – There were 120 participants in the study
• ‘The mean age of the physiotherapy group was 55.4
years (standard deviation 13.4 years)’. • In a sentence, numbers below 10 that are
• This latter representation is unambiguous and listed with numbers 10 and above should be
avoids the incorrect implications that the standard written as a number
deviation can take a negative value. – In the sample, 15 boys and 4 girls had diabetes
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Golden Rules for Reporting Numbers Golden Rules for Reporting Numbers
• Numbers that represent statistical or • Use a zero before the decimal point when
mathematical functions should be expressed in numbers are less than 1
numbers
– The p value was 0.013
– Raw scores were multiplied by 3 and then converted to
standard scores
• Do not use a space between a number and
• Use words to express any number that begins a its per cent sign
sentence, title or heading. Try and avoid – In total, 35% of participants had diabetes
starting a sentence with a number
– Twenty per cent of participants had diabetes • Use one space between a number and its
unit
– The mean height of the group was 170 cm
Golden Rules for Reporting Numbers Golden Rules for Reporting Numbers
• Report percentages to only one decimal place if • For ranges use ‘to’ or a comma but not ‘-’ to
the sample size is larger than 100 avoid confusion with a minus sign.
– In the sample of 212 children, 10.4% had diabetes • Use the same number of decimal places as the
summary statistic
• Report percentages with no decimal places if the – The mean height was 162 cm (95% CI 156 to 168)
sample size is less than 100
– The mean height was 162 cm (95% CI 156, 168)
– In the sample of 44 children, 11% had diabetes
– The median was 0.5 mm (inter-quartile range −0.1 to
• Do not use percentages if the sample size is 0.7)
less than 20 – The range of height was 145 to 170 cm
– In the sample of 18 children, 2 had diabetes
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Golden Rules for Reporting Numbers General Rules when Reporting Frequencies
• p values between 0.001 and 0.05 should be • For small samples (N < 30), the use of
reported to three decimal places percentages and ratios is not
– There was a significant difference in blood pressure recommended.
between the two groups (t = 3.0, df = 45, p = 0.004)
– present the data with the number of the
• p values shown on output as 0.000 should be observations divided with the total number of
subjects within the group
reported as <0.0001
– Children with diabetes had significantly lower levels of – for example, 3/11, instead of 27%
insulin than control children without diabetes (t =
5.47, df = 78, p < 0.0001)
General Principles concerning General Principles concerning

the Construction of Tables the Construction of Tables
• Tables should be fully self-explanatory. • Zero is a number, and numerical observations of zero
– The title should clearly indicate what the table shows, should be explicitly presented as such.
– Tables, including column and row headings, should be clearly
– If a survey shows no cases of poliomyelitis in a particular
labeled and
county in a particular year, the entry should indicate this fact.
– a brief summary of the contents of a table should always be
given in words, either as part of the title or in the main body of • A dash or a dotted line should be reserved for data
the text. that are missing or unobserved.
• Units should be stated for each numerical variable – If the information from that particular county was incomplete
or otherwise unavailable, a dash or a dotted line should be used
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General Principles concerning

the Construction of Tables Presenting Data in Tables
• Try to use relatively few significant digits.
• Tables should have a purpose, they should contribute to Too many decimal points can make data less
and be integrated with the rest of the text
clear (though sometimes they are necessary).
– Tables should be used only when they can communicate
information more efficiently or effectively than can be
done in text or figure • If numbers are large, consider using
percentages where applicable.
• Data presented in tables should not be duplicated
elsewhere in the text.
• Consider the orientation of the table. When
• Data presented in tables should not also be presented you want to draw attention to a variable, it is
in figures, and vice versa. better it is put as columns rather than rows.
Presenting Data in Tables – Don’t Tables

• Tables containing description of less than
three variables are usually not considered Where there is no natural
good for data presentation. ordering of the rows (or
indeed columns), they
• Also, tables having many cells with zero should be ordered by
size (category with the
frequencies or having a lot of categories highest frequency first,
with small number of counts should not be lowest frequency last) as
displayed in articles. this helps the reader to
scan for patterns and
• Too small and too large tables should be exceptions in the data.
avoided.
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Presenting Graph Guidelines For Constructing Graphs
• “a picture is worth a thousand • Each graph should have a title explaining

what is being displayed.
words.”
• Axes should be clearly labeled.
• Graphs tell a story in “pictures” rather
• Gridlines should be kept to a minimum.
than in words or numbers.
• Avoid three-dimensional graphs as these can
be difficult to read.
• The number of observations should be included.
Good Graph Table or Graph ?
• a clear title (with • A table  a display of numbers in a rectangular

the sample size), grid,
• labeled axes, • A graph or chart  a picture in which the
• no gridlines and numbers are represented by points or lines.
• the marital status
categories are
ordered by their
frequency.
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Type of Graphs Bar Chart

