BASIC CONCEPTS OF STATISTICS
STATISTICS- is defined as a branch of mathematics/
science which deals with the collection, organization,
presentation, analysis and interpretation of numerical
data for the purpose of assisting in making a more
effective decision.
*STATISTICS is everywhere.
Ex: NSO/PSA
MAJOR DIVISIONS OF STATISTICS
1.) DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS- is the field of statistics
that focuses on quantitatively description of
collection data.
*Central tendencies- mean, median and mode.
Variation, skewness and kurtosis
Ex: The market researcher of a manufacturing
company constructs a graph showing the
fluctuations in sales for a major product line
during the last 3 years.
2.) INFERENTIAL STATISTICS- used to make
conclusions of the probability that a difference
between samples is either reliable or by chance.
*E-test/ Z-test
Ex: The manager of a department store records
the number of buying customers daily for seven
consecutive weeks and then estimates the
average number of buying customers for the
following weeks. (COMPARING RELIABLE DATAS)
TWO SIGNIFICANT TERMINOLOGIES
1.) Parameter- is the field of statistics that focuses
on quantitatively description of the collection of
data. (AS A WHOLE)
2.) Statistics- is a concluded data from a proportion
of a population. (ONLY A PORTION)
5 BASIC STEPS IN CONDUCTING STATISTICAL INQUIRY
1. Defining the problem.
2. Collecting and organizing relevant information.
3. Presenting the data.
4. Analyzing the data.
5. Interpreting the results.
CLASSIFICATION OF DATA
1. Qualitative data VS. Quantitative data
2. Raw data VS. Array data
Qualitative data- measures of “types” and may
be represented by names or symbols.
- describes individuals or objects by their
categories or groups.
- answer the question “what type”
Ex: GENDER (male or female) NATIONALITY
(Filipino, American, Swedish, Chinese, Korean
and many more.) STUDENT TYPE (freshmen,
sophomore, junior and senior)
Quantitative data- measure of “values” or
“counts” and expressed in numbers
- Operations such as addition and averaging
make sense
- Answers the questions “how many” and
“how much”
Ex: WEIGHT (kilograms) GRADES (70, 89, 91, 99)
AGES (16yrs old, 19yrs old)
Raw data- a data can be considered raw if it is in
its original form.
Array data- if the data is already arranged in its
certain pattern such as in ascending or
descending order, then it is no longer in its
original form but rather in it arrayed form.
CLASSIFICATIONS OF VARIABLES
Variables- is an observable characteristics or attribute
associated with the population or sample being studied
which makes one different from each other.
1. According to functional relationship
 Independent variable- called the
predictor variable
 Dependent variable- called the criterion
variable
2. According to continuity of values
 Continuous variable- can be expressed
in decimals
 Discrete/ Discontinuous variable-
cannot be expressed in decimals
LEVEL OF MEASUREMENT person and collected through the same
process.
1. Nominal scale- data that consist of names,
3. REGISTRATION METHOD- it is executed through
labels or categories only
the collection of data from the concerned
- The data cannot be arranged in an ordering
offices.
scheme
- Examples of concerned offices can be city
- Numbers or symbols are used to classify an
municipality or psa, government offices
object or person to identify the group they
4. OBSERVATION METHOD- this method is purely
belong
based on personal remarks of the observer.
2. Ordinal scale- data contain the properties of
- Psychiatrists- observation on patients for
nominal level.
study or research.
- The data can be arranged in ordering
5. EXPERIMENTAL METHOD- it is the method that
scheme or ranks.
defines the cause-and-effect relationships of a
- The difference between the values of the
certain parameter or event under a controlled
data cannot be determined. The interval is
condition.
meaningless.
- Science: chemist, biologist…
3. Interval scale- data contains the properties of
ordinal level.
- Data values can be ranked.
SAMPLE SIZE FORMULA
- The difference between the values of the
data is of known sizes. Population- is the complete set of individuals or subject.
- The interval between the values has
meaning. Sample- is just representative of the whole.
4. Ratio scale- data contain the properties of N
interval level n= 2
1+ Ne
- The “zero” indicates the absence of the
characteristics under consideration. Where:
- The ratio of data values has meaning.
n = sample size
N= population
TOPIC 2
e= margin of error

