const i

tution(cst ")init swi dersenser efer stot hewhol esy stem ofgov ernmentofacount r
y ,thecol l
ectionofr ul
eswhi chest abli
shandr egulateorgov ernthegov t.1765t o1858:1765, Thegr antofDi wani
madet heCompanybecomet r
uemast ers( i
.e.Di wan)oft hepr ov i
ncesofBengal , Bihar, andOr i
ssa.Thi smeantt hatt heCompanycoul dcol lectr evenuef rom t heset hreeprov incesandal sober esponsi bl
e
forCi v i
lJust i
cet here.TheBr it
ishgov ernmentpassedt heRegul atingActi n1773asanat temptt oregul atet heaffairsoft heEastI ndi aCompany .
TheActensur edPar li
ament aryCont rolov ertheCour tof
Direct ors.Gover norofBengalwasmadet hef irstGov ernor-Gener alofBengal( War renHast i
ngs) .
ASupr emeCour twassetupi nCalcut t
aundert heChar terof1744. TheActofSet t
lement ,1781camei nto
forcet or emov et hedef ectsoft heRegul atingActof1773andi mpr ov ei t.
Itexempt edt heCompanyOf ficial
sfrom i mplicati
onsofj urisdictionoft heSupr emeCour tov eranyactdonei nanof fi
cial
capaci t
y. ThePi t t’
sIndi aAct ,1784: Brit
ishGov ernmentcl aimedowner shi pov ert het erritoriesownedbyt heCompanyi nIndiabycal l
ingt hoset er r
itori
es“ TheBr i
tishPossessi onsi nIndia.”Commer cialand
Political functi
onsoft heCompanywer edi stingui shedbyappoi nti
ngsepar ateCommi tt
eesf orthesame. Br i
tishGov ernmentpl aceddi rectcont rol.TheChar t
erActof1813:  
EastI ndiaCompany ’
smonopol y
overI ndi anTr adewasshutdown;i ndianTr adewasmadeopent oallBr iti
shSubj ects;Br i
tishCr ownasser tedsupr emepowerov ert heCounci ls.TheChar terActof1833: Gov ernor-Gener alofBengalwas
madet heGov ernor -Gener alofI ndia;Crucialst ept owar dsCent ral
izati
oni nBr i
ti
shI ndi a;
EastI ndiaCompanywast urnedi ntoanAdmi nistrati
v ebody .TheChar terActof1853: Thi sChar t
erActcar ri
edont he
taskofsepar atingt heLegi slati
veandExecut ivef unct ionsoft heCounci loft heGov ernor -Gener al.Asepar ateLegisl
at i
veCounci lwascr eatedf orI ndia.Recruitmentofal lCivi
l Ser vantsoft heCompanywas
basedonanopencompet it
ionsy st em.Finally,Indi anTer r
itorieswer et ransf err
edt otheBr iti
shCr own,t hust heEastI ndi
aCompany ’
scar eercamet oanend. 1858t o1919:EndofCompany ’
sRul e:The
Gov er nmentofI ndiaAct ,1858: Aftert heRev oltof1857,t heEastI ndi aCompanyendedandr uleoft heCompanywasr eplacedbyt her uleofBr it
ishCr own. Power soft heCr ownwer ev estedi nt he
Secr etaryofSt at eofI ndiawi thcompl eteaut hor i
tyt or egul atet heI ndianAdmi nistrationt hroughVi ceroyandhi sagent s.
TheI ndianCounci lActpr ovi
dedt hebasi cf ramewor kforGov ernmenti n
India.Legi slat
ivepower st oBombayandMadr aspr ov i
ncesr estored.TheI ndianCounci lsActof1909:Mor l
eyMi ntoRef orms.Cent ralLegi slat i
veCounci lwasr enamedast he‘ I
mper ialLegi slativ
e
Counci l
’;
member swer ei ncreasedf rom 16t o60; Dir ectel ectionswer ei ntroduced; 1919t o1947:I nt
roduct i
ont oSel f-
Gov ernment .TheGov ernmentofI ndiaActwaspassedi n1919: Dyarchysy stem was
i
nt r
oducedi nt hepr ovinceswher et hepr ovi
nci alsubj ectswer ebi fur
cat edi nto‘Reser ved’and‘ Tr ansferred.’Governorwasnotr esponsi blet otheLegi slati
veCounci lov ertheReser vedsubj ects.Extended
votingr i
ght sallowi ng10%oft hepopul ationt heirr ightt ov ote.TheSi monCommi ssion’sRepor twaspubl i
shedi n1930. TheGov ernmentensur edt hepeopl eofI ndi athatthei ropi nionwoul dber ightfully
consi der ed.Dyar chysy st em’sabol iti
onwassuggest ed, alongwi thset t
ing- upofRepr esent ativ eGov er
nment sinprov i
nces.

TheGov ernmentofI ndiaAct ,1935: TheActpr ovi

dedf ort heest ablishmentoft heAl lIndiaFeder ationconsi sti
ngofbot htheBr itishI ndiapr ov
incesandPr incel yStates( or,anyot herSt atest hatdesi redt o
beapar toft heFeder ati
on) .
TheFeder alCour twasest ablished. I
ndi anCounci lwasabol ished.TheActcont inuedt i
lltheI ndianConst i
tutioncamei ntof orce.Cr i
ppsMi ssion, 1942: Anel ectedbodyshoul dbe
setupi nI ndiat of ramet heI ndianConst it
ution.
TheBr it
ishgov ernmentshal lacceptt henewconst i
tutiononl yif:(i)anypr ov i
nceunwi ll
ingtoj oint heUni oncanhav easepar at eConst it
ut i
on,for mi nga
separ ateuni on, and( ii)thenewconst i
tution-maki ngbodyandt heBr i
ti
shgov ernmentwoul dnegot iateat reatytosaf eguardr el
igiousandr aci
almi noriti
esandt ogiveef f
ectt ot het r
ansf erofpower .Thus,
theCr i
ppsMi ssi onwasmai nlysentt oI ndiaseeki ngt hesuppor tofI ndiai nt heSecondWor l
dWar .Howev er,Indi answer ehi ghlydi ssati
sfi
edwi t
ht hepr oposalsoft heMi ssi onandhence,r ej ected
them. TheCabi netMi ssi on,1946: Themi ssionwasi nt roducedwi thanat t
emptt or eachanagr eementwi thIndianl eader sforf rami ngoft heIndianConst ituti
on,toest abli
shanEx ecut iveCounci l,andt o
formul atet heConst it
uentAssembl yofI ndi a.TheI ndianI ndependenceAct ,1947: TheActpr ov idedf orthecr eationofI ndianandPaki st anast woi ndependentdomi nions.I talsopr ov idedf orthepar titi
on
ofPunj abandBengal .TheConst ituentAssembl i
esofbot hcount rieswer egi v
ent hepower st of rameaConst it
ut i
onf ortheirrespect iv ecount ry.TheBr i
tishgov ernmentwoul dceaset ohav eanycont rol
overt heDomi nionsorPr ovi
nces, aftert he15t hofAugust ,1947. 1947t o1950:Fr ami ngoft henewConst i
tuti
on.TheConst it
uentAssembl ycamei ntof orcei n1946.Member soft heConst ituentAssembl y
i
ncludedJawahar l
alNehr u,Dr .Raj endr aPr asad,Sar darPat el,Maul anaAzadandmanymor esupr emel eadersoft hecount ry.On9t hDecember , 1946, thef i
rstmeet ingoft heConst i
t uentAssembl yt ook
place.Dr .Rajendr aPr asadwasl aterappoi ntedast hechai rmanoft heConst i
tuentAssembl y .ADr aft
ingCommi tteewasal soest ablishedundert hechai rmanshi pofDr .B. R.Ambedkar .Thest ruggl eof
i
ndependencewast husnotov erby15. 8.1947.I twasbegi nni ngofanewst ruggl etol iv easani ndependentnat i
onandest abli
shdemocr acy.Theneedofanewconst itutionf ormi ngbasi cl awofl andwas
paramount .Ther eforet hef i
rstt askwast of ramenewconst ituti
on.Theconst ituentassembl ywast obef ormedbyi ndirectelect ion.Outof296seat sofBr i
tishIndia,const i
tutionalgr easecapt ur ed211
Musl i
ml eague73, restwer enotf il
led.Thi sCStwasnotcal ledsov ereignbody .Itwast owor kwi thinthef ramewor koft hecabi netmi ssi on.Afterpassi ngI ndianindependenceact1947t heseli
mi tations
wer er emov ed. I mpmember sofconst ituentassembl yNehr u,Pat el,
 rajendraPr asad,maul anaAzad,gopal aswamiay yangar ,pant , Dr .Ambedkar ,Dr .Radhakr i
shnanet c.Fi rstmeet ingofassembl y
9.12.1946, whi chwasby cotedbyMusl i
ml eague.Ther eportsf r
om t hisformsbasi soff ir
stdr af t
.29.8.47dr afti
ngcommi tt
eeof7member swer esetupbyAmbedkar .Jan48, dr aftcstwaspubl ishedand
8mt hswer egi v ent opeopl eofi ndi at opr oposechangesi fany .After2y r
s,11mont hs,  18day son26. 1.1950t henewcstcamei nf or ceexceptf orar ti
cles5, 6,7,8,9,
60,324,366, 367, 372, 380,388,391,392, 393
whichcamei nf or ceatonce.

feat ur esofconst itution: LongestWr i

ttenConst i
tut i
on: Themostv isibleandi mpor tantsal i
entf eat ur eoft heI ndianconst i
tut ioni st hatitisauni queandt hel engt hiestwr ittenconst ituti
oni nt hewor l
d.Or iginal ly
, ithad395ar ticles, 22par tsand8
schedul es.Asar esul tofv ar i
ousamendment sov ert hepassageoft ime, ourConst i
tutioncont ai ns448ar ticlesand12schedul esatpr esent .2.Singl eCi ti
zenshi p:TheI ndi anConst i
tutionpr ov idesf orsi ngl eci t i
zenshi pforal lt heci ti
z ensofI ndi a.
Ani ndi v idualmaybel ongt ocer tai nSt ateorUni onTer r i
tory ,butt hati ndi v i
dual ’
sci tizenshi pr emai nsI ndi an. 3. Fundament al Ri ght s:TheI ndi anConst ituti
onpr ovidesf orFundament al Right st ot heI ndi anci ti
z enwhi char eguar ant eedunder  Par tII
IC
(Articles12- 35).I tisal socal l
edt he‘ I
ndi anBi l
lofRi ght s’. 
Thesi xf undament alr ightsar easf oll
ows: (i)Ri ghtt oEqual i
ty  
Thi sf undament alr ightpr ovidesf orequal itybef or elawandequal i
tyofoppor tuni ty.(ii)Ri ghtt oFr eedom   Thisf undament al
ri
ghtf ur theri ncludessi xki ndsoff reedoms.  Thesear e:-•  
   Freedom ofspeechandex pr ession  • 
   Freedom t oassembl epeacef ul lywithoutar ms •    Freedom t of orm associ ations•  
  Fr eedom t omov ef r
eel yi nI ndia •  
  Fr eedom t or esidei nany
partofI ndi a •  
  Fr eedom ofadopt inganypr of essi on,t rade,oroccupat ion.(iii)Rightt of reedom ofRel igion   Thisf undament alr ights,gr ant sani ndi vi
dual ,ar ightt obel iev e,pr ofess,orwor shipanyr eligion.TheSt atedoesnothav eacommon
reli
gi on.Noper soncanbecompel l
edt of ollow apar ticul arr eligion. (iv)Cul turalandEducat ionalRi ght s   
Thi sf undament alr i
ghtguar ant eesal lthemi noriti
esar ightt omai ntain,dev elop,andf urthert eacht hei rlanguageandcul ture.I tal so
prov idest hem ar ightt oest abl i
sh, mai ntainandadmi nistert hei rowneducat ionali nstitutions. (
v )Ri ghtagai nstExpl oitation   Thisf undament alr ightpr ohi bit
sf or cedl abour , childl abour ,andhumant raf fi
cki ng.I tensur espr ot ect iont oi ndi vidual s
agai nstv ar i
oushumanat rocities. (vi)Ri ghtt oConst itutionalRemedi es( Article32)   
Thi sf undament alr ighti st hehear tandsoulofal loft hef undament alr i
ght s.I tensur esef fectiveenf or cementofal ltheot herf undament alr ight sandpr ot ection
from v iolationoft heser i
ght s..4.  Fundament alDut i
es: Fundament alDut iesofeachci t
iz en:Toabi debyt heConst itutionandr especti tsideal sandi nst i
tut i
ons;Tocher isht henobl ei deal soft hef reedom st ruggl e; Touphol dandpr otectt heuni ty,
sov er eignt y,andi nt egrityofI ndi a;tor enouncepr act icesder ogat or yt ot hedi gni tyofwomen; Tov alueandpr eser v et her i
chher itageofourex qui sitecul t
ur e;Topr otectandi mpr ov et henat ur alenv ironment ;
Tosaf eguar dpubl icpr oper ty5.  Direct i
v e
Princi plesofSt at ePol icy:Thi spar toft heConst itutionment ionscer taingui delinesf ort heSt at ewi tht heobj ect i
v eofsoci o- economi cdev elopment .
 6.Mi xtureofRi gi dityandFl exibi l
ity:
TheConst ituti
onofI ndi ai ssai dt obet heper fectmi xtur eof
ri
gidi tyandf lexibility.I tisnei t
herwhol lyr igidnorwhol lyf lex i
bl e.I ti sbecausesomepr ov i
si onsoft heConst it
ut i
oncanbeamendedv eryeasi l
ywhi lecompl expr ocessescanonl yamendt heot her s.7.Adul tSuf f rage:( Uni ver salAdul t
Franchi se) UnderAr ti
cle326oft heI ndianConst i
tut ion, theel ect ionst ot heHouseofPeopl eandt heLegi slat iveAssembl i
esofSt atesshoul dbedoneont hebasi sofadul tsuf fr
age.Whi chmeanst hatt heci t i
z ensofI ndia,oft heage18y ear sand
abov e,hav ear ightt ov oteandchooset heirr epr esent at i
v es.8.I ndi aasaDemocr atic,Soci ali
st ,Sov ereign,Secul ar,andRepubl icStat e:theci ti
zensofI ndiahav et hepowert oel ectt hei rrepr esent ativesi nt hegov ernment ;theachi ev ementof
soci alistgoal st hroughdemocr at i
candnon- v i
olentmeans; Indi ai saSov ereignst atebecausei tisabsol utel yindependentandi tisnotundert hecont rolofanyot herst ate; I
ndi ai saSecul arst ateast hest atehasnospeci ficr eligi onofi t
sown; India
i
saRepubl icbecausei tisnotr uledbyaher editymonar ch. 9.Par li
ament arysy stem ofgov er nment  
Indi anConst itutionpr ov i
desf orapar li
ament aryf orm ofgov ernment .Pr esidenti st henomi nal orConst itutional headoft hest ate.Hei si ndi rectly
elect edbyt heci tizensofI ndi af oraf ixedper iodof5y ear s.10.  I
ndependentJudi ci
ar y:
TheI ndi anj udi ci aryi sf reef rom i nter ferencef rom theot heror gansoft hegov er nment( namel y, t
heex ecut i
veandt hel egi slatur e) .Somef act sment ionedi nt he
Const itut i
ont hatf ur t
herpr ov et hei ndependenceoft hej udi ciaryar e:-Judgesar eappoi ntedbyt hePr esident ,JudgesofSupr emeCour tcannotber emov edf rom of ficeex ceptt hroughanex tremel ycompl expr ocess, Thesal ariesofj udgesar ev er y
high,TheSupr emeCour thasi t sownst aff.11.  
