PROBABILITY AND

STATISTICS
“SAMPLING METHODOLOGIES”

ING. GILBERTO ANUAR GARCÍA GARCÍA

U1 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

PROBABILITY SAMPLING It’s possible to make statistical inferences about the population.
Every item in the population has an equal chance Simple Random Sampling
of being included in sample.
The results can be generalized from the sample Systematic Sampling
to the population.
Allow to calculate the precision of the estimates Stratified Random Sampling
and to specify the sampling error.
Tends to be more difficult and costly to conduct. Cluster Sampling

NONPROBABILITY SAMPLING It’s not possible to make statistical inferences about the population.
Tend to be less complicated and less time Judgmental or Purposive Sampling
consuming.
Do not allow the study's findings to be generalized Quota Sampling
from the sample to the population.
Do not allow to calculate sampling statistics that Convenience Sampling
provide information about the precision of the
results. Snowball Sampling 2
U1 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

NONPROBABILITY SAMPLING
• Judgmental or Purposive Sampling: the researcher chooses the sample based on
who he/she thinks would be appropriate for the study.

• Quota Sampling: participants are chosen on the basis of predetermined

characteristics so that the total sample will have the same distribution of
characteristics as the wider population.

• Convenience Sampling: involves the sample being drawn from that part of the
population which is close to hand, that is, a population which is readily available and
convenient. This type of sampling is most useful for pilot testing.

• Snowball Sampling: a nonrandom sampling method used when investigating hard-to-

reach groups. Existing subjects are asked to nominate further subjects known to them,
so the sample increases in size like a rolling snowball.

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U1 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

PROBABILITY SAMPLING
• Simple Random Sampling: the researcher must first prepare an exhaustive list
(sampling frame) of all members of the population of interest. From this list, the
sample is drawn so that each person or item has an equal chance of being drawn during
each selection round. Computerized sampling programs and random number tables are
used to impartially select the members of the population to be sampled.

• Systematic Sampling: the researcher selects every nth member after randomly
selecting the first through nth element as the starting point. This technique tends to be
easier to draw and execute. For example, if the researcher decides to sample 20
respondents from a sample of 100, every 5th member of the population will
systematically be selected.

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U1 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

PROBABILITY SAMPLING
• Stratified Random Sampling: it involves categorizing the members of the population
into mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive subgroups (strata) who all share a
similar characteristic. An independent simple random sample is then drawn from each
subgroup. Subgroups might be based on company size, gender or occupation.

• Cluster Sampling: the whole population is divided into clusters or groups. A cluster (a
group of population elements), constitutes the sampling unit, instead of a single
element of the population. Cluster sampling is useful when the population is too large
and spread out for simple random sampling to be feasible. Subsequently, a random
sample is taken from these clusters, all of which are used in the final sample.

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PROBABILITY AND
STATISTICS
“FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION”

ING. GILBERTO ANUAR GARCÍA GARCÍA

U1 FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

A frequency distribution is used to organize the collected data and to show the frequency
of repeated items in a graphical form or tabular form. It gives a visual display of the
frequency of items or shows the number of times they occurred.

TYPES OF FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

• Ungrouped frequency distribution: It shows the frequency of an item in each
separate data value rather than groups of data values.

• Grouped frequency distribution: In this type, the data is arranged and separated
into groups called class intervals. The frequency of data belonging to each class interval
is noted in a frequency distribution table.

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U1 EXAMPLES: FREQUENCY TABLES

TYPES OF FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

GROUPED FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
Marks obtained by 20 students in the test are as follows. 5, 10, 20, 15, 5, 20, 20, 15, 15, 15, 10, 10,
10, 20, 15, 5, 18, 18, 18, 18. To arrange the data in grouped table we have to make class intervals.
Thus, we will make class intervals of marks like 0 – 5, 6 – 10, and so on. Given below table shows two
columns one is of class intervals (marks obtained in test) and the second is of frequency (no. of
students). In this, we have not used tally marks as we counted the marks directly.

Marks obtained in Test (class intervals) No. of Students (Frequency)

0–5 3

6 – 10 4

11 – 15 5

16 – 20 8

Total 20 8
U1 EXAMPLES: FREQUENCY TABLES

TYPES OF FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

UNGROUPED FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
Marks obtained by 20 students in the test are as follows. 5, 10, 20, 15, 5, 20, 20, 15, 15, 15, 10, 10,
10, 20, 15, 5, 18, 18, 18, 18. In the ungrouped frequency distribution table, we don't make class
intervals, we write the accurate frequency of individual data. Given below table shows two columns:
one is of marks obtained in the test and the second is of frequency (no. of students).
Marks obtained in Test No. of Students (Frequency)
5 3

10 4

15 5

18 4

20 4

Total 20
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U1 EXAMPLES: FREQUENCY TABLES

A group of people were asked to mark the image of their favorite soft drink. With the
results obtained, create a frequency table.
CUMULATIVE
ABSOLUTE CUMULATIVE RELATIVE
SOFTDRINK RELATIVE
FREQUENCY FREQUENCY FREQUENCY
FREQUENCY

6 6 0.30 0.30

5 11 0.25 0.55

4 15 0.20 0.75

5 20 0.25 1.0

TOTAL 20 10
U1 FREQUENCY TABLES

• Absolute frequency: It tells the number of times a particular value for a variable (data
item) has been observed to occur.

• Relative frequency: It tells the number of times a particular value for a variable (data
item) has been observed to occur in relation to the total number of observations.

• Cumulative frequency: It is the sum of the first frequency and all frequencies below it
in a frequency distribution.

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