METHODS IN COLLECTION OF DATA

SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
1. DIRECT METHOD- it is frequently called the
1. Probability Sampling- “simple random
interview method
sampling”
- This is executed through a direct and
- Each member of the population has equal
personal interaction of the researcher with
chance of being selected as part of the
the person from whom the data will be
sample.
collected. (Personal or telephone interview)
- Ex: fishbowl, raffle draw, Lotto draw
- Advantage: questions can be repeated,
2. Restricted Random Sampling- this is often times
rephrased or being modified for better
used when the population is too big.
understanding.
Systematic sampling- the selection of
2. INDIRECT METHOD- performed through the use
sample is done every kth element of the
of either online questionnaire or paper form
population.
questionnaire.
- The kth element in the population is
- The researcher distributes the questionnaire
attained using the given formula below.
either by mail or hand carry to the intended
 th N percentage distribution. It is a table
k = population ¿ ¿ sample ¿ ¿ ¿¿
n presenting the frequency and percentage
Stratified sampling- the population is
divided into strata (groups) based on their
homogeneity or commonalities.
- Steps in doing sampling are as follows:
 Define the distribution of the
population in each stratum.
 Find the percentage of each
stratum from population.
 Multiply the percentage of each
stratum by the sample size.
3. Cluster Sampling- it is frequently used on
geographical basis when the population from
which sample is to be chosen includes
heterogenous groups.
4. Non-Random Sampling- not all of the
population has to be equal opportunity to be
chosen. The selection is influenced by the goal
of the researcher.
Purposive sampling- the samples are
picked based on purpose or definite
criteria
Ex: The effects of being sporty in the
academic performance
Quota sampling- in this technique a
certain limit is pre-established to find who
among the population can be part of the
sample.
Ex: The determination of the students who
can qualify in a university.
Convenience sampling- the sample is
chosen based on the accessibility of the
researcher in the convenience sampling.
Ex: The performance of universities in the
Philippines.
METHODS IN PRESENTATION OF DATA
Textual Presentation- this is the technique
in the paragraph form. In this technique, it
does not necessary mean that the
presentation contains of words only but
figures can also be utilized as part of the
presentation. “Paragraph method”
Tabular Presentation- this is another way
of presenting data. In this technique, the
data are summarized using tables. A table
usually used is on the frequency and
sharing of nominal data.
Presents data in columns or rows
Graphical Presentation- there are many
types of graphs such as line, graph,
pictograph, pie, chart etc.
Its shows the important relationship
clearly
1. Line graph- it shows associations
between two or more sets of
quantities. In this technique, the
values are plotted using dots which
are called “markers” to be connected
together by line segments.
-shows pattern of changes in a given
time
2. Bar graph- it is a graphical method in
which each value in the data is
represented by rectangular bars. The
length of the bars shows the measure
of a certain value while its width has a
fixed size.
3. Pictograph- this is a graphical
technique that expresses the meaning
through its pictorial similarity to
physical object. Each object used in
pictograph stands for corresponding
measure. Effective for attracting
attention.
4. Pie chart- this is the type of graphical
presentation in which a circle (or
sometimes a cylinder) is divided into
several parts with each parts typifying
the categories of the data.
 STEPS IN HYPOTHESIS TESTING

1. Formulate the null and alternative hypotheses.

TOPIC 3
HYPOTHESIS TESTING
HYPOTHESIS- wild guest; a supposition or proposed
explanation made on the basis of limited evidence as a
starting point for further investigation.
2 TYPES OF HYPOTHESES
1. NULL HYPOTHESIS- is the claim about a
population characteristic that is initially
assumed to be true.
- You have an overview on the results
- Simply denoted by Ho
2. ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS- is the claim that
contradicts the null hypothesis.
- Denotes by Ha
2 WAYS TO CONTRADICT NULL HYPOTHESIS
1. ONE-TAILED TEST- basically opposing the null
hypothesis with one directional claim
2. TWO TAILED TEST- is opposing using a two-
directional claim.
2. Choose a level of significance to be used.
3. Decide the test statistics to be used and the
ztabular or ttabular.
4. Compute for the value of test statistics.
5. Make a decision.
- If the computed value of the test statistics is
greater than the critical or tabular value,
reject Ho and accept Ha.
- If the computed value of the test statistics is
less than or equal the critical or tabular
value, reject Ha and accept Ho.
6. State the conclusion.
Z-TEST – if the sample size is greater than or equal 30
sample units, the z-test is the most appropriate test
statistics.
ONE SAMPLE MEAN
( x−µ ) √ n
Zcomputed=
σ

TERMINOLOGIES IN HYPOTHESIS TESTING

1. TEST STATISTICS- is the quantity calculated from

the sample data that is used a decisive
parameter in forming the final conclusions.
- Z-test, T-test, ANNOVA/ F-test Where:
2. SIGNIFICANCE LEVEL- is the degree of certainty
required in order to reject the null hypothesis in x = sample mean
favor of the alternative hypothesis.
µ= population mean
3. CRITICAL VALUE- is the value for a hypothesis
test that is threshold to which the value of the n= number of samples
statistics in a sample is being compared to
σ = population’s standard deviation
determine whether or not the null hypothesis is
rejected. TWO SAMPLE MEAN
4. CRITICAL REGION- also called region of
rejection; the set of values of the test statistics
x1 −x2

√
2 2
for which the null hypothesis is rejected. Zcomputed= s1 s 2
+
n1 n2
x 1= 1st sample mean

x 2= 2nd sample mean

n1 = number of samples of the first group sample

n2 = number of samples of the second group sample

s1= 1st sample’s standard deviation

s2= 2nd sample’s standard deviation