Judi cialAct i
v i
sm: Thr ought hePubl icInter estLi tigat ionsy stem ( PIL)andmanyot herway s,thej udiciaryhasbeenkeepi nganey eont hef unct ioni ngoft hel egi slat ureandt heex ecut iveandi fthe
j
udi ciar yf eelst hatt her ei saneedf orsomemor eef fect i
vepol i
ciesorl awsonacer taint opi cofpubl icimpor tance, theJudi ciarycansuggestormaket empor ar yl awsi nt hef av oroft hoset opics. 12.  Judi cialRev i
ew: Thi spar toft heConst i
tution
givest hej udiciaryar ightt or ev ieweachl awandf ur therdecl aret hem asunconst i
tutionalori nv al i
daccor dingt ot hedeci sions. QUASIFEDERALGOVERNMENT: Quasif eder alr efer stoasy stem ofgov ernmentwher ethedi str i
but ionofpower s
betweent he  Cent erandt hest atear enotequal .Indi ai saf eder at ionwi thauni tarybi asandi sr ef erredas  aquasif eder alst atebecauseofst r ongcent ralmachi ner y. TheConst itutionofI ndiahasnotdescr ibedI ndi aasaf eder at i
on.Ont heot her
hand,Ar ticleoft heConst itutiondescr i
besI ndi aasa“ Uni onofSt ates. ”Thi smeans,I ndi ai sauni on  compr isingofv ariousSt at eswhi char ei ntegralpar tsofi t.TheI ndi anUni oni snot  dest ructibl e.Her e,t heSt at escannotbr eakawayf rom t he
union.Theydonothav et her ight  
t osecedef rom t heuni on.I nat ruef eder ation, theconst i
tut i
nguni tsort heSt ateshav et he  freedom t ocomeoutoft heuni on. Indi ai snotat ruef eder ation.I tcombi nest hef eat ur esofaf eder algov ernmentand
the feat ur esofauni t
ar ygov ernmentwhi chcanal sobecal l
edt henon- feder al feat ures.Because  oft hi s,Indi ai sr egar dedasasemi -f
eder al stat e.Pr ofK. CWhear edescr ibesi tas“ aquasi -
feder al st ate”.TheSupr emeCour tofI ndi aal sodescr ibes
i
tas“ af eder al struct ur ewi tha  st rongbi ast owar dst heCent r
e” .
 Indi anconst it
ut ioncont ainsbot hf eat uresofaf eder alconst itutionanduni taryconst ituti
on.

 Themai nf eat ur esofI ndi anFeder alsy st em ar easf ollows:  

1)Di visi
onofPower s:  Thedi vi
sionofpower sbet weent wol ev elsofgov ernment sisanessent i
alf eatur eof  
feder al
ism.Feder alism meanst hedi stribut ionofpower soft hest ate
bet weent hecent raland  thest ategov er nment s.Theuni onl ist consi stsof100subj ects,t hemor ei mpor t
antofwhi char edef ense,r ailway ,post sand  t
elegr aph,cur rencyet c.Thest atel i
stconsi stsof61subj ect s,incl udi ngpubl i
cor der,
pol i
ce,  admi nist rat i
onofj ust ice,publ i
cheal th,educat ion,agr icul tur eetc.Theconcur rentl i
st  
embr aced52subj ect sincl udingcr imi nall aw,mar r
iage,di vorce,t radeuni ons,el ectri
cityet c. 
Ther esiduar ypower shav ebeenv est edi nt hecent ral
gov er nment .
 2)Supr emacyoft heConst i
tut ion: I
naf eder at i
on, theconst i
tutionshoul dbet hesupr emesour ceofst rengt h, bot hf ort hecent re aswel last hef eder ati
nguni t s.Accor di
ngl y,I
ndi anconst i
tutioni sal sosupr emeandnott he handmai d
ofei thert hecent reoroft hest ates.If,f oranyr eason,anyor ganoft hest atedar es tov iolateanypr ovisionoft heconst itution,t hecour tofl aw ist heret oensur et hedi gnityof  
theconst ituti
on,whi chi suphel datal lcost s.
 3)AWr i
tten
Const itution:  AFeder alconst itutionmustal mostbeawr i
ttenconst it
ution.I twi l
lbepr act icall
y 
impossi blet omai ntai nt hesupr emacyoft heconst itutionanddi visionofpower sbet ween  thecent reandt hest at es,unl esst het er msoft he
const itutionhav ebeenr educedi ntowr i
ting.  
Accor dingly ,theI ndi anconst i
tutioni sawr it
tendocumentcont aining395Ar ticlesand10  Schedul es, andt her eforef ulfi
llst hisbasi cr equirementofaf eder al gov ernment .4)Ri gidConst itution: Anat ural
cor ollar yofawr ittenconst itutioni sitsrigi dit
y .I
nar i
gidconst i
tut iont he procedur eofamendmenti scompl i
cat edanddi ffi
cul t.Butt hisdoesnotmeant hatt he  const itutionshoul dbel egal l
yunal terable.ARi gidconst ituti
on, asweknow, i
sone
whi ch  cannotbechangedeasi ly.TheI ndianconst i
tuti
oni sl argel yar igi
dconst i
tut i
on.5)I ndependentJudi ciary: Foraf eder at i
on, itisal soessent i
al t
hatt hej udi ci
aryi si mpar tialandi ndependent .AFeder al cour tisindi spensabl et oaf eder ati
on.I t
act sast heguar di anoft heconst ituti
on.TheSupr emeCour tof  I
ndi acandecl areal awasunconst itutionali fi
tcont rav enesanypr ov isionsoft he const i
tut i
on.I nor dert oensur ethei mpar tiali
tyoft hej udiciar y,ourj udgesar enot  
remov ablebyt he
execut iv eandt hei rsal ariescannotbecur tail
edbyt hePar l
iament .6.DualPol i
ty: Thecr ux,pi votalpointofaf eder alconst i
tutioni sdi visionofpower sbet weent hecent reandt hest ates.Ther ei sasupr emegov ernmentatt hecent reandt hereis
alsoapr ov isiont oest abl ishi ndependentbodyatt hest at el ev el.Thewhol est ruct ureoft hef eder alsy stem cont i
nuest or evol vear oundt hiscent ralpoi nt.Feder alGov ernment : DualGov ernment( thati s,nat ionalgov ernmentandr egional
gov er nment ); Wr ittenConst i
tut i
on;  Di
visionofpower sbet weent henat ionalandr egi onalgov ernment ;Supr emacyoft heConst it
ut ion;Ri gidConst i
tution;Independentj udi ciary.Uni t
aryGov ernment :Al lut laofFeder al. Effectofwar :t hef eder al
char act erchangesdur i
ngemer gencyar i
si ngoutofwar .Itst art st of unctionuni tary.Dualpol i
tycomest oendanduni ondi rect sst ateswhoar et hendut yboundt oact .Par l
iamentcanmakel awuponmat tersenumar tedi nt hel ist .Dist r
ibut i
onof
revenueal sochanges,  pr esidentMahal soor derdirectdi stri
but ionofr ev enues.Pr esidentmayal terot herpr ov i
sionsr elat inggr antofai det c.Financialobl igationscanbei mposedofst ates.Al lthist oal low cent ert ost rongl ydealwi t
ht he
situat ionandpr ot ectst ates.  
Commonweal th: WhenI ndi aand  Paki stan wer egr ant edi ndependencei n1947, theybecamemember soft heCommonweal th.In1949I ndi aannouncedi t
si ntent i
ont obecomea  republ ic, whi chwoul dhav er equired
i
t swi thdr awalf rom t heCommonweal thundert heex istingr ul
es, butatameet ingofCommonweal thheadsofgov ernmenti nLondoni nApr il1949i twasagr eedt hatI ndi acoul dcont i
nuei tsmember shipi fitaccept edt heBr iti
shcr ownasonl y
“the  sy mbol  oft hef reeassoci at i
on”ofCommonweal thmember s.Thatdecl ar ati
onwast hef i
rstt odr opt headj ect i
v eBr itish,andt hereaf t
ert heof fi
cialnameoft heor ganiz ati
onbecamet heCommonweal thofNat ions,orsi mpl yt he
Commonweal th. Pr esident i
al For m ofGov er nment :
Apr esi dent ial sy stem isaf orm ofgov ernmenti nwhi cht hePr esidentser vesast heChi efEx ecutiveandi schosenbyt hepeopl edi rectl
y;Asar esul t
,theex ecut ivebr anchofgov er nmenti sdi sti
nct
from t hel egi slativ ebr anch.I tisat ypeofgov ernmenti nwhi cht het hreebr anches( legi sl
atur e,execut ive,andj udi ciary)oper at ei ndependent lyandar eunabl et odi smi ssordi ssol veoneanot her .Whi lethel egi slativecr eat est hel aws, thePr esident
i
sr esponsi blef orenf or cingt hem,andt hecour tsar ei nchar geofcar ryingoutj udicialt asks.Par l
iament aryFor m ofGov er nment :APar li
ament aryf orm ofdemocr acyi sal soknownast he Cabi netf orm ofgov er nmentort he‘ Responsi bl
e
Gov ernment ’.I
ti saf orm ofgov ernmenti nwhi chresident sel ectmember stot hel egi slati
vel egislature;ThisPar l
iamenti sinchar geofmaki ngst ate-widedeci sionsandl egi slat i
on.Itisalsodi r
ect lyaccount abl etot hegener al publ i
c.

ThePreambl ei sl
ikeani nt
roductionorpr efaceofabook.Asani ntroducti
on, i
tisnotapar tofthecont entsbuti
tex pl
ainst hepur posesandobj ecti
veswi thwhi cht hedocumenthasbeenwr i
tten.Soi sthecasewi ththe
‘
Preamble’tot heIndianConstit
ution.Assucht he‘Pr eamble’providest heguidelinesoft heConst i
tution.PREAMBLEWE,THEPEOPLEOFI NDI A,havingsol emnl yresolvedtoconst it
uteIndi
ai ntoSOVEREI GNSOCI ALIST
SECULARDEMOCRATI CREPUBLI Candt osecuret oal li
tscit
izens:JUSTI CE,social,economicandpol i
tical;
LIBERTYoft hought ,expression,belief,fai
thandwor ship;EQUALI TYofst atusandofoppor t
unity;andtopromot e
amongt hem allFRATERNI TYassur ingthedi gni
tyoft heindivi
dualandt heunit
yandi ntegr
it
yoft heNat ion;INOURCONSTI TUENTASSEMBLYt histwent y
-sixthdayofNov ember ,1949, doHEREBYADOPT, ENACTANDGI VE
TOOURSELVESTHI SCONSTITUTI ON.ThePr eamble, inbri
ef,explainstheobjecti
v esoft heConstit
utioni ntwoway s:one,aboutt hest ructur
eoft hegov ernanceandt heother,aboutthei deal
st obeachi evedinindependent
I
ndia.I
tisbecauseoft hi
s,thePreambl eisconsideredt obet hekeyoft heConstituti
on.Theobj ecti
ves, whicharelaiddowni nthePr eambl e,are:Sov erei
gnt yItisoneoft heforemostel ementsofanyi ndependentSt ate.I
t
meansabsol uteindependence,i.e.,agov ernmentwhi chisnotcont r
oll
edbyanyot herpower:i nternalorext er
nal.Acount r
ycannothav eitsownconst i
tuti
onwi t
houtbei ngsov erei
gn.Indi
ai sf r
eet oformulateitsown
for
eignpolicy.Sociali
stThewor dsoci ali
stwasnott hereinthePr eambl eoftheConst it
uti
oninitsoriginalform.In1976, the42ndAmendmentt ot heConst i
tutionincorporated‘Sociali
st’and‘Secular’
,i
nt hePreambl e.The
word‘Sociali
sm’hadbeenusedi nt hecontextofeconomi cpl anni
ng.Itsignif
iesmaj orrol
eintheeconomy .Seculari
sm Int hecont extofsecul ar i
sm inIndia, i
tissaidt hat‘I
ndiaisnei t
herrel
igious,norirrel
igi
ousnorant i
-
reli
gious. ’i
nI ndiathereisno‘ St ate’rel
igion–t he‘State’willnotsuppor tanypar ti
cularrel
igionoutofpubl i
cf und. ev eryi ndividualisfreet obel i
ev ein,andpr actice,anyr eligion; Statewi l
lnotdi scri
mi nateagai nstany
i
ndividualorgr oupont hebasi sofr eligi
on.Democr aticRepubl i
cDemocr acyisgener al
l
yknownasgov ernmentoft hepeopl e, byt hepeopleandf orthepeopl eThePr eambl eal sodecl aresIndiaasaRepubl i
c.Itmeanst hat
theheadoft heSt ateist hePr esidentwhoi si ndi
rectlyelectedandhei snotaher edi
taryrulerasi ncaseoft heBr iti
shMonar ch.Preambl ei snotpar tofcstbutt hemoder naut hor i
ti
esconsi deritasapar tofst atut e,
whenev erther eisanyambi guityithasl i
mi tedappl i
cati
on.Pr eambl ebeingunenf orceableinthecour tofl aw,buti tsuccessf ull
ybr i
ngsoutandst atest heobj ectswhi chConst itutionseekst oestabli
shandpr omot eandal so
aidst hel egali nter
pretati
onwher everambi guousnesst endt oappear .Amendmentofpr eamble:Thi squest ionwasr aisedf ort hef i
rstti
mebef or et heSupr emeCour tinthehi stor i
ccaseofKesav anadaBhar ativ.St ateof
Kerala.[
21]I nt hatcaset heAt tor ney-Generalar guedthatbyv ir
tueoft heamendi ngpoweri nAr t
icl
e368ev ent hePr eambl ecanbeamended.I twassai dthatsincet hePr eambl ewasapar toft heConst it
ut i
onitcoul dbe
amendedl ikeanyot herpr ov i
sionsoft heConst it
uti
on.Thepet itioners,howev er,contendedt hattheamendi ngpoweri nAr ticle368i sl i
mited.Pr eambl ecr eatesani mpl iedl imi t
at i
onont hepowerofamendment .The
Preambl econt ai
nst hebasi cel ement sort hef undament alfeaturesofourConst ituti
on.Consequent ly,amendi ngpowercannotbeusedsoast odest royordamaget hesebasi cf eatur esment ionedint hePr eambl e.Itwas
urgedt hatPr eambl ecannotbeamendedasi tisnotapar toftheConst it
uti
on.TheSupr emeCour thowev erheldt hatt hePr eambl eisapar toft heConst itut
ionand, ther ef
or e,ont hispoi nttheBer uberiopini
onwaswr ong.