Categorical graphs Numerical graphs • Give a clear display of simple results.
(nominal or ordinal) – Stemplot (stem-and-
leaf plot)
• They are used when the horizontal axis is
– Bar graph
– Histograms composed of categories
– Pie chart
– Frequency polygon – male / female;
– Boxplots – ethnic groups, etc.
– Scatter plot
• If the bars are not separated by spaces, the
chart is referred to as a histogram, rather than
a bar chart.
Bar Chart Data 1

• Bar Graph uses bars to represent the
frequencies (or relative frequencies) the
height of each bar equals the frequency or
relative frequency of each category.
• Bar Graph: height indicates count or percent
• Frequencies: counts
• Relative frequencies: percent
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Bar Graph Horizontal Bar Graph
Pie Chart Pie Chart

• Generally pie charts are to be avoided, as they
can be difficult to interpret particularly when
the number of categories is greater than
five.
• Small proportions can be very hard to discern,

as is the case for vaginal breech delivery.
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Two- or three-dimensional charts? Data 2
This should never be done as they are especially difficult to read and interpret. When
the charts are displayed as three dimensional this relationship is lost as what is
displayed becomes a volume. Only the front face is proportional to the numbers in the
categories and so only these should be displayed
Clustered Bar Chart Clustered Bar Chart

The data could be
presented as two
separate pie charts or
bar charts side
by side but it is
preferable to present
the data in one
graph with the
same scales and
axes to make the
visual comparisons
easier.
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Data 3 Stacked Bar Chart

When the number of
groups to be compared
becomes greater
than three or four, a
better type of bar
chart is the stacked
bar chart, where the
groups are arranged
on the horizontal axis
and the variable being
compared between the
groups is arranged on
the vertical axis.
Count Data Count Data

• Count data can only • On the horizontal axis
take whole numbers are the number of
and the best method deaths per day, going
to display them is from a minimum of 0
deaths per day to a
using a bar chart. maximum of 16 deaths
per day,
• On the vertical axis is
the frequency with which
these occur during this
5-year period.
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Graphs For Continuous Data Histograms

• The simplest graphs are dotplots and stem In order to construct a histogram
and leaf plots and they both display all the
• the data range is divided into several non-
data.
overlapping equally sized bins (categories)
• Other graphs which provide useful summaries of • the number of observations falling into each bin
the data such as histograms and box-and- counted.
whisker plots.
• the categories are then displayed on the
horizontal axis (X-axis) and the frequencies
displayed on the vertical axis (Y-axis)
Histogram Histogram
• Breaks the range of the values of a quantitative
variable into intervals and displays only the
count or percent of the observations that fall
into each interval.
• You can choose any convenient number of
intervals.
Figure 4.6 Histograms of
• Intervals must be of equal width. height for leg ulcer patients
(n= 222)
(a) with only 6 categories, (b)
with 22 categories and (c)
with 9 categories
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Box–Whisker Plots Box–Whisker Plots

• Box plots can be particularly useful for comparing the
distribution of the data across several groups.
• The box contains the middle 50% of the data, with lowest
25% of the data lying below it and the highest 25% of the
data lying above it.
• In fact the upper and lower edges represent a particular

quantity called the interquartile range.
• The horizontal line in the middle of the box represents

the median value
Displaying The Relationship

Boxplot Between Two Continuous Variables
• Boxplots graphically represent • The statistical method for assessing the linear
the scores in a distribution association between two continuous variables
• Made using 5 number summary is known as correlation.
• Within the box are all scores that
fall between the 25th and 75th • The method for predicting the value of one
percentile continuous variable from another is known as
• The whiskers capture all scores regression.
within 1.5 IQRs of the box boundary
• Outliers are between 1.5 and 3 • When preparing to conduct either analysis it is
IQRs essential to construct a scatter diagram of the
• Extreme outliers are beyond 3 IQRs values of one of the variables against the values of
the other variable
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Scatter Plots (Scatter Diagram) Scatter Diagram

• Illustrate the relationship between two
characteristics when both are measured on
numerical scale
• Constructed by drawing X- and Y-axes
– The characteristic hypothesized to explain or
predict or the one that occurs first (the risk factor)
is placed on the X-axis
– The characteristic or outcome to be explained or
predicted or the one that occurs second is placed on
the Y-axis
Scatter Diagram Scatter Diagram
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Line Graph Line Graph

