– NON- NUMERICAL, INCLUDES
LABEL OR NAMES USED TO
STATISTICS
IS A SCIENTIFIC METHOD THAT
DEALS WITH COLLECTION,
ORGANIZING, SUMMARIZING,
PRESENTING, AND ANALYZING
DATA.
TWO BROAD AREAS OF STATISTICS
1. DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
- UTILIZES NUMERICAL AND
GRAPHICAL METHODS TO LOOK
FOR PATTERNS IN A DATA SET,TO
SUMMARIZE THE INFORMATION
REVEALED IN A DATA SET, AND TO
PRESENT THE INFORMATION IN A
CONVENIENT FORM.
2. INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
- UTILIZES SAMPLE DATA TO MAKE
ESTIMATES, DECISIONS,
PREDICTIONS, OR OTHER
GENERELIZATION ABOUT LARGER
SET OF DATA.
* PROCESS- IS A SERIES OF
ACTIONS OR OPERATION THAT
TRANSFORM INPUTS TO OUTPUTS.
*ELEMENTS- ARE THE ENTITIES
ON WHICH DATA ARE COLLECTE.
*VARIABLES- IS A
CHARACTERISTCS OF INTEREST
FOR THE ELEMENTS.
DATA CAN BE CLASSIFIED AS
EITHER QUALITATIVE OR
QUANTITATIVE.
QUALITATIVE(CATEGORICAL)
IDENTIFY AN ATTRIBUTE OF EACH
ELEMENTS.
-CAN BE USED TO CLASSIFY
/CATEGORIZE (Take categories as their
values such as “True”, “False”, “Yes”,
“no” or “Blue”, “Red”..
*EXAMPLE: SMALL MEDIUM,
LARGE (SIZES)
*COLOR –BLUE, RED, AND
ORANGE.
QUANTITATIVE DATA
-REFERRING TO A NUMBER .
- VALUES THAT INDICATE HOW
MUCH OR HOW MANY OF
SOMETHING.
EXAMPLE *120 Kg.
*150 DEGREES FARENHEIT
• 1 DOZEN EGG.
* Weight / Time/ Temperature, Mass
2 TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE DATA
1. DISCRETE DATA
- COUNTING PROCESS, FINITE
SET/ INVOLVES WHOLE NUMBERS.
*EXAMPLES:
* FINGERS
* 1 DOZENS
* Numbers of enrollees. * Basketball scores
* NUMBER OF PETS
2 TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE DATA
2. CONTINUOUS DATA
- MEASUREMENTS/MEASURING
PROCESS/ANY VALUE IN A
CERTAIN RANGE.
*EXAMPLES 1.Temperature
2. Height
3.Weight
4.Area of a house.
** CATEGORICAL AND NUMERICAL
ARE THE TWO CLASSIFICATION OF
VARIABLES.
1.CATEGORICAL
2. NUMERICAL (DISCRETE AND
CONTINUOUS)
SCALES OF MEASUREMENT
-IS THE PROCESS OF ASSIGNING
VALUE TO A VARIABLE.
Four levels scales of measurements
1.Nominal scale: Naming
Variable/Categorical/ cannot perform
mathematical computations/mutually
exclusive.
Example:
Gender: Male/Female
Political Affiliation: PDP Laban /
Makabayan / Lakas Bayan
Color: Red, Blue,Yellow
* Attributes are Only Names.
SCALES OF MEASUREMENT
-IS THE PROCESS OF ASSIGNING
VALUE TO A VARIABLE.
Four levels scales of measurements
2. Ordinal scale: Ordered attributes/can
perform mathematical computations/ Likert
scale.
Example:
First, second, third.
1 = Good
2.Very Good
3. Excellent
4. Superior
*Attributes can be Rank Ordered.
SCALES OF MEASUREMENT
-IS THE PROCESS OF ASSIGNING
VALUE TO A VARIABLE.
Four levels scales of measurements
3. Interval scale: Ordinal ranking/added
attribute of equal spacing.
Example: temperature in Fahrenheit 30
degrees is more than 20 degrees.
20 degrees is more than 10 degrees.
Difference between both examples is 10
degrees.
No True zero value.
Zero degree does not mean there is no
temperature it means cold.
* Distance is Meaningful.
SCALES OF MEASUREMENT
-IS THE PROCESS OF ASSIGNING
VALUE TO A VARIABLE.
Four levels scales of measurements
4. Ratio Scale: Ordinal ranking/Equal
spacing Absolute Zero. Example:
Height/Weight QUALITATIVE:
Nominal
1.
2.
• 4. Registration- This method is done
3. Interval 4. Ratio
Ordinal
QUANTITATIVE LEVELS
PRIMARY/SECONDARY DATA
Classification of data
1.Primary Data: -refers to the data collected
by the researcher, for the very first time, from
different sources, with a particular problem,
question or specific purpose in mind.(Original
Data)
2. Secondary Data: refers to data that is
collected by someone other than the
primary user.
Example: Newspaper, Magazine,
Websites, publications(Government),
Records, journals and books.
PRIMARY DATA
CAN BE COLLECTED THROUGH:
1. Survey- an activity in which many
people are asked a question or a
series of questions in order to gather
information about what most people
do or think about something.
2. Questionnaire/Indirect Method: is a
research instrument consisting of a
series of questions for the purpose of
gathering information from respondents.
3. Interview/Direct Method: This is done
through a direct and personal contact of
the researcher with the person from
whom data will be collected.
PRIMARY DATA
CAN BE COLLECTED THROUGH:
through the gathering of data from
concern offices. NSO,
5.. Observation Method – This method
is purely based on the subjective
remarks of the observer.
6. Experimental Method. It is the
method that determines the cause-and-
effect relationship of a certain constraint
or event under a controlled situation.
CLASSIFICATION OF VARIABLES
ACCORDING TO FUNCTIONAL
RELATIONSHIP
1. IndependendVariable(x):called
predictor/explanatory/regressor/mani
pulated variable/controlled
variable/exposure.
2. DependendVariable(Y):called criterion
variable/response variable/measured
variable and observed variable.
STATISTICAL INFERENCE

Many situations require data for large groups SAMPLING TECHNIQUE

of elements (individuals, companies,
household, voters, products, customers and so SRS
on).Because of time, cost and other concern,
data can be collected from only small portion -THE MOST BASIC RANDOM
of the group.The larger group of elements in a SAMPLING WHEREIN EACH
particular study is called ELEMENT IN THE POPULATION HAS
population(Universe), and the smaller group EQUAL PROBABILITYOF BEING
is called sample SELECTED.(METHOD OF CHANCE-
REMOVE BIAS.)
1. Population-is the set of all elements
of interest in a particular
study.(Parameter)
2. Sample –is a subset of the population.
(Statistic)

SAMPLING TECHNIQUE

SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING(SRS)

It is a sampling method of choosing

representative (sample) from the population
wherein every sample has an equal chance of
being selected.
Sampling – is a process of selecting
representative units from an entire population
of a stud.
1. 2.
2 types of SRS
Probability Sampling- involves random
selection.
2. Non-Probability Sampling –The sampling
technique that do not involve random selection
of data.
Example of SRS
SYSTEMATIC RANDOM SAMPLING
IS A PROBABILITY SAMPLING
METHOD IN WHICH A RANDOM
SAMPLE, WITH A FIXED PERIODIC
INTERVAL, IS SELECTED FROM A
LARGER POPULATION. THE FIXED
PERIODIC INTERVAL, CALLED THE
SAMPLING INTERVAL, IS
CALCULATED BY DIVIDING THE
POPULATION SIZE BY THE
DESIRED SAMPLE SIZE.
STRATIFIED SAMPLING
TECHNIQUE
- IS A METHOD OF SAMPLING
THAT INVOLVES THE DIVISION OF
A POPULATION INTO SMALLER
SUB-
GROUPS KNOWN AS STRATA.
EXAMPLE OF STRATA
USING A 5% MARGIN OF ERROR, NUMBER
OF STUDENTS SHOULD BE INCLUDED IN
THE SAMPLES.
!
SLOVIN’S FORMULA: N = "#$%& ;
!= TOTAL POPULATION;
N= SAMPLE SIZE ,
E= MARGIN ERROR:
! ()))
N = "#$%& ; = "#*+++(+.+*)& ="#$ %&'()*&%
CLUSTERING
In cluster sampling, researchers
divide a population into smaller
groups known as clusters. They then
randomly select among these
clusters to form a sample. Cluster
sampling is a method of probability
sampling that is often used to study
large populations, particularly those
that are widely geographically
dispersed.
NON-PROBABILITY
Non-probability sampling is defined as a
sampling technique in which the
researcher selects samples based on the
subjective judgment of the researcher
rather than random selection. It is a less
stringent method.
NON-PROBABILITY CONVENIENCE
METHOD
is a non-probability sampling technique
where samples are selected from the
population only because they are
conveniently available to the researcher.
Researchers choose these samples just
because they are easy to recruit, and the
researcher did not consider selecting a •Consecutive sampling:
sample that represents the entire This non-probability sampling method is
population.(Involves selecting samples very similar to convenience sampling,
based on convenience.) with a slight variation. Here, the
researcher picks a single person or a
Availability/Convenience sampling is group of a sample, conducts research over
a type of non - probability sampling a period, analyzes the results, and then
that involves the sample being drawn moves on to another subject or group if
from that part of the population that needed. Consecutive sampling technique
is close to hand. This type of gives the researcher a chance to work
sampling is most useful for pilot with many topics and fine- tune his/her
testing. research by collecting results that have
vital insights.(Total enumerated
NON-PROBABILITY PURPOSIVE sampling)
SAMPLING -JUDGEMENTAL-

NON-PROBABILITY CONSECUTIVE
METHOD

One of the most common examples of a

consecutive sample is when
companies/ brands stop people in a
mall or crowded areas and hand them
promotional leaflets to purchase a
luxury car. In this example, the people
walking in the mall are the samples, and
let us consider them as representative
of a population.

NON-PROBABILITY QUOTA-
SAMPLING
Quota sampling is also known as the non-
probability sampling method. The quota
sampling method is used in the initial stage
of a research study. The population for
sampling is selected based on specific
characteristics and traits of the members of
the population.

Selecting a sample based on required, exact numbers or

quotas, of individuals, or groups of varying features.

NON-PROBABILITY Snowball-Sampling

Selecting a sample based on required, exact numbers or

quotas, of individuals, or groups of varying features.

M2:

A DESCRIPTIVE STATISTIC IS A
SUMMARY STATISTIC THAT
QUANTITATIVELY DESCRIBES OR
SUMMARIZES FEATURES FROM A
COLLECTION OF INFORMATION,
WHILE DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS IS
THE PROCESS OF USING AND
ANALYZING THOSE STATISTICS.
 FORMULAS:

Class = R/K
interval

Range = HN- LN 50 - 10 = 40
K = 1+ 3.3Log(n)
n = 100
n= 1+3.3 log(100) = 1 + 3.3(2) = 1+6.6 = 7.6
=8

CI = R/k = 40/8 = 5

QUARTILES: 4

• 4–1=3
• Q1, Q2, Q3
Grouped data • Qj = x(j*n/4+1/2) =
• (v+v)/2 =
-are data formed by aggregating
individual observations of a variable DECILES: 10
into groups, so that a • 10 – 1= 9
• D1, D2, D3, …, D9
frequency distribution of these • Dj = x(j*n/10+1/2) =
groups serves as a convenient • (v+v)/2 =
means of summarizing or analyzing
the data. PERCENTITLES: 100
• 100 – 1 = 99
• P1, P2, P3, …, P50, …, P99
• Pj = x(j*n/100+1/2) =
• (v+v)/2 =

à Q2 = D5 = P50 = 50%
à Q1 = 25%
à Q3 = 75%
 Class Limit tally fc Class boundaries CM <Cfc >Cfc <Cfc% >Cfc% RF%
10 14 12 9.5 14.5 12 12 100 12% 100% 12%
15 19 8 14.5 19.5 17 20 88 20% 88% 8%
20 24 5 19.5 24.5 22 25 80 25% 80% 5%
25 29 25 24.5 29.5 27 50 75 50% 75% 25%
30 34 9 29.5 34.5 32 59 50 59% 50% 9%
35 39 7 34.5 39.5 37 66 41 66% 41% 7%
40 44 18 39.5 44.5 42 84 34 84% 34% 18%
45 49 7 44.5 49.5 47 91 16 91% 16% 7%
50 54 9 49.5 54.5 52 100 9 100% 9% 9%
n= 100 100%

CB = CM=CB/2
±0.5
upper UL +
limit 0.5
lower LL - 0.5 <Cfc= Lower limit of the entire classes <Cfc%= RF%= fc/n*100%
limit <Cfc/n*100%
>Cfc=Upper limit of the entire classes >Cfc% =
>Cfc/n*100