Ont hequest ionwhet hert hePr eambl ecanbeamendedt hemaj orit
yheldt hatsi ncethePr eambl ei st hepar toft heConst it
ut i
oni tcanbeamendedbutsubj ecttot hi
scondi ti
ont hatt he“ basicfeature”int hePr eambl e
cannotbeamended.TheCour tsai d, “
Theedi f
iceofourConst it
utioni sbasedupont hebasicel ement sment i
onedi nt hePr eambl e.Ifanyoft heseel ement sar eremov edt hest ruct urewi llnotsurviveandi twi l
lnotbesame
Const it
ut i
onori tcannotmai ntainitsidentity.ThePr eambl edeclar esthatthepeopl eofIndiaresol v
edt oconst i
tutet hei rcount ryi ntoaSov ereignDemocr at
icRepubl ic.Noonecansuggestt hatthesewor dsandex pr essions
areambi guousi nanymanner .Anamendi ngpowercannotbei nterpretedsoast oconf erpoweront hePar l
i
amentt ot akeawayanyoft hesef undament alandbasi cchar acteristicsofpol icy.
”Itishencecont endedt hatt his
viewoft hecour tiscorrect.Theamendi ngpowercannotchanget heConst it
uti
oni nsuchawayt hatitceasest obea‘ Sov ereignDemocr at
icRepubl ic’.I
tcanonl ybedonebywr ecki ngConst i
tuti
on.

Unionst at es-Ar t
icle1oft heConst i
tut iondef i
nesI ndia,t hati s, Bhar atasa‘ Uni onofSt at es’ .Ther easonsbehi ndt hismadecl earbyDr .B. R.Ambedkari ntheConst i
tuentAssembl y .Ambedkarsai dt heI ndianFeder ati
onwasa“ Uni on”becausei t
wasi nsepar able,andnoSt atehadt her i
ghtt owi thdr awf rom t heI ndianUni on.Hesai d“ TheDr aftingCommi tteewant edt omakei tcl eart hatwhi l
eI ndi anwasgoi ngt obeaf ederation, thef eder at i
onwasnott hepr oductofanagr eementbet ween
statest oj oint hef eder ation,andt hatsi ncet hef eder ati
onwasnott heconsequenceofanagr eement ,noSt at ehadt her ightt owi thdr awf rom t hef eder ati
on.TheUni oni saf ederationbecausei tisi ndest ruct i
ble.Al thoughf ort heconv eni enceof
admi nist rat i
on, t
hecount ryandpeopl ecanbedi videdi ntodi ffer entSt at es,thecount ryisani ntegr alwhol e,itspeopl easi nglepeopl el i
v ingunderasi ngl eimper i
um comi ngf r
om asi ngl esour ce.TheAmer icanshadt owageaci vilwari nor derto
makesur et hatthei rfeder ationwasi ndest ruct i
bl eandt heSt at eshadnor i
ghtofsecessi on.TheDr aftingCommi tteewasoft heopi niont hati twasbet t
ert omakei tcl earatt heout sett hant oav oidspecul ationordi sput e”.I
ti snecessar yto
dist
ingui sht hephr ases‘ UnionofI ndi a’and‘ Ter ri
t oryofI ndi a’.TheUni onofI ndiaincl udesonl yt hoseSt ateswhi chenj oyt hest atusofbei ngmember soft hef eder alsy stem andshar et hedi stri
but i
onofpower swi tht heUni on.TheUni on
Territoriesar enoti ncl udedi nt heUni onofst at eswher east het er mI ndi anTer rit
oryi ncludesnotonl yt heSt at esbutal sot heUni onTer rit
or i
esandot hert erritoriest hatI ndi amayacqui re.Int heFi rstSchedul eoft heConst i
tution, theSt atesand
Territoriesar especi fied.TheGov tofi ndiaact1935,soughtt oest abl i
shaf eder atonwhi chnev ercamei ntoex ist enceast hepr ov i
sionsr elatingt her etocoul dnotbeputi ntooper ationduet opol iti
calcompl cations.Ar ticle2oft heConst ituti
on
conf erspoweront hePar li
amentt oadmi torest abl i
shnewSt at es.Par li
amenthasadmi ttedbyusi ngt hispower ,forex ampl e,t heFr enchset tlement sofPondi cher ry,Kar aikal,etc. Article3Par li
amentmayi ncr easeordecr easet hear eaofany
Stateormayal tert hebor dersornamesofanySt at e.I
tdemonst r atest hev ulnerabili
tyanddependenceoft het erritor i
al int egr ityoft heSt atesont heUni on, wher eas, inf eder at i
onssuchast heUSAorAust ralia,thebor der sornamesofSt atescan
notbechangedbyt heFeder ationwi thoutt heconsentoft heSt ates. Ar ticle4al lowsf orconsequent ial changest ot heFi rstSchedul e( namesoft heSt atesi nt heUni onofI ndi a)andt heFour thSchedul e( numberofseat sal locat edbyeachSt ateto
theRaj y aSabha) .Ital sonot est hati tdoesnotconsi deraconst i
tut i
onalamendmentunder  Article368.I talsost atest hatnol awex i
st i
ngSt atesorcr eat inganewSt atewi l
l beconsi der edaconst i
tutionalamendment .Itisi nl inewi ththepr ev i
ous
provisionsoft her equi rement ,ofasi mpl emaj orityi nPar liamentandsuggest sfullcont r oloft heUni onov ert het erritor iesoft hei ndi vidualSt at esoft heUni on. Theuni tshav easi mi l
arposi ti
onundert hepr esentcst .Thet er ri
tor yofI ndi ashal l
compr ise—( a)thet errit
or i
esoft heSt at es;(b)t heUni ont erritor ies;( c)suchot herter r
itor iesasmaybeacqui red.Theconst ituentuni tsoft heI ndi anUni onhav ef oundt hemsel vescl assifi
edi ntoPar tA, Par tB, Par tC, andPar tD.Thi swasonl ya
tempor ar yar r
angement ,asasat isfact or ysol utioncoul dnoty etbef ound. PartASt atesi ncl udedt hepr ov incesoft hef or mergov er nors.Theni neSt atesofPar tAwer eAssam, Bihar, Mahar asht ra, Madhy aPr adesh( f
ormer lyCent ral Provincesand
Berar ),Madr as,Orissa, Punjab( for mer lyEastPunj ab) ,UttarPr adesh( former lyUni t
edPr ov i
nces) ,andWestBengal .Par tBSt atesi ncl udedt hef or merPr incelySt at es.Par tBSt ateswer eHy der abad, Jammu, andKashmi r,Madhy aBhar at, My sore,
Patiala,andt heEast ernPunj abSt atesUni on( PEPSU) ,Raj ast han,Saur ashtra,Tr avancor e- Cochi nandVi ndhy aPr adesh. Par tCSt atescompr isedbot ht hepr ov incesoft hef ormerChi efCommi ssioner sandsomeoft hePr incel ySt ates.Par tC
Stateswer eAj mer ,Bhopal ,Bi laspur ,Cooch- Behar ,Coor g,Del hi,Hi machalPr adesh,Kut ch,Mani pur ,andTr ipur a. TheAndamanandNi cobarI slandswer et heonl ySt at ei nPar tD. Sev enthConst itutionalAmendmentActof1956abol i
shedt he
dist
inct ionbet weenPar tAandt hePar tBSt atesandt hePar tCSt ates.Inst ead,t heywer ecl assi fiedi nt ot wocat egor ies:st atesandt erritoriesoft heUni on.Thi sActpr ovidedf or14St atesand6Uni onTer ritoriest obeest abl i
shedas
foll
ows: Stat es:Assam,Andhr aPr adesh,Bi har,Bombay ,J&K( byt hei nst rumentofaccessi on) ,Ker ala,Madhy aPr adesh,Madr as,My sore,Or issa,Punj ab,Raj ast han,Ut tarPr adesh,andWestBengal . Uni onTer ritories:Andaman&Ni cobarI slands,
Delhi,Hi machalPr adesh,Laccadi v e,Mi nicoy&Ami ndiviIsl ands,Mani pur ,andTr i
pur a.TheNewSt at esandUni onTer ritor iescr eat edaf ter1956: TheBombayReor gani zat i
onAct ,1960,di videdt heSt ateofBombayi ntot woSt ates,Guj aratand
Mahar asht ra;TheNagal andSt ateAct0f1962est abl i
shedNagal andasasepar ateSt ate;ThePunj abReor gani z ationAct ,1966, spl i
tPunj abi nt oPunj abandHar yana; ThenewSt ateofHi machalPr adesh, consi st i
ngoft heexi stingUni onTer r
itoryof
HimachalPr adesh,wasest abl ishedbyt heSt at eofHi machalPr adeshAct ,1970; TheNew St at esofMani pur ,Tr ipur a,Meghal ay aandUni onTer ri
tor i
esofMi z oram andAr unachalPr adeshhav ebeenest abl i
shedbyt heNor thPast er nAr eas
(Reor gani z ation)Act ,1971.Lat erMi zor am andAr unachalPr adeshwer egr antedst atehoodbyt heSt ateofMi zor am Act , 1986andt heSt ateofAr unachalPr adeshAct , 1986; ThenewSt ateofSi kki m wasest abl i
shedbyt heConst ituti
onAct( 36th
amendment )of1975; On31Oct ober2019, theactr econst itut edt hef ormerst ateofJammuandKashmi rintot wouni ont er r
itor i
es, JammuandKashmi randLadakH

Citizenship: PartI IoftheI ndianConst it

utiondef i
nessev eralcategor i
esofI ndi
anci t
izensatt hecommencementoft heConst it
ut i
on.Aci t
izenofagi venSt ateisaper sonwhoenj oy sf ullmember shipoft hepol i
ti
calcommuni tyort heSt ate.
Citizensar ediff
er entfrom aliensormer eresi dentswhodonothav eal lther ight
swhi chgot omakef ullmember shipofaSt at
e.Aci t i
zenact uallyenj
oysf ullci
vilandpol it
icalrights.Ci t
izenshi pcar rieswi thitcertainadv antagesconf erredbyt he
Const ituti
on.Citizenshipi nheresonl yi nnat uralper sonsandnoti njuristicpersonsl ikecor porati
onsorsoci etiesetc.Ther ei ssi nglecitizenshipfort hewhol eofI ndiai .
e.I ndianci tizenship.I nmanyf ederalconst i
tuti
ons,therear edual
cit
iz enship—ast ateciti
z enshipandaf ederalci ti
zenshi p.Underdual ci
ti
zenshi ptheci t
izenofonef ederati
ngstateisv i
rt
ual l
yanal i
eni nanothersuchst ate.Ther ebei ngonl ysi nglecitizenshi p,ther i
ght s,privi
legesandobl i
gat i
onsar ethesamef or
allci t
izenst hr
oughoutI ndia.IndianConst itutionensur escer t
ainf undament alri
ghtswhi char eav ai
labl
etoI ndianciti
zensonl y.Al i
enscannotenj oyt heser i
ght s.Suchf undament alr i
ght sasex clusivel
yenj oyablebyt heIndianci t
izensar e
enumer atedunderAr t
icles15, 16, 18( 2),19and29.Al so,cit
izensalonehav etherighttohol dcer t
ainhighoffi
cessuchast hoseofPr esidentofI ndi
a[Arti
cle58( 1)(a) ]
,Vice-Pr esident[Ar t
icle.66( 3)(a)],Gov ernoroft heStat e[Art
icl
e157] ,Judgeof
theSupr emeCour t[Arti
cle124( 3)],Hi ghCour tJudge[ Art
icl
e217( 2)],AttorneyGener alofI ndia[ Arti
cle76(1)
]andAdv ocateGener al[Articl
e165] Citi
zenshipatt hecommencementoft heConst itution:Ar t
icl
e5t o8descr i
bes4cl assesofpeopl e
whower edeemedt obeci tizensofI ndi aatt het imeoft hecommencementoft heconst itution-Personsdomi cil
edi nIndia:Aper soni sentitl
edt ociti
zenshi pbydomi cil
ei fhef ulfi
lst wocondi t
ionsl aiddownbyAr ti
cle5.First,hemust ,atthe
commencementoft heConst i
tution, hav ehi sdomi ci
lei ntheterri
toryofI ndia.Secondl y,suchper sonmustf ulf
ilanyoneoft het hreecondi ti
onsl ai
ddowni nt heAr ti
cle,namel y:hewasbor ni nIndia;eitherofhi spar entswasbor ninIndia;hemust
hav ebeenor di
nar il
yresidentint het er ri
toryofI ndiaf ornotlesst han5y ear simmedi atel
ybef orethecommencementoft heConst itution.Domi cil
eisoft woki nds-domi cileofor iginanddomi cil
eofchoi ce.Ev er
yper sonisbor nwi t
hadomi ci
leof
origin.Itisdomi cilereceivedbyhi m athi sbi rth.Personswhomi gr
at edf rom Paki st
an:Per sonswhohav emigratedf r
om Paki stant oI ndiahav ebeencl assifi
edi ntot wocat egor i
esf ort hepur posesofci t
izenship—thosewhomi gratedt oIndi a
bef oreJuly19, 1948, andt hosewhomi gratedonoraf terJuly19, 1948.Per sonswhomi grat edt oPakistan:Art
icle7pr ovidesthatany onewhohas, afer1stMar
t ch, 1947mi gratedf rom I ndiat oPaki stan, cannotbeaci ti
z enofIndia.But, Arti
cle7
alsomakesaspeci alprovisi
onr egardi
ngt heci tizenshiprightsofpersonswhomi gratedt oPaki st
anaf terMar ch1,1947butr eturnedtoI ndiasubsequently
.Suchaper sonbecomesent it
ledtoCi ti
zenshi pofI ndia,providedt heyf ul
filthe
condit
ionsst atedforMigrantsfrom Pakistanst atedi nArti
cle6.Personsli
vingabr oadi .
e.,inforei
gncount riesotherthanPaki an:Ar
st ti
cle8pr ovi
dest hatanypersonwhoorei t
herofwhosepar entsorgr andpar entswasbor ninIndiaasdef ined
i
nGov er
nmentofI ndiaAct1955butwhoi sor dinarilyresi
dinginanycount r
yout si
deI ndia,shallbedeemedt obeaci tizenofIndi
ai fhehasbeenr egisteredasanIndianCit
izenbyt hediplomat i
corconsul arrepresent at
iveofI ndiainthatcount r
y
onanappl i
cationmadebyhi m/herinthepr escr ibedf ormtosuchdi plomati
corconsul arrepresentati
ve,whet herbef
oreoraf t
erthecommencementoft heConst
ituton.Ar
i t
icl
e9pr ovidest hati
faper sonv ol
unt ari
lyacqui r
estheci ti
zenshipofany
forei
gnSt ate,heshallnotremainaci ti
zenofI ndi aunderAr ti
cle5,6and8.Ar ti
cle9doesnotdi sableParl
iamentf rom confer
ri
ngI ndianciti
zenshiponaper sonwhohasv ol
untari
lyacquiredtheciti
zenshipofanyf or
eignst at
e.TheCi tizenshipAct
wasamendedi n2003andagai nin2005t oi ntroducet heconceptofov er
seascit i
zenshipf orciti
zensofot hercountres.Ar
i ti
cle10r eadsev erypersonwhoi sori
sdeemedt obeaci ti
zenofI ndiaunderanyoft hef oregoingprov i
sionsofAr t
icle5-
10shal l
cont i
nuetobeaci t
izenofI ndi
a,subj ectt ot heprovi
sionsofanylawt hatmaybemadebyPar li
ament .Intheotherwords,ther i
ghtofci t
izenshipcannotbet akenawayf r
om aper sonex ceptthroughex presspar li
ament arylegisl
ation.