• A graph showing the differences in frequencies or
percentages among categories of an interval-ratio
variable.
• Points representing the frequencies of each category
are placed above the midpoint of the category and are
joined by a straight line.
• Appropriate when the horizontal axis is continuous
rather than categories.
• They could be used to show progress over time
– e.g. development of a measured skill each week over a ten-week
course
General Principles concerning General Principles concerning the

the Construction of Graphs Construction of Graphs
• Graphs should by fully explanatory • E.g.: a presentation of birth rates in the state of Michigan
– Many readers don't read the detailed text, they just • never be headed merely "Birth Rates,"
look at the graph. • but might well be modified to say "Birth Rates per
– The contents of the graph should be as complete as 1,000 Population, White Race, Michigan, 1920-
possible. 1960."
• If the length of title becomes a problem, additional
• Title should include information concerning who
essential material can frequently be included in a
or what the subjects or experimental material are,
footnote.
• what observations are abstracted from those
subjects or material, • The graph should be as self-contained as possible,
requiring as little outside information for clear
• and what restrictions of time and place apply
interpretation as is feasible.
to the graph.
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General Principles concerning the General Principles concerning the

Construction of Graphs Construction of Graphs
• Vertical and horizontal scales should by • Do not try to include too much information
clearly labeled and units should be in a single graph.
identified. – It is better to include several graphs than to
– Most graphs present numerical information in scaled compress information too much.
form.
– A device frequently used for the presentation of
– Scales must be labeled in order to describe fully the many curves or trends is the presentation of a
variable presented on the scale, and for measurement series of small graphs.
variables the units of measurement should
identified. – A safe rule of thumb is to avoid graphs
containing more than 3 curves.
– e.g.: weight (gms), age (years) etc...
General Principles concerning

References
the Construction of Graphs
• Graphs are intended to give an overview rather than 1. Peat J, Barton B. Medical statistics. A guide to
a highly detailed picture of a set of data. data analysis and critical appraisal. Oxford,
• Do not include too much detail in a graph. Blackwell Publishing Ltd., 2005
– Detailed presentations should be reserved for tables. 2. Freeman JV, Walters SJ, Campbell MJ. How to
• Graphs condense detail to permit to see the forest rather display data. Oxford, Blackwell Publishing Ltd.,
than the trees. 2008
– If your main interest is in the trees, use a table. 3. Hall GM. How to write a paper. 5th Ed. Oxford,
• The inclusion of too much detail in a graph will tend to John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., 2013
obscure the essential points.
• Avoid inclusion of numbers within the body of a
graph.
21

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3/11/2016

Biostat_3 MDU-PPDS FKUI Wresti Indriatmi 2

Variables & Data

Types of variables Types of data

Types of data - examples Nominal categorical variables

Ordinal categorical variables Continuous metric variables

Discrete metric variables An algorithm to help identify variable type

1. Metric discrete variables

Distributions of variables – Distributions of variables –

• Nominal variable – the distribution is given by the

• One axis showing the frequency has a scale

• The other axis describes the categories under study

Cook A, Netuveli G, Sheikh A. Basic

Distributions of variables – Descriptive statistics for a continuous variable

2. Measures of the scale or spread 3. Measures of shape

Shapes of Distributions Skewness

Kurtosis Statistic and Parameter

Estimation Varians dan Standar deviasi

Varians dan Standard Error Data Presentation Techniques

Useful Questions To Ask When Recommendations For The

Presenting Summary Data Golden Rules for Reporting Numbers

General Principles concerning General Principles concerning

General Principles concerning

Presenting Data in Tables – Don’t Tables

Presenting Graph Guidelines For Constructing Graphs

• “a picture is worth a thousand • Each graph should have a title explaining

Good Graph Table or Graph ?

• a clear title (with • A table  a display of numbers in a rectangular

Type of Graphs Bar Chart

Bar Chart Data 1

• Bar Graph: height indicates count or percent

• Relative frequencies: percent

Bar Graph Horizontal Bar Graph

Pie Chart Pie Chart

• Small proportions can be very hard to discern,

Two- or three-dimensional charts? Data 2

Clustered Bar Chart Clustered Bar Chart

Data 3 Stacked Bar Chart

Count Data Count Data

Graphs For Continuous Data Histograms

Box–Whisker Plots Box–Whisker Plots

• In fact the upper and lower edges represent a particular

• The horizontal line in the middle of the box represents

Displaying The Relationship

Scatter Plots (Scatter Diagram) Scatter Diagram

Scatter Diagram Scatter Diagram

Line Graph Line Graph

General Principles concerning General Principles concerning the

General Principles concerning the General Principles concerning the

General Principles concerning

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