TheCi t
izenshipAct ,1955t hatcamei ntoforcewi thef fectf rom 30t hDecember ,1955deal swi thmat tersr elati
ngt ot heacqui siti
on,determinat i
onandt erminationofI ndianci ti
zenshi p.TheActpr ovidesf orf i
veway sf oracqui ringI ndian
citi
zenshipasf ollows- Bybi rth:Aper sonbor ninIndi aonoraf tert he26thJanuar y,1950, i
saci t
izenofI ndiabybi rth,when—Hi sfatherpossessesdi pl
omat icimmuni tyandi snotanI ndi anci ti
zen;orHi sfatheri sanenemyal i
enandhei sbor nata
placeunderenemyoccupat ion;Bydescent :Aper sonbor nout sideIndiaonoraf terJanuar y26t h,1950, isaci tizenofI ndiabydescenti fatt
het i
meofhi sbi rt
hhisf atherwasanI ndi ancit i
zen.Buti fthef atherofsuchaper sonwasaci ti
zenof
Indiabydescentonl y,theper sonbecomesanI ndianci tizenonl ywhenhi sbi rt
hhasbeenr egisteredatanI ndianconsul atewi t
hinoney earofhisbi r
thort hecommencementofCi ti
z enshi pAct ,whichev erislater, orunl esshi sf atheris,att het i
me
ofhisbi rt
h, i
nser viceundert heGov er nmentofI ndia; Byr egistrati
on: Subjectt ocer tainr estri
ctionsandcondi t
ions, theappr opriateauthor i
tymayr egistert hef oll
owi ngper son, whoi sal r
eadyaci ti
zenofI ndiabyv irt
ueofanyot herpr ovisionoft he
Citi
zenshi pAct ,asaci ti
zenofI ndiaonanappl i
cat ionmadebysuchper sonandaf tert akinganoat hofal l
egi ance:aper sonofI ndianorigi
nor dinar i
lyr esidenti nIndiaandmusthav ebeenor dinaril
yr esidenti nI ndiaf oratl east6mont hs
i
mmedi atelypr ecedingt heappl icationf orregistration;personsofI ndianor i
ginwhoar eor dinaril
yr esidentout sideundi vi
dedI ndia;womenmar r
iedt oI ndianci ti
z ens;minorchi l
drenofI ndianciti
z ens;Bynat uralisation:Aper sonoff ullageand
capaci t
ywhoi saci t
izenofanon- Commonweal thcount rymaybecomeaci t
izenbynat uralizati
on, aft
ert akinganoat hofal l
egiance, i
ftheCentralGov ernmenti ssat i
sfiedt hathef ulfi
lst hecondi t
ionsl aiddowni nt heAct .AsperSect i
on6oft he
Citi
zenshi pAct ,1955t hequal i
fi
cationsf ornaturalizationar easf oll
ows-Hei snotasubj ectorci ti
z enofacount rywher eIndianci t
izensar epreventedf rom becomi ngcitizensbynat uralization;Herenounceshi sci ti
zenshi poft heot hercount ry;He
hasr esidedand/ orhasbeeni nser viceoft heGov er nmentf or12mont hsimmedi atelypr ecedingt hedat eofappl i
cation;Duri
ng7y earspr i
ortotheaf oresai d12mont hs,hehasr esidedand/ orhasbeeni nGov ernmentser vi
cef ornotl esst hanf our
years;Hei sofgoodchar acter;Byi ncor porati
onoft erritoryintoI ndia:Ifat errit
orybecomesapar tofI ndia,t heCent r
alGov ernmentmaynot i
fytheper sonswhoshal lbeci t
iz ensofI ndiabyr easonoft heirconnect i
onwi tht hatt er
r i
tory
.
Termi nationordepr i
vat ionofCi ti
zenshi p:
Citizenshi pAct ,1955pr ovi
desf ort hreeway sf ortermi nat i
ngI ndianCi ti
zenshi pasfollowing—Renunci ationofCi t
izenshi p—Ifaper sonr enouncesI ndianci ti
zenshipbywor dsorconduct ,heceasest obe
aci ti
zenofI ndia.Termi nationofCi tizenship—Ter mi nati
oni sanactofl aw.I tt akespl aceassoonasaci ti
z enofI ndiavoluntaril
yacqui r
est heci tizenshi pofanot hercount rywher ebyheshal lceaset obeaci ti
z enofI ndia.Depr i
vationof
Citi
zenshi p—Depr i
vationi sacompul sor yterminat ionoft heci tizenshipofI ndiabyanor deroft heGov ernmentofI ndia.Aciti
zenshi pofIndiabyanat urali
z ati
on, registr
ation,domi cil
eandr esidencemaybedepr i
v edofhi sci t
izenshi pbyanor derof
theCent ralGov ernmentaf t
ermaki ngduei nquiryinmat terofanyoneoft hef oll
owi nggr ounds- Obt ainingci ti
zenshi pbyf r
audormi srepresent
ation;Showi ngandonpr ovingofdi sloyal t
yt owar dstheI ndianConst itution;Communi cationwi thIndi a’
s
enemydur i
ngwar ;
Impr isonmentf orl ongert han2y earswi t
hin5y earsofr egistrati
ononnat uralization;Residingout sideIndiaforlongert han7y ear satat ime. Theci t
izenshi pofI ndi acannotbecl ai medasamat teroff undament alright.Ther eis
nosuchf undament al r
ight .

Fundament
alRight
s:areclai
mst hatar
eessent
ialf
ortheexi
stenceanddevel
opmentofindi
vi
dual
s.I
nt hatsensether
ewillbealongli
stofri
ght
s.Whereasallt
hesearerecogni
zedbythesoci
ety
,someofthemost
i
mpor t
antr
ight
sarerecognizedbytheStat
eandenshr
inedi
ntheConstit
uti
on.Suchr
ight
sarecaledf
l undamentalr
ight
s.Theser
ightsar
efundament
albecauseoftwor Thesear
easons. ement i
onedint
heConst
it
uti
on
whi chguar ant eest hem;andThesear ej ust ifi
abl e,i .e.enf or ceabl et hr oughcour ts.Bei ngj ust i
f i
abl emeanst hati ncaseofav iolat ionofanyoft hef undament alr ight st hei ndi v i
dualcanappr oachcour tsf ort hei r
pr ot ect i
on.
TheseFundament
Thef undament
alRi ght
alr i
sguar
ght swer
ant eet
ei ncl udedunderPar
oeachci tizenbasi
tI IIoft
csubst
heI
ant i
ndi
v
anConst
eandpr
it
ocedur
ut ionbecauset
alpr ot ect ionsf
heywer
r
econsi
om anyar
der
bit r
ar
edessent
yst at eact
ialf
i
ort hedev
ons,butsomer
el opmentoft
ight sar
heper
eenf or
sonal
ceabl
ityofev
eagai
er
nsti
yi ndi
ndi v
v
i
i
dualandt
dual s.Fori
opr
nst
eser
ance,t
3v ehumandi
heConst i
t
gni
ut i
ty
on
.

abol ishesunt ouchabi lityandal sopr ohi bi tsbegar .Thesepr ov isi onsactasacheckbot honst at eact ionaswel last heact i
onofpr iv at ei ndi vidual s.Howev er , theser ight sar enotabsol ut eoruncont rol ledandar esubj ectt o
reasonabl er est r i
ct ionsasnecessar yf ort hepr ot ect i
onofgener alwel far e.Theycanal sobesel ect iv elycur tai ed.si
l xf undament alr ight st oI ndi anci tizenswhi char easf ollowsRI GHTTOEQUALI TY( Ar ticl e14–18) ;
RI GHT
TOFREEDOM ( Ar ticle19–22) ;RI GHTAGAI NSTEXPLOI TATI ON( Ar ticle23–24) ;
RI GHTTOFREEDOM OFRELI GI ON( Ar t i
cl e25–28) ;
RI GHTTOFREEDOM OFRELI GI ON( Ar ticle25–28) ;RI GHTTOCONSTI TUTI ON
REMEDI ES( Ar ticl e32) .STATE:Byt heexpr esst er msofAr ticle12,t heexpr essi on" theSt at e"i ncl udes: theGov er nmentofI ndi a; Par li
amentofI ndi a;theGov er nmentofeachoft heSt at es; theLegi sl at ur eofeachoft he
St ates; al llocal aut hor itieswi thi nt het er rit or yofI ndi a; all l
ocal aut hor i
t i
esundert hecont rol oft heGov er nmentofI ndi a;al lot heraut hor i
t i
eswi t
hi nt het er ritor yofI ndi a; al lot heraut hor itiesundert hecont rol oft heGov ernment
ofI ndi a.TheSt atei sanabst ractent ityandi tcan,t her ef or eonl yactt hr oughi tsagenci esori nst rument al ities,whet hersuchagencyori nst rument alitybehumanorj ur ist ic.Uni ver si tyofMadr asv .Sant aBai[ AI R1954
Madr as67]Madr asHi ghCour thel dt hat“ ot heraut hor ities”r ef er redunderAr t.12coul donl yi ndi cat eaut hor itiesofal ikenat ur ei .e.ej usdem gener is.I fsoconst ruedori nter pr et ed, itcoul donl ymeanaut hor itiesex er ci sing
gov er nment alorsov er eignf unct ions.I tcannoti ncl udeper sons, nat ur alorj ur ist i
c, suchasaUni ver si tyunl essi ti s‘ mai nt ainedbyt heSt at e.Raj ast hanEl ect ricityBoar dv .MohanLal[ AI R1967SC1857]I ti snotamandat e
thatsuchast at utor yaut hor ityshoul dbeengagedi nper formi nggov er nment alorsov er ei gnf unct ion.Ont hisi nt er pr et ation,El ect r i
ci tyBoar d,Co- oper at iv eSoci et ieset cwhi chhav epowert omakeby e- l
awsunderCo-
oper at iv eSoci et i
esAct ,1911wi llbei ncl udedi nt hedef i
ni ti
onofSt at eunderAr ticle12.St at eexcl uded:Thedef initionofSt at eunderAr ticle12oft heConst itut iondoesnotexpl icitlyment iont heJudi ci ar y.Hence,a
signi ficantamountofcont rov er sysur roundsi tsst at uswi thr espectt oPar tI IIoft heConst i
t ut i
on. Br ingi ngt heJudi ci arywi t hint hescopeofAr t i
cl e12woul dmeant hati ti sdeemedcapabl eofact ingi ncont r av ent ionof
Fundament alRi ght s.I ti swel lest abl ishedt hati ni t snon- j
udi cialf unct ions,t heJudi ciar ydoescomewi thi nt hemeani ngofSt at e.Howev er ,chal lengi ngaj udi ci aldeci si onwhi chhasachi ev edf inal i
ty ,undert hewr i
t
j
ur isdi ct ionofsuper iorcour tsont hebasi sofv iol at i
onoff undament alr ight s, remai nsopent odebat e.Nar eshv.St at eofMahar asht r a[ AI R1967SC1]Thei ssueposedbef or et heSupr emeCour tf orconsi der at ionwhet her
j
udi ci ar yi scov er edbyt heex pr essi on‘ St at e’ i
nAr ticl e12oft heConst i
t ut i
on.TheCour thel dt hatt hef undament alr ighti snoti nf ringedbyt heor deroft heCour tandnowr itcanbei ssuedt oHi ghCour t.A. R.Ant ul ayv.R. S.
Nay ak[ AIR1988SC1531]andN. S.Mi raj karv.St at eofMahar asht ra[ AI R1967SC1] ,ithasbeenobser vedt hatwhi leexer cisi ngt her ulemaki ngpower s,t hej udi ci ar yi scov er edbyt heexpr essi onst at ewi thi nAr t.
12but
whi l
eper for mi ngi t sj udi cialf unct ionsi ti snotsoi ncl uded. Ar ticl e13:1. Al ll awsi nf or cei nt het er ritor yofI ndi ai mmedi at elybef or et hecommencementoft hi sConst itut ion,i nsof arast heyar ei nconsi st entwi tht he
pr ov isi onsoft hisPar t,shal l, tot heex tentofsuchi nconsi stency , bev oi d;2.TheSt at eshal lnotmakeanyl awwhi cht akesawayorabr idgest her ight sconf err edbyt hi sPar tandanyl awmadei ncont r av ent ionoft hi scl ause
shal l,t ot heex tentoft hecont rav ent ion,bev oid; 3.I nt hi sar ticle, unl esst hecont ex tot her wi ser equi res, —“ law”i ncl udesanyOr di nance,or der ,by e- law,r ul e, regul at ion, not ificat ion,cust om orusagehav ingi nt het erritor yof
Indi at hef or ceofl aw;“ lawsi nf orce”i ncl udesl awspassedormadebyaLegi sl atur eorot hercompet entaut hor ityi nt het er ritor yofI ndi abef or et hecommencementoft hi sConst it
ut ionandnotpr ev iousl yr epeal ed,
not wi thst andi ngt hatanysuchl aworanypar tt her eofmaynotbet heni noper at i
onei theratal lori npar ticul arar eas;4. Not hingi nt hi sar ticleshal lappl yt oanyamendmentoft hi sConst i
tut ionmadeunderar t i
cle368.
Thi s  doct rineofPr ospect iveov errul ing  hasbeenbor rowedf rom Uni tedSt at esofAmer ica.I tisawel lest abl ishedf actt hatwhenacasehasbeendeci dedi tnotonl yappl iesonapar ticul arcasebuti tsr atioi sal so
appl icabl ei nt hef ut ur eupcomi ngcases.AsPr ecedent si soneoft hemaj orsour cesofl aw.Thi sAmer icanpr inci pl eofPr ospect iveov er r uli
ngwasf irstment i
onedi nt hecaseof I
 .C.Gol aknat hv .St at eofPunj ab  asf aras
Indi ai sconcer ned.Ther ei snumer ousappr eci at ionoft hisdoct rinei nt hesamet imei thasbeenexposedt ocr itici sm t oo.Ast hemi nor i
t yj udgmentdel iv er edi nGol akNat hvUni onofI ndi ast rongl ycr itici z edt hi sdoct rineof
Pr ospect iv eov er rul ing.Theyt ot allycent er edt hei rar gumentbyst rongl yadv ocat ingt heuseofBl ackst oni anv iewofl aw.H. M.Seer v aiheat edl ycondemnedt hei nv ocat ionofDoct rineofPr ospect iveov er ruling.Heobser ved
thati twoul df ur therl eadt or econsi der at ionofUl traVi rest heor yandsai dal awt hati shel di nv al idduet ov iol at ionofFundament alr ighti sv oidabi ni tioandt hismakesnol ogi cofappl yingDoct rineofpr ospect iveov er ruling
ast hequest ionedamendment swer ecl ear lyv i
ol at ingt heFundament alr ight s.Thepr oposalpr ov i
dedi nt heGol akNat hcasenotonl ypr ov idest hegui del inesf ort heusagePr ospect iveov er rul i
ngbutal sopr ov i
deuswi tha
l
ogi calandconv i
nci ngex planat i
ont hathowt hisdoct ri
newi l
lpr ov ev er yf rui tfulf orI ndi anl egalJur i
spr udence.Ov er all,itcanbeconcl udedt hatbyi ncor por at i
ngDoct rineofPr ospect iv eOv er rulingi nt heJudi cialsetupof
Indi ahaspr ov edt obev er yf rui tful.Thi sdoct rinehaspr ov idedenor mousf lex ibi li
t yt ot hej udi cialdi scr et iont oJudi ciar yasf arasI ndi ai sconcer ned.I nt hesamet imepr opercaut i
onshoul dbet akenwhi lei nv oki ngt hi s
doct rine.Ti llnowHi ghcour tshasnotbeenpr ov idedwi tht hisDoct rine.Thepr operadapt i
onoft hisdoct rineofPr ospect iv eov er rul inghaspr ov idedf ai rj ust i
cet ot heci tiz ensofournat ionandi sex pect edt opr ov idet hem i n
fut ur et oo.Chi efJust iceSubbaRaohasal sol ai ddownsomepr inci plesofgui del i
nesr egar dingt heappl icabi lityofDoct rineofPr ospect iv eOv er rul ing.Thesegui del ineshav ebeensummar izedher eunder :
Thi sDoct rineof
Pr ospect iv eov er rul ingcanonl ybei nv okedi nmat ter sar isingunderourConst i
tut ion; Thi sDoct rineofPr ospect iveov errul ingcanonl ybeappl iedbySupr emeCour t, ast hi scour thast heconst i
tut ionalj ur isdi ct iont odecl ar e
l
awt hati sbi ndi ngt oal lt hecour tsi nI ndi a; Thespeci ficv er sionofr et rospect ivet obeappl iedi st obeamat teroft heCour t ’
sdi scr et ion,“ tobemoul dedi naccor dancewi tht hej ust iceoft hecauseormat terbef or ei t.”He
say sAr ticles32, 141, and142empower st hisCour t( Supr emeCour t )t of or mul at el egaldoct rinest of ulf il
lt heendsofJust ice.Whi legi v inghi sJudgmentheal soanal y zedt heobj ect ionswhi chhadbeenl aiddownagai nst
theuseoft hisdoct rine.Doct rineofJudi ci ar yRev iew:‘ Thepoweroft heJudi ciar yt or ev i
ewt heActoft heLegi slat ur eort heExecut iv eort hev al idit yofal aworanor deri nor dert odet er mi nei tsconst itut ionalpr opr i
et yand
to ensur e tha
tsuchact i
onsconf or mt ot hepr ov i
si onsoft henat ion’ sConst itut ioni sknownast he“ Doct rineofJudi ci alRev iew” .Judi ci alRev iewi mpl iest hatt heConst i
tut ioni st hesupr emepoweroft henat ionandal ll awsar eunderi ts
supr emacyandt hatanyl aw i nconsi st entt her ewi thi sv oidt hr oughj udi cialr ev iew.Judi ci alr ev i
ew i sadopt edi nt heI ndi anConst i
tut ionf rom t heConst itut ionoft heUni tedSt at esofAmer ica.Judi ci alr ev iew hast wo
i
mpor t antf unct i
ons- Ofl egi timi zinggov er nmentact ion; Thepr ot ect i
onofconst itut i
onagai nstanyundueencr oachmentbyt hegov er nment .I nt heI ndi anConst i
tut ion,Judi ci alRev iew i sdeal twi thunderAr t i
cl e13whi ch
pr ov idesf ort hej udi cialr ev iewofal llegi slat ionsi nI ndi a, pastaswel lasf ut ur e.Thi spowerhasbeenconf er redont heHi ghCour tsandt heSupr emeCour tofI ndi a( Ar ticl e226andAr ticle32r espect i
v el y )whi chcandecl ar e
al awunconst itut ionali fi ti si nconsi st entwi thanyoft hepr ov i
si onsofPar tI I
Ioft heConst itut ion.Thedoct rineofj udi ci alr ev iewwasf ort hef irstt imepr opoundedbyt heSupr emeCour tofAmer ica.Or igi nal ly,t heUni ted
St atesConst i
tut iondi dnotcont ainanex pr esspr ov isionf orj udi cialr ev iew.Thepowerofj udi cialr ev iewwas, howev er, assumedbyt heSupr emeCour tofAmer icai nt hehi st or ccaseofMar
i bur yv .Madi sonbyJust i
ceJohn
Mar shal l.St at eofMadr asv .V. G.Row[ AI R1952SC196] .
InI ndi anConst itut ion, ther ei sanexpr esspr ov isi onf orj udi cialr ev iew, andi nt hi ssensei ti sonmor esol idf oot i
ngt hani tisi nAmer ica. L.Chandr aKumarv .Uni onof
Indi a[ AI R1997SC1125] Thepowerofj udi cialr ev iewofl egi sl at iveact i
onasv est edi nSupr emeCour tbyAr ticle32andi nHi ghCour tbyAr ticle226i sabasi cf eat ur eoft heConst i
tut ionandcannotbecur tailedev enby
const itut ional amendment .Whenapar tofast at ut ei sdecl ar edunconst itut i
onal thenaquest i
onar iseswhet hert hewhol eoft hest at ut ei st obedecl ar edv oidoronl yt hatpar twhi chi sunconst itut ional shoul dbedecl ar edas
such.Tor esol vet hi spr obl em,t heSupr emeCour thasdev isedt hedoct ri
neofsev er abi l
ityorsepar abi lity .Thi sdoct rinemeanst hati fanof fendi ngpr ov isioncanbesepar at edf rom t hatwhi chi sunconst itut i
onalt henonl y
thatpar twhi chi sof f endi ngi st obedecl ar edasv oi dandnott heent irest at ute.Thi sconcl usi oncanbev er ywel ldr awnf rom t hewor dst hatAr ticle13usesi .e.“ …t ot heext entofsuchi nconsi st encybev oi d.Doct rineof
Sever abi li
t yorSepar abi lityi si ncor por at edunderAr t.13Cl ause( 2)whi chst at est hatt heSt ateshal lnotmakeanyl awswhi cht akeawayFundament alRi ght sofaci tizen.Ther ef or e,l awsmadeaf teradopt i
onoft he
Const i
t ut i
onbyt heConst i
tuentAssembl ymustbecompat iblewi tht heConst itut i
on, ot her wi set hel awsandamendment swi ll bedeemedt obev oi d- ab- ini tio.Suchal awwi l
l beul trav ires( i.e.outofaut hor ity ).Whenapar tof
thest at ut ei sdecl ar edunconst it
ut ional , thent heunconst itut i
onalpar tist ober emov edandt her emai ni ngv al idpor tionwi llcont inueasv alid.Thei deai st or et ai nt heActorl egi slat ioni nf or cebydi scar di ngordel et i
ngonl y
thev oi dpor tionandr et aini ngt her est .Howev er, inv al idpar toft hel awwi llbesev er edonl yi fi tissev er abl e, i.
e. , ifaf t ersepar at ingt hei nv alidpar t, thev alidpar ti scapabl eofgi v ingef fectt ot hel egi sl at ur e’si nt ent , thenonl y
i
twi llsur viveot her wi set hecour tshal ldecl ar et heent irel awasi nv alid.A. K.Gopal anv .St at eofMadr as[ AI R1950SC27]Onl ySect ion14ofPr ev ent i
v eDet ent i
onAct , 1950washel dunconst itut ional .Appl yingt hedoct rine
ofsev er abi lity, whol eActex ceptSect ion14washel dv al i
d. St at eofBombayv .F. N.Bal sar a[ AI R1951SC318] .Itwasobser vedt hatt hecer tainpr ov isionsofBombayPr ohi bitionAct , 1949, whi chhav ebeendecl ar edasv oi d
donotaf fectt heent i
rest at ut e,t her ef or e,t her ei snonecessi tyf ordecl ar ingt hewhol est at ut easi nv al id.Doct rineofEcl ipse:Accor dingt oAr ticle13( 1) ,“ Al lpr e- const itut i
onall aws,af tert hecomi ngi nt of or ceof
Const i
t ut i
on,i fi nconf l
ictwi thi ti nal lorsomeofi tspr ov i
si onst hent hepr ov isionsofConst itutionwi llpr ev ailandt hepr ov isionsoft hatpr e- const itut ionall awwi llnotbei nf orceunt ilanamendmentoft heConst i
tut ion
relat ingt ot hesamemat teri smade.I nsuchsi tuat iont hepr ov isi onoft hatl awwi llagai ncomei nt of or ce, ifi ti scompat ibl ewi tht heConst itutionasamended.Thi si scal ledt heTheor yofEcl ipse.Ar ticle13( 1)i spr ospect i
v e
i
nnat ur e.Al lpr e-Const itut i
onl awsi nconsi stentwi tht heFundament alRi ght swi l
lbecomev oi donl yaf tert hecommencementoft heConst itution.Theyar enotv oi dabi ni tio.Inaddi tiont oar ticle13, art i
cl es32, 124, 131, 219,
226and246pr ov ideaconst itut i
onalbasi st ot heJudi cialr ev iewi nI ndi a.I twast osol vet hi spr obl em t hatt heSupr emeCour tf or mul at edt hedoct rineofecl ipsei nBhi kaj iv s.St at eofM. P.[ AI R1955SC781] .Gov er nmentof
Cent r al Pr ov i
ncemonopol iz edmot ort ranspor tbyanAct .Supr emeCour thel dt hatt hepr e-const it
ut i
onall awt hatv iol atesf undament alr ight si snotv oi dabi ni tio.I ti smer elyecl i
psed.WhenAr t19wasamendedt oal lowt he
stat et omonopol i
z eanybusi ness, thesai dactbecameconst itut ionalagai n.Post -Const itut ionalLaws-Cl ause( 2)ofAr ticle13pr ohi bitst heSt at et omakeanyl awwhi cht akesawayorabr idgest her ight sconf er redbyPar t
II
Ioft heConst itut ion.I fSt at emakessuchal awt hent hatl awwi l
lbeul trav iresandv oi dt ot heex tentoft hecont rav ent ion.Ascont rar yt oAr ticle13cl ause( 1) , clause( 2)makest hei nconsi st entl awsv oidabi nitio.Doct rine
ofWai v er:Wai v emeans‘ togi v eaway ’or‘ tosur render ’Poi ntofconcer nher er egar dingPar tI IIofI ndi anConst itut ioni st hatwhet hercanaci tizenwai vehi sf undament alr ight s? ?Ashel di nBehr am v .St at eofBombay[ AIR
1955SC146] ,t hedoct rineofwai verhasnoappl icat iont ot hepr ov isionofl awenshr inedi nPar tI IIoft heConst itut i
onofI ndi a.I ti snotopent oanaccusedper sont owai v eorgi v euphi sConst itut ionalr i
ght sandget
conv ict ed. BashesharNat hv .I ncomeTaxCommi ssi oner[ AI R1959SC149] Theappel lanthadr eachedaset tlementwi thI ncomeTaxDepar tmentt opay3Lakhr upeespermont hf ort axest hatheowedunderI ncomeTaxAct .
Howev er ,lat ert hatActwasdet er mi nedt obeunconst itut i
onal .Sohechal l
engedt heset tl
ement .IncomeTaxDepar tmentar guedt hathehadwai v ed hi sr ightbyr eachi ngaset tlement .Supr emeCour thel dt hat , unl ikeUSA,
Indi anConst itut iondoesnotf ollowDoct rineofWai ver .I twasf ur therhel dt hati ti snotopent oaci tizent owai v eanyoft heFundament alRi ght sconf er redbyPar tI IIoft heConst it
ut ion.Fundament alr ight sar eanobl igat ion
i
mposedupont hest atebyt heConst itut i
on.I ti st hecour t’
sdut yt oenf or cet hem.Noper soncanr el iev et heSt at eoft hi sobl igat ion.Thedoct rineoful trav iresi st hebasi cdoct rinei nadmi ni st rat ivel aw.Thedoct rine
env isagest hatanaut hor i
tycanex er ciseonl ysomuchpowerasi sconf er redoni tbyl aw.Anact ionoft heaut hor ityi si nt rav ireswheni tf allswi thi nt hel imi tsoft hepowerconf er redoni tbutul trav iresi fi tgoesout sidet hi s
l
imi t.Thedoct rineoful trav ireshast woaspect s:subst ant iveandpr ocedur al.Doct rineoful t rav ires: Whenapi eceofdel egat edl egi sl at ioni sdecl ar edt obeul trav ires, iti sv oi dandbecomesunenf or ceabl e.I tcannotaf fect
ther ight sanddut i
esofanyper son.Unt ilar ulei sdecl aredi nv alidbyacour t,iti spr esumedt obev alid.I ft hev al idandt hei nv alidpar tsofar ul ecanbesev er ed,onl yt hent hei nv alidpor t i
onoft her ul ei squashedandt he
val i
dpor ti
oncancont inuet or emai noper at ive.Howev er ,ift hev al i
dandt hei nv al idpar t sar ei next ricabl ymi x edup, thent heent i
r er ulehast ogo.Av oi dr ul ecannotbet hebasi sofanyadmi nist rat i
v eact i
on.Noonecanbe
pr osecut edunderav oidr ul e.Thev alidi tyofar ul ecanbechal lengedi nacour tei therdi rect lyorcol lat er ally ,orbywayofdef enset oaci vilcl ai m basedont hei mpugnedr ul e, orasadef ensei napr osecut ionf ori nf ringi ng
the rul e. A per son can chal lenge the val idity of admi ni st rativ e act ion by chal lengi ng the val idity of the rel ev a
ntr ul e.Aper sonwhosei nt eresti saf fect edadv er sel ybyapi eceofdel egat edl egi slat ioncandi rect lychal l
engei tsv iresi nacour t.Thecour tmaygr antani njunct i
onordecl ar at ionori ssuemandamusorawar ddamagest o
theaf fect edper sonasmaybesui tabl e. RI GHTTOEQUALI TY[ ARTI CLES14t o18]Ri ghtt oequal ityi sar ef l
ect ionoft hehi ghaspi rat ionsasenshr i
nedi nt hePr eambl eoft heI ndi anConst itution.Thewor ds“ ...JUSTI CE,
soci al ,economi candpol itical ;EQUALI TYofst atusandofoppor tuni ty ..
.”i nt hePr eambl eoft heI ndi anConst itut iongi v est hev er ybacki ngt ot hi sessent ialhumanr i
ghti .e.Ri ghtt oequal ity .Ar ti
cl e14t o18guar ant eest he
rightt oequal ityt oev er yci tizenofI ndi a.Ar ti
cl e14embodi est hegener alpr inci pl esofequal itybef or el awandpr ohi bi tsunr easonabl edi scr imi nat ionbet weenper sons.Thesucceedi ngAr ti
cl es15,16,17and18l aydown
speci ficappl icat i
onoft hegener alr ul esl ai ddowni nAr ticle14.Ar t i
cl e14“ TheSt at eshal lnotdenyt oanyper sonequal itybef or et hel awort heequalpr ot ect ionoft hel awswi thi nt het er ri
t or yofI ndi a.” Thewor ds“ shal lnot ”
put samandat or ydut yupont heSt atenott odi scr imi nat eonanygr ound.Thewor ds‘ anyper son’denot et hatt heguar ant eeoft heequalpr ot ect ionoft hel awsi sav ai labl et oanyper son,whi chi ncl udesanycompanyor
associ at i
onorbodyofi ndi v i
dual s.Thepr otect ionex tendst obot hci tizensandnon- ci tizensandt onat ur alper sonsaswel lasl egalper sons. Ar ticle14-1.Equal itybef or et hel aw 2.Equalpr ot ect ionoft hel aw.Equal ity
bef or et hel aw i ssomewhatnegat iv econcepti mpl yingt heabsenceofanyspeci alpr ivilegei nf av ourofanyi ndi vidualandt heequalsubj ect ionofal lcl assest ot heor di nar yl aw.Equalpr ot ect ionofl aw i samor eposi ti
v e
conceptempl oy ingequal ityoft reat mentunderequalci rcumst ances.AsDr .Jenni ngsput si t-“ Equal itybef or et hel aw”meanst hatamongequal st hel awshoul dbeequalandshoul dbeequal lyadmi ni st er ed, thatl ikeshoul d
bet r eat edal ike.Ther ightt osueandbesued,t opr osecut eandbepr osecut edf ort hesameki ndofact i
onshoul dbesamef oral lci tiz ensoff ul lageandunder st andi ngwi thoutdi st inct i
onsofr ace,r eligi on, weal th,soci al
stat usorpol iticali nf luence. Itonl ymeanst hatal lper sonssi mi lar lyci rcumst ancedshal lbet reat edal ike, bot hi nt hepr ivilegesconf er redandl iabi li
t iesi mposedbyt hel aws.Equall awsshoul dbeappl iedt oal li nt hesame
situat ion,andt her eshoul dbenodi scr imi nat i
onbet weenoneper sonandanot her .Thust her ul ei st hatt hel ikeshoul dbet reat edal i
keandnott hatunl ikeshoul dbet reat edal ike.PROFESSORDI CEYGAVETHREE
MEANI NGSOFTHERULEOFLAW:AbsenceofAr bi trar yPowerorSupr emacyoft hel aw. Amanmaybepuni shedf orabr eachofl aw, buthecanbepuni shedf ornot hingel se.Equal i
tybef or et hel aw:I tmeanssubj ect ionof
allcl assest ot heor di nar yl aw ofl andadmi nist er edbyor dinar yl aw cour ts.Thi smeanst hatnoonei sabov el aw.TheConst itut i
oni st her esul toft heor di nar yl aw oft hel and:I tmeanst hatt hesour ceoft her ightof
i
ndi v i
duali snott hewr ittenConst i
tut ionbutt her ulesasdef i
nedandenf or cedbyt hecour t.EXCEPTI ONSTORULEOFLAW:Ther ul eofequal it yi snotanabsol ut er ul eandt her ear enumberofexcept ionst oi t-1.“ Equal ity
bef or et hel aw”doesnotmeant he“ power soft hepr iv ateci tizensar et hesameast hepower soft hepubl icof ficial s”.Forexampl e-Apol iceof ficerhasapowert oar restwher easnopr i
v atei ndi vidualhast hatpower
gener al ly.But , ther ul eofl awdoesr equi ret hatt hesepower sshoul dbecl ear lydef inedbyl awandt hatabuseofaut hor itybypubl icof ficer smustbepuni shedbyor di nar ycour t si nt hesamemannerasi llegal act scommi tted
bypr iv at eper sons. Ther uleofl awdoesnotpr ev entcer tai ncl assesofper sonsbei ngsubj ectt ospeci alr ul es.Thus, member soft hear medf or cesar econt rolledbymi li
t ar yl aws.Si mi lar ly, medi cal pr act itioner sar esubj ect ed
tot her egul at ionf ramedbyt heMedi cal counci lofI ndi a.2.Ar ticl e361oft heI ndi anConst itut i
onaf for dsi mmuni tyt ot hePr esi dentofI ndi aandSt at eGov er nor s.Accor di ngt ot hesai dpr ov i
si on, thePr esi dent , ort hegov er nor
orr ajpr amukhofaSt ate, shal lnotbeanswer abl et oanycour tf ort heexer ciseandper f or manceoft hepower sanddut iesofhi sof ficeorf oranyactdoneorpur por tingt obedonebyhi mi nt heex er ciseandper for manceof
thosepoweranddut ies. Pr ov idedt hatt heconductoft hepr esi dentmaybebr oughtunderr ev iewbyanycour t, tribunalorbodyappoi nt edordesi gnat edbyei therHouseofPar l
iamentf ort hei nv est igat i
onofachar geunder
ar ti
cl e61. Ar t
icl e361Cl ause( 2)pr ov idest hat -“ Nocr imi nalpr oceedi ngswhat soev ershal lbei nst i
tut edorcont inuedagai nstt hePr esi dent , ort heGov er norofaSt at e, i
nanycour tdur inghi st erm ofof fice. ” Ar ticle361Cl ause
(3)pr ov idest hat -“ Nopr ocessf ort hear restori mpr isonmentoft hePr esi dent , ort heGov er norofaSt at e,shal li ssuef rom anycour tdur i
nghi st er m ofof fice. ”Ar ti
cl e361Cl ause( 4)pr ov idest hat -“ Noci vilpr oceedi ngsi n
whi chr eliefi scl ai medagai nstt hePr esi dent , ort heGov ernorofaSt at e, shal lbei nst itut eddur inghi st er m ofof ficei nanycour ti nr espectofanyactdoneorpur por ti
ngt obedonebyhi mi nhi sper sonalcapaci ty ,whet her
bef or eoraf terheent er eduponhi sof fi
ceasPr esi dent , orasGov er norofsuchSt at e, unt iltheexpi rat ionoft womont hsnextaf ternot icei nwr iti
nghasbeendel iv er edt ot hePr esi dentort heGov er nor , ast hecasemaybe, or
l
ef tathi sof ficest at i
ngt henat ureoft hepr oceedi ngs, thecauseofact iont her ef ore, thename, descr iptionandpl aceofr esi denceoft hepar tybywhom suchpr oceedi ngsar et obei nst itutedandt her el
iefwhi chhecl aims. 3.
Besi desabov e,underi nter nat ionall aw, thef or eignsover eignsandambassador sar eal soex empt edf rom t hej uri
sdictionoft heI ndi ancour t
sandt heyenj oyf ullimmuni t
yf rom anyj udi cialpr ocess.Thi si sal soav ailablet o
enemyal iensf oract sofwar .ART.14PERMI TSREASONABLECLASSI FICATI ONBUTI TPROHI BI TSCLASSLEGI SLATI ON:WhatAr ticle14f orbi dsi scl assl egi slationandi tdoesnotf orbi dr easonabl ecl assi fi
cat ion.The
classificat i
onmustnotbe“ ar bitrar y, arti
fici alorev asi ve”butmustbebasedonsomer ealandsubst ant i
al bear i
ng, ajustandr easonabl er el
at i
ont ot heobj ectsoughtt obeachi ev edbyt hel egi slation.Classl egislat ioni st hat
whi chmakesani mpr operdi scr imi nat ionbyconf erringpar ticul
arpr i
v i
legesuponacl assofper sonsar bitrar i
lysel ectedf rom al ar genumberofper sons, allofwhom st andi nt hesamer elat i
ont ot hepr ivi
legegr ant edand
thatnor easonabl edi stinct ionorsubst ant i
aldi ff
er encecanbef oundj ustify ingt hei nclusi onofoneandt heex clusionoft heot herf rom suchpr ivi
lege. From t hev er ynat ur eofsoci etyt her eshoul dbedi ff
er entl awsi n
differentpl acesandt hel egisl at ur econt rol st hepol i
cyandenact slawsi nt hebesti nter estoft hesaf etyandsecur i
tyoft hest ate.I nf acti dent icalt reat menti nunequalci r cumst anceswoul damountt oi nequal ity.So,a
reasonabl ecl assi f
icat ioni snotonl yper mi t tedbuti ti snecessar yi fsoci et yist opr ogr ess.Cl assi f
icat i
ont ober easonabl emustf ulfilthef ollowingt wocondi tions: Fi
- r
st l
y ,t
hecl assi ficat i
onmustbef oundedont hei nt ell
igibl e
differentia.Secondl y,thedi ffer ent iamusthav ear at i
onalr elati
ont otheobj ectsoughtort obeachi ev edbyt heact .E. P.Roy appav .St at eofTami lNadu[ AIR1974SC555] :Supr emeCour tchal l
engest het raditionalconcept
ofequal itywhi chwasbasedonr easonabl ecl assificat ionandhasl aiddownanewconceptofequal ity.TheHonour ableJudgeswhogav et hedeci sionwer eoft heopi niont hat“ Equal ityi sady nami cconceptwi thmany
aspect sanddi mensi onsandi tcannotbecabi nedorconf inedwi thintradi tionall i
mi s”Jav
t edv .St ateofHar yana[ AIR2003SC3057] .Pet it
ioner schal l
engedt hev al i
dityofSect ion175( 1)( g)oft heHar y anaPanchay atiRaj
Act ,1994ont hegr oundt hati twasv i
ol ativ eofAr t i
cl e14ast hesai dpr ovisi ondi squal ifi
edaper sonhav i
ngmor et hant wochi ldr enf rom cont est ingel ectionsf orSar panchorPanchi nGr am Panchay ats.Supr emeCour t
uphel dt heconst i
tut i
onal i
tyoft hesai dpr ov isionandhel dthatitisnotv i
olat ingAr ticle14i nanymanner .Ar t i
cle15:Pr ohi bitionofdi scr i
mi nationongr oundsofr el i
gi on, race, cast e,sexorpl aceofbi rt h:1.TheSt ateshal l
notdi scr i
mi nat eagai nstanyci tizenongr oundsonl yofr eli
gion, race, cast e, sex, placeofbi rthoranyoft hem. 2.Noci ti
zenshal l
, ongr oundsonl yofr eligion, race, cast e,sex, placeofbi rt
horanyoft hem, besubj ectt oany
disabi l
ity,li
abi l
it
y ,rest ri
ct ionorcondi ti
onwi thr egardt o—accesst oshops, publ icr estaur ant s,hot elsandpl acesofpubl icent ertainment ;ort heuseofwel ls, t
anks, bat hingghat s, roadsandpl acesofpubl icr esor tmai ntained
whol l
yorpar tlyoutofSt at ef undsordedi cat edt ot heuseoft hegener al publ i
c. 3.Not hingi nt hisar ti
cl eshal lpr eventt heSt atef rom maki nganyspeci al pr ovisionf orwomenandchi l
dr en.4.Not hingi nthisar ti
cleori ncl ause
(2)ofAr ticle29shal lpr ev entt heSt atef r om maki nganyspeci alpr ovisionf ort headv ancementofanysoci allyandeducat i
onal lybackwar dcl assesofci tizensorf ort heSchedul edCast esandt heSchedul edTr ibes.5.
Not hingi nt hisar ti
cl eori nsub- clause( g)ofcl ause( 1)ofar ti
cle19shal lpr ev entt heSt atef rom maki nganyspeci alpr ovision, byl aw, fortheadv ancementofanysoci all
yandeducat ional l
ybackwar dcl assesofci tizensor
fort heSchedul edCast esort heSchedul edTr ibesi nsof arassuchspeci alpr ovisionsr elatet ot heiradmi ssiont oeducat ionali nst i
tutionsi ncl udi ngpr i
v ateeducat ionali nst itutions,whet herai dedorunai dedbyt heSt at e,
othert hant hemi nor i
t yeducat ionali nst i
tut ionsr efer redt oi nclause( 1)ofar ticl e30.Ar ticle15pr ovidesf orapar ticularappl icat i
onoft hegener alpr incipleembodi edunderAr ticleTheguar anteeunderAr ti
cle15i sav ailabl e
toci ti
zensonl y.Thest at ecannotdi scrimi nat eonl yont heabov ement ionedgr oundsbutcandi scr i
mi nat eongr oundsot hert hant hese.Ther ight sunder15( 2)ar enotonl yav ailableagai nstaSt atebutal soagai nstot her
citi
zens. Ar t
icle15( 1)st atest hatnoci ti
zenshal lbedi scriminatedonl yont hegr oundsofr eligion,r ace,cast e,sex,pl aceofbi r
thoranyoft hem.Butt her ear especi alconsi der ationsf orwomenandchi ldren,SC/ ST,OBC.
Except ionsf ort hesecat egor iesar ement i
onedi nCl ause( 2)and( 3)ofAr ticle15.Ar t i
cle15( 2)isaspeci f
icappl i
cat i
onoft hegener alpr ohibitioncont ainedi nAr t i
cle15( 1).Whi leCl ause( 1)pr ohi bit
sdi scriminat ionbyt he
Stat e;clause( 2)pr ohibi tsbot ht heSt ateandpr ivat ei ndividualsf rom maki nganydi scr i
mi nat i
on. Womenandchi l
drenr equi respeci alt r
eat mentonaccountoft heirv erynat ur eandt her eforeAr ti
cle15( 3)empower st he
Stat etomakespeci alpr ovi si onsf orwomenandchi ldren.Ther easoni st hat“ women’ sphy sicalst ruct ureandt heper for manceofmat ernalf unct i
onspl aceheratadi sadv ant agei nt hest ruggl ef orsubsi stenceandher
phy sicalwel l-being.Thus, underAr ticle42, womenwor kerscanbegi venspeci al mat erni t
yr eliefandal awt ot hisef fectwi l
lnoti nf ri
ngeAr t
icle15( 1).Al so, i
faneducat ionalinst it
utioni sest ablishedbyt heSt ateex clusivel y
forwomenori fr eser vat ionofseat si smadef orwomeni nacol lege, itdoesnotof fendAr t
icle15( 1) Ar
. t
icle15Cl ause( 4)i s anot her except ion t o cl ause ( 1) and ( 2) of Ar t
icle 15.Ar ticle15( 4)hasbeeni nser ted
byt heconst i
tution(f i
r stamendment)Act ,1951.I twasaddedbyt heConst itution( s t
1 Amendment )Act ,1951,asar esul toft hedeci si
oni nSt ateofMadr asv .Champakam Dor airajan[ AIR1951SC226] .Thepr ov i
si on
madei ncl ause( 4)i sonl yanenabl ingpr ov isi onanddoesnoti mposeanyobl igat ionont heSt at et ot akeanyspeci alact ionunderi t
.I tmer elyconf er sdi scr et iont oacti fnecessar ybywayofmaki ngspeci alpr ov isionf or
backwar dcl asses.Awr i
tcannotbei ssuedt ot heSt at et omaker eser vat i
on.Thebasi cpr inci pl eunder lyingt hi scl ausei st hatapr ef erent ialt reat mentcanbegi v env alidlywher esoci al l
yandeducat ional lybackwar dcl asses
needi tThusunderAr
. ticle15( 4) ,t wot hi ngsar et obedet er mi ned-1. Whoar esoci allyandeducat i
onal l
ybackwar dcl asses?2. Whati st hel imi tofr eser vat ion?Const itutionnowher edef ines‘ backwar dcl asses’ .Ar ticle340,
howev er ,empower st hePr esi dentt oappoi ntaCommi ssi ont oi nv est igat econdi tionsofsoci allyandeducat ional l
ybackwar dcl asses.Ont hebasi soft her epor toft heCommi ssi ont hepr esi dentmayspeci fywhoar et obe
consi der edas‘ Backwar dcl asses’ .I nBal aj iv .St ateofMy sor e[ AI R1963SC649] , itwashel dt hat‘ backwar d’ and‘ mor ebackwar d’ classi ficat i
oni snotbad.Hi ghcast egi rlmar ry i
ngamal eofSchedul edt ribei snotent itl
edt o
reser v ationbenef itunderCl ause( 4)ofAr ticl e15.Al so, aSchedul edCast eoraSchedul edTr i
becandi dat ei sent it
ledt or eser vat ionbenef itonl yi nt heSt at eofhi sor iginandnoti not herSt at ewher ehemi gr at est o.Ar ticl e15
clause( 5) -Inor dert oser vet heeducat ional lyandsoci al l
ybackwar dcl asses,t heSt at easkedt hepr i
v at eeducat ioni nst itut i
onsal sot or eser veseat sf ort hebackwar dcl asses.Pr iv at ei nst itut ionsobj ect edt oi t ,st atingi t
woul damountt ov i
ol at i
onofr ightunderAr ticle19( 1)( g) .ThePar liament , byamendi ngt heConst itut i
oni n2005, addedCl ause( 5)t oAr ticle15.Accor dingt ot his, iti smandat oryt or eser v eseat sf orbackwar dcl assesal so
ev en i n pr i
v at e i nst it
ut ions whet her ai ded or unai ded, by t he St at e. The onl y ex cept ion i s educat ional i nst itut ions r un by mi nor ity communi ti
es. A
lawwasenact edi nt hi sef fectcal ledCent ralEducat ionalI nst itut i
onsReser vat ioni nAdmi ssi onAct , 2006.Thi sActwaschal lengedi nt heSupr emeCour t, butt heSupr emeCour tuphel dt hev al idityoft hi sl aw.ARTI CLE16:
EQUALI TYOFOPPORTUNI TYI NMATTERSOFPUBLI CEMPLOYMENT:1. Ther eshal lbeequal ityofoppor tuni tyf oral lci tizensi nmat ter sr elat ingt oempl oy mentorappoi nt mentt oanyof ficeundert heSt at e.2.Noci tizen
shal l
, ongr oundsonl yofr eligion, race, cast e, sex, descent , placeofbi rth, resi denceoranyoft hem, bei nel igi blef or ,ordi scr imi nat edagai nsti nr espectof ,anyempl oy mentorof ficeundert heSt at e.3. Not hingi nt hi sar ticle
shal lpr ev entPar liamentf rom maki nganyl awpr escr ibing, inr egar dt oacl assorcl assesofempl oy mentorappoi nt mentt oanof ficeundert heGov er nmentof ,oranyl ocalorot heraut hor i
tywi thi n, aSt at eorUni ont er ritory,
anyr equi rementast or esi dencewi thi nt hatSt ateorUni ont err i
tor ypr iort osuchempl oy mentorappoi nt ment .4Not hingi nt hi sar ticleshal lpr ev entt heSt at ef rom maki nganypr ov isionf ort her eser v at i
onofappoi nt ment sor
post si nf av ourofanybackwar dcl assofci tizenswhi ch, int heopi ni onoft heSt at e, i
snotadequat elyr epr esent edi nt heser v i
cesundert heSt at e.4ANot hi ngi nt hisar ti
cl eshal lpr ev entt heSt at ef rom maki nganypr ov ision
forr eser v ati
oni nmat ter sofpr omot ion, wi thconsequent ialseni or ity, toanycl assorcl assesofpost si nt heser vicesundert heSt at ei nf av ouroft heSchedul edCast esandt heSchedul edTr ibeswhi ch, i
nt heopi ni onoft he
Stat e, ar enotadequat elyr epr esent edi nt heser vicesundert heSt at e.4B)Not hi ngi nt hi sar t i
cl eshal lpr ev entt heSt at ef rom consi der inganyunf il
ledv acanci esofay earwhi char er eser vedf orbei ngf i
lledupi nt haty eari n
accor dancewi thanypr ov i
si onf orr eser v at ionmadeundercl ause( 4)orcl ause( 4A)asasepar at ecl assofv acanci est obef ill
edupi nanysucceedi ngy earory ear sandsuchcl assofv acanci esshal lnotbeconsi der ed
toget herwi t
ht hev acanci esoft hey eari nwhi cht heyar ebei ngf ill
edupf ordet er mi ningt hecei lingoff iftypercent .reser vat ionont otalnumberofv acanci esoft haty ear .5.Not hi ngi nt hisar ticleshal laf fectt heoper at i
onof
anyl awwhi chpr ov idest hatt hei ncumbentofanof fi
cei nconnect i
onwi tht heaf fairsofanyr eligiousordenomi nat i
onali nst itut i
onoranymemberoft hegov er ni ngbodyt her eofshal lbeaper sonpr of essi ngapar ticul ar
religi onorbel ongi ngt oapar ticul ardenomi nat ion.ARTI CLE17:ABOLI TI ONOFUNTOUCHABI LI TY:“ Unt ouchabi li
ty ’
’i sabol ishedandi tspr act icei nanyf or mi sf or bidden.Theenf or cementofanydi sabi li
tyar isi ngoutof
“Unt ouchabi li
t y’’shal lbeanof fencepuni shabl ei naccor dancewi thl aw. Inex er ciseoft hepower sconf er redbyAr ticl e35,Par li
amenthasenact edt heUnt ouchabi l
ity( Of f ences)Act ,1955.Thi sActwasamendedbyt he
Unt ouchabi l
ity( Of fences)AmendmentAct ,1976,i nor dert omaket hel aw mor est ringentt or emov eunt ouchabi l
ityf rom t hesoci et y.I thasnow beenr enamedas‘ ThePr ot ect ionofCi vilRi ght sAct ,1955’ .Undert he
amendedAct , anydi scr imi nat i
onont hegr oundofunt ouchabi l
itywi ll beconsi der edasanof f ence.ARTI CLE18: ABOLI TI ONOFTI TLES:1.Not itle, notbei ngami litar yoracademi cdi st inct ion, shal l beconf er redbyt heSt at e.
2.Noci tizenofI ndi ashal lacceptanyt itlef rom anyf or eignSt ate.3.Noper sonwhoi snotaci tizenofI ndi ashal l,whi lehehol dsanyof fi
ceofpr of i
tort rustundert heSt ate, acceptwi thoutt heconsentoft hePr esi dentany
tit
lef rom anyf or ei gnSt ate. 4.Noper sonhol di nganyof ficeofpr ofitort r
ustundert heSt at eshal l,wi thoutt heconsentoft hePr esi dent ,acceptanypr esent , emol ument ,orof fi
ceofanyki ndf rom orunderanyf or eignSt at e.
Ar ticle18pr ohi bitst heSt at et oconf ert itlesonany bodywhet heraci t
izenoranon- citizen.Mi li
tar yandacademi cdi st i
nct ionsar e,howev er ,ex empt edf rom t hepr ohi bit i
on.Cl ause( 3)i st her et oensur el oy al tyt ot he
Gov er nmentt hatsuchper sonser vesf ort het imebei ngandt oshutoutal lfor ei gni nf l
uencei nGov er nmentaf fairsoradmi ni strat ion. Thi si st her easonwhyt heconf er mentoft itlesof“ Bhar atRat na” ,“ PadmaVi bhushan” ,
“PadmaShr i”,et c.i snotpr ohi bitedunderAr ticle18ast heymer elydenot eSt at er ecogni t
ionofgoodwor korex cept i
onalordi stingui shedser vicesoft hehi ghi ntegr itybyci t i
zensi nanyf ield.RI GHTTOFREEDOM [ ARTI CLE
19- 22] :Per sonall iber t yist hemosti mpor tantofal lf undament alr ight s.Ar ti
cl es19t o22dealwi thdi f fer entaspect soft hisbasi cr ight .Ther ight sguar ant eedunderAr ticle19ar eav ai labl eonl yt oci t i
z ensandnott oanal i
en
oraf or eigner .Ci tizensunderAr ticle19meanonl ynat ur alper sonsandnotl egalorj ur i
st icper sons,suchascor por at ionoracompanywhi chcannotcl aim ar ightunderAr t i
cl e19becauset heyar enotnat ur alper sons.
Ar ticle19-Ri ghtt oFr eedom:Ar t.19( 1) (a) :Fr eedom ofSpeechandExpr essi on:I nRomeshThaparv .St at eofMadr as[ AI R1950SC124] ,Pat anj aliShast ri,Just iceobser v ed:“ Fr eedom ofspeechandoft hepr essl ayat
thef oundat ionofal ldemocr at icor gani sat ions,f orwi thoutf reepol iti
caldi scussi onnopubl iceducat i
on,soessent ialf ort hepr operf unct ioni ngoft hepr ocessofpopul argov er nment ,i spossi bl e.”Ter ritor ialext entof
freedom-I nal andmar kj udgementofManekaGandhiv .Uni onofI ndi a[ AI R1978SC597] , theSupr emeCour thel dt hatt hef reedom ofspeechandexpr essi onhasnogeogr aphi call imi t at i
onandi tcar rieswi thi tt her i
ghtof
aci tiz ent ogat heri nf or mat ionandt oexchanget houghtwi thot her snotonl yi nI ndi abutabr oadal so. RI GHTTOVOTE:TheSupr emeCour tobser v edi nUni onofI ndi av.Associ ationf orDemocr at icRef or ms-“ Onesi ded
i
nf or mat ion,di si nf or mat i
on,mi si nf or mat ionandnon- inf or mat i
on,al lequal l
ycr eat eanuni nf or medci tizenr ywhi chmakesdemocr acyaf ar ce.Fr eedom ofspeechandexpr essi oni ncl udesr ightt oi mpar tandr ecei ve
i
nf or mat ionwhi chi ncl udest hatv ot er shav ear ightt oknowaboutt hei rcandi dat esandal sof reedom t ohol dopi nions” Ar t.19( 1) (b).FREEDOM OFTHEPRESS:Thephr ase, “freedom ofpr ess”hasnotbeenusedi nAr ticle
19,butf reedom ofex pr essi oni ncl udesf reedom ofpr ess.Fr eedom ofpr essi si mpl iedf r
om Ar ticle19( 1) ( a)oft heConst i
t ut i
on.Thust hepr essi ssubj ectt ot her est rictionst hatar epr ov i
dedundert heAr ticl e19( 2)oft he
Const itut ion.Bef or eI ndependence, ther ewasnoConst itut ionalorst atut or ypr ov isi ont opr ot ectt hef reedom ofpr ess.ThePr eambl eoft heI ndi anConst itut ionensur est oal li tsci ti
z enst hel iber tyofex pr essi on. Fr eedom of
thepr esshasbeeni ncl udedaspar toff reedom ofspeechandex pr essi onundert heAr ti
cle19oft heUni ver salDecl ar at i
onsofHumanRi ght s.Thehear tofAr ticle19say s:“ Ev ery onehast her ightt of reedom ofopi nionand
expr essi on,t hi sr ighti ncludesf reedom t ohol dopi nionswi thouti nt er ferenceandt oseek,r ecei veandi mpar tinf or mat ionandi deast hr oughanymedi aandr egar dl essoff ront ier s.”Indi anExpr essNewspaper sv.Uni onof
Indi a[ (1985)1SCC641] Ithasbeenhel dt hatt hepr esspl ay sav er ysi gni ficantr olei nt hedemocr at i
cmachi ner y.Thecour tshav edut yt ouphol dt hef r eedom ofpr essandi nv alidat eal llawsandadmi ni st rativ eact ionst hat
abr idget hatf reedom.Ther ear ei nst anceswhent hef reedom ofpr esshasbeensuppr essedbyt hel egi sl at ur e.Theaut hor ityoft hegov ernment ,insuchci rcumst ances, hasbeenundert hescannerofj udi ci ar y.I nt hecaseof
Br i
jBhushanv.St at eofDel hi( AI R1950SC129) ,thev al idit yofcensor shi ppr ev i
oust ot hepubl icat ion( pr e- censor shi p)ofanEngl i
shWeekl yofDel hi, theOr gani serwasquest i
oned.Thecour tst ruckdownt heSect ion7of
theEastPunj abSaf et yAct , 1949, whi chdi rect edt heedi t orandpubl isherofanewspaper“ tosubmi tf orscr ut iny ,indupl icat e, bef or et hepubl icat ion, ti
llt hef ur theror der s, allcommunalmat t er sal lthemat ter sandnewsand
viewsaboutPaki stan,i ncl udi ngphot ogr aphs,andcar toons” ,ont hegr oundt hati twasar est rict i
onont hel iber tyoft hepr ess.Si mi larly ,pr ohi bitingnewspaperf rom publ ishi ngi tsownv iewsorv iewsofcor respondent s
about a topi c has
beenhel dt obeaser i
ousencr oachmentont hef reedom ofspeechandex pr essi on. Fr eedom t oassembl epeacef ul lyandwi thoutar ms:Ar ticle19( 1) (b)guar ant eest oal lci ti
z ensofI ndi ar ightt oassembl epeacef ullyand
wi thoutar ms.Ther ightofassembl yal soi ncl udesr ightt ohol dmeet ingsandt ot akeoutpr ocessi ons.Thi sr ighti ssubj ectt of ol l
owi ngr est ri
ct ions- Theassembl ymustbepeacef ul ;Itmustbeunar med;Reasonabl e
rest rict ionscanbei mposedunderCl ause3ofAr ticle19.UnderSec.141oft heI PC, anassembl yoff iv eormor eper sonsbecomesanunl awf ulassembl yi ft hecommonobj ectoft heper sonscomposi ngassembl yi s-To
resi stt heex ecut ionofanyl aworl egalpr ocess; Tocommi tanymi schi eforcr imi nalt respass; Obt aini ngpossessi onofanypr oper tybyf or ce; Tocompelaper sont odowhathei snotl egal l
yboundt odooromi twhi chhei s
l
egal l
yent i
tl
edt odo;Toov er awet heGov er nmentbymeansofcr imi nalf orceorshow ofcr i
mi nalf or ceoranypubl icser v anti nt heexer ci seofhi sl awf ulpower s.Fr eedom t oassembl epeacef ul lywi t houtar mscanbe
reasonabl yr est ri
ct edbyt heSt at ei nt hei nt erestofpubl icor derandt hesov er ei gnt yandi nt egr ityofI ndi a.Ar t.19( 1) (c)Fr eedom t of or m associ at i
onsanduni ons.Ar t.19( 1) (d)Fr eedom t omov ef r eel yt hroughoutt he
terr itor yofI ndi a:Ar t.19( 1)( e)Fr eedom t or esi deandset tl
ei nanypar tofI ndi a:Fr eedom t or esi deandset tlei nanypar toft het er ri
tor yofI ndi ai sal sosubj ectt or easonabl er est rict ionsbyt heSt atei nt hei nter estoft he
gener alpubl icorf ort hepr ot ect ionoft heschedul edt ribesbecausecer tai nsaf eguar dsasar eenv i
sagedher eseem t obej ust i
fiedt opr ot ecti ndi genousandt ribalpeopl esf rom expl oi tat ionandcoer ci on.Ar ticle370
rest rict sci ti
zensf rom ot herI ndi anst at esandKashmi riwomenwhomar rymenf rom ot herst at esf rom pur chasi ngl andorpr oper tyi nJammu&Kashmi rAr t.19( 1) (g)Fr eedom t opr act iseanypr of essi onort ocar ryonany
occupat i
on, tradeorbusi ness: TheSt at emayi mposer easonabl er est rictionsi nt hei nt erestoft hegener alpubl i
cont hisr ight .Thus, t
her ei snor ightt ocar ryonabusi nesswhi chi sdanger ousori mmor al .Al so, pr of essi onal
ort echni calqual i
ficat i
onsmaybepr escr ibedf orpr act i
ci nganypr of essi onorcar ryingonanyt ade.Sodansi
r nghv.New Del hiMuni ci palCommi ttee[ AI R1989SC1988]Supr emeCour thel dt hatt hehawker shav ea
fundament alr ightt ocar ryont r adeonpav ementofr oads,butsubj ectt or easonabl er est rict ionsunderar t
icl e19Cl ause( 6) .Thepur poseofpr ov idingt hesef reedomsi st obui l
dandmai nt ai nanenv ironmentf orpr oper
funct ioni ngofdemocr acy .Howev er ,t hesesi xf r
eedomsar enotabsol ut e.Theguar ant eeofeachoft heabov er ight si s,t her efor e,r est rictedbyt heConst itut ioni tsel fbyconf er ringupont heSt atet oi mposecer t ain
reasonabl er est rict i
onsoneachoft hem asmaybenecessar yi nt hel argeri nt er estoft hecommuni ty.Ther est r
ict ionsont hesef reedomsar epr ovi dedi ncl auses( 2)t o( 6)ofAr ticl e19oft heConst itut ion.Ar t i
cl e19( 2)
stat est hatt hegov er nmentmayi mposer easonabl er est rict ionsupont hef reedom ofspeechandex pr essi oni nt hei nt er estoft hef ollowi ngf act or s- Sov er eignt yandi nt egr i
tyofI ndi a;Thesecur ityoft heSt at e;Fr iendl y
relat ionswi thf or eignSt at es;Publ icor der ;Decencyormor alityori nr elat i
ont ocont emptofcour t;Def amat ion;I nci tementt oanof fence.Ar t i
cl e19( 3)conf er st hest at ewi tht heaut hor i
t yt oi mposer easonabl er est rict i
ons
upont hef reedom t oassembl epeacef ul lywi thoutar msi nt hei nter estoft hef ol l
owi ng-sov er eignt yandi nt egr ityofI ndi a ; Publ icor der .Ar ticle19( 4)st at est hatt hegov er nmentmayi mposer easonabl er est rict i
onsupont he
freedom t of or m associ at i
onsanduni onsi nt hei nt erestof -Sov erei gnt yandi nt egr i
tyofI ndi a  ;Publ icor der ;Mor al it
y .Ar ticle19( 5)gr ant st hegov ernmentt hepowert oi mposer easonabl er est rict i
onsupont hef reedom t o
mov ef reel yt hr oughoutt het er r
itor yofI ndi aandt hef reedom t or esi deorset tlei nanypar toft het er ritor yofI ndi ai nt hei nt er estoft hef ol lowi ngf act or s-I nt hei nt er estoft hegener alpubl icorThepr ot ect ionoft hei nt er est s
ofanySchedul edTr i
be.UnderAr ticl e19( 6)t hegov er nmentmayi mposer est rictionsupont hef reedom t opr act iceanypr of essi oni nt hei nt er estoft hegener alpubl ic, andf urther ,thegov er nmentmaymakel awsi nr el ation
topr of essi onalort echni calqual ificat ionsf orpr act isinganypr of essi onandt hegov ernmentshal lnotbebar redf rom car ry ingoutanybusi nessort rade,i ndust ryorser v ice.ARTI CLE20:PROTECTI ONI NRESPECTOF
CONVI CTI ONFOROFFENCES:Ar ticl e20af for dspr otect i
onagai nstar bitrar yandexcessi vepuni shmentt oanyper sonwhocommi tsanof fence. Noper sonshal lbeconv ict edofanyof fenceexceptf orv iol ationoft hel awi n
forceatt het imeoft hecommi ssi onoft heactchar gedasanof fence,norbesubj ect edt oapenal tygr eat ert hant hatwhi chmi ghthav ebeeni nf lictedundert hel aw i nf or ceatt het imeoft hecommi ssi onoft he
off ence[ Pr otect ionagai nstExpostf act ol aw]Thi shast wobasi ci mpl icat ions- Aper soncanbeconvi ct edofanof fenceonl yi fhehasvi ol at edal awi nf or ceatt het imewhenhei sal legedt ohavecommi ttedt heof fence. ;
Noper soncanbesubj ect edt oagr eat erpenal t
yt hanwhatmi ghthav ebeengi vent ohi m undert hel awt hatwaspr eval entwhenhecommi ttedt heof fence.Noper sonshal lbepr osecut edandpuni shedf ort hesame
offencemor et hanonce. [
Pr ot ect i
onagai nstDoubl ej eopar dy ]Noper sonaccusedofanyof fenceshal lbecompel l
edt obeawi tnessagai nsthi msel f.[Prohi bi t
ionagai nstsel f-
incr iminat i
on.Accor dingt oAr ti
cle20( 1) ,no
onecanbeawar dedpuni shmentwhi chi smor et hanwhatt hel awoft hel andpr escr i
besatt hatt ime.Thi sl egalaxi om i sbasedont hepr i
nciplet hatnocr imi nall awcanbemader etrospect iv e,thati s,f oranactt obecome
anof fence,t heessent ialcondi tioni sthati tshoul dhav ebeenanof fencel egal lyatt het imeofcommi tti
ngi t.Pr otect ionagai nstdoubl ej eopar dy -Ar t
icle20( 2)est ablisheswhati sknownas“ pr i
ncipleofdoubl ej eopar dy”,
thati s, noper soncanbeconv ictedt wicef ort hesameof fence.Thi spr inciplewasf i
rstest abli
shedi ntheMagnaCar t a.Thi sclauseembodi est hecommonl awr uleof‘ nemodebetvi svexar ipr ounaeteadem causa’ whi ch
meanst hatnomanshoul dbeputt wicei nper ilfort hesameof fence.I fhei spr osecut edagai nf orthesameof fencef orwhi chhehasal r
eadybeenpr osecut edhecant akecompl etedef enceofhi sf or meracqui ttalor
conv ict on.Pr
i ohibitionagai nstsel f
-incrimi nation. AsperAr ticle20( 3) ,noper sonaccusedofanyof fenceshal l becompel l
edt obeawi t
nessagai nsthi msel f.“Compul sion”int hisart i
cler eferst owhati nlawi scal l
ed“ Dur ess”
(i
njur y,beat i
ngorunl awf uli mpr i
sonmentt omakeaper sondosomet hingt hathedoesnotwantt odo) .Thi sar ti
cl ei sknownasasaf eguar dagai nstsel fi ncriminat on.Sel
i f-
incr i
mi nationi st heactofex posi ngonesel f
(gener all
y,bymaki ngast at ement )" t
oanaccusat ionorchar geofcr i
me; toi nv olveonesel foranot herper soni nacr imi nalpr osecut ionort hedangert her eof."Sel f-
incrimi nati
oncanoccurei therdi rectlyori ndi r
ect ly;di rectly,
bymeansofi nterrogat i
onwher einformat i
onofasel f
-incr imi natorynat urei sdi sclosed; indirectl
y, wheni nf ormat i
onofasel f-
incrimi nat or ynat ureisdi sclosedv oluntar i
lywi t
houtpr essur ef r
om anot herper son.PROTECTI ON
OFLI FEANDPERSONALLI BERTY[ ARTI CLE21]“ Noper sonshal lbedepr ivedofhi sl i
feorper sonall iber tyexceptaccor dingt opr ocedur eest ablishedbyl aw. ”Thismeanst hataper son’ sl i
feandper sonall i
ber tycanonl y
bedi sput edifthatper sonhascommi ttedacr ime.Howev er,t her i
ghtt ol ifedoesnoti ncl udether ightt odi e,andhence, suicideoranat temptt hereof ,i
sanof fence.“Per sonall i
berty ”includesal lthef reedomswhi char enot
i
ncl udedi nAr ti
cle19( thati s, thesi xf r
eedoms) .Ther ightt ot ravelabr oadi sal socov eredunder“ per sonall iber ty
”inAr ti
cle21. Thewor ds“ Noper son. ..
”si mpl yindicat esthatt hisr i
ghti sav ailabl etoev eryi ndividual , bei ta
cit
izenoranon-ci t
izen.Ther i
ghtguar anteedi nAr t
icle21i savai labl et o‘ citizens’aswel las‘ non-ci tizens’ .“.
.procedur eest abl ishedbyl aw. .
”Const i
tutionmakenodi sti
nct i
onbet weenal awmadebyt hel egi slat ure&
ordinancei ssuedbypr esident ,bot har eequal l
ysubj ectt ol i
mi tationwhi cht heConst itutionhaspl acedupont hatpoweri .e.“ .
.procedur eest abl i
shedbyl aw. .”
Itex tendsbot ht osubst antiv easwel laspr ocedur all aws.A
procedur enotfulfill
ingt heseat t
ributesi snopr ocedur eatal l intheey esofar t
.21.I nAmer i
canConst i
tution, thecor respondi ngpr ov isioni s-SCOPEOFTHERI GHTUNDERARTI CLE21“ Noper sonshal lbedepr i
vedofhi sl i
fe
orliber tyorpr oper tyexceptbyduepr ocessofl aw” Her e,‘..duepr ocess. .’r eferst oaj ust,fairandar easonabl epr ocedur e.Supr emeCour ttookanew appr oachont hisi ssuei nt heManekaGandhicaseof1978.The
prov ocat ionwast hear bitrar ylawt hathadal l
owedt heJanat aPar tygov er nmentt otakeawayManeka' spasspor twi thoutanyr emedy .Impor ti
ngt heAmer icanconceptofduepr ocess,t heSupr emeCour truledt hatt he
procedur eestablishedbyl awf ordepr i
v i
ngsomebodyoft heirl i
feorper sonall ibertyhadt obe" j
ust ,fairandr easonabl e" ManekaGandhiv.Uni
. onofI ndia[ AIR1978SC597]Pr i
ort oManekaGandhi ’
sdeci sion,Ar ticle21
guar ant eedt her i
ghtt ol i
feandper sonall ibertyt oci tizensonl yagai nstar bitrar yactionoft heexecut ive,andnotf rom l egislativeact i
on.Butaf terthiscaseAr t
icl
e21nowpr otect st her i
ghtt ol if
eandper sonall iber tyof
cit
izennotonl yf r
om t heex ecut iveact i
onbutf rom t hel egi slat i
veact i
onal so.Fact s:ManekaGandhi ’
spasspor twasi mpoundedbyt heCent ralgov er
nmentundert hePasspor tActi nthei nter estoft hegener alpubl icandi n
thenameofsecur it
yr easons.Manekaf il
edawr itpet i
tionchal l
engi ngt heor deront hegr oundofv i
olationoff undament alr i
ghtofper sonall i
ber tyunderAr ticle21.Themaj orgr oundofchal lengewast heor deri mpoundi ng
thepasspor twasnul landv oidasi thadbeenmadewi thoutaf f
ordi ngheranoppor tunityofbei nghear di nherdef ence.Al so,thatsuchani mpoundi ngor derwasnoti naccor dancewi tht hepr ocedur eest ablishedbyl aw.
Popul arlyknownas“ PhoneTappi ngcase” .Supr emeCour thel dt hatt elephonet appi ngi saser iousi nv asionofani ndi vidual ’
sr ightt opr ivacywhi chi sapar toft her ightt olifeandper sonall ibertyandi tshoul dnotbe
resor tedbyt heSt ateunl esst herei spubl icemer gencyori nt erestofpubl icsaf etyrequi res.RI
GHTTOEDUCATI ON ( Ar ti
cle21- A) :Ar ti
cle21- Ar eadsas: -“TheSt ateshal lpr ovidef reeandcompul sor yeducat iont oal l
childrenoft heageofsi xt of our teeny earsi nsuchmannerast heSt atemay ,byl aw,det ermi ne.”Ar t
icl e21- Aaddedbyt heConst itution( th
86 Amendment )Act ,2002makest heeducat i
onf rom 6t o14y ear sol d,a
fundament alr ight ,wi thi nt hemeani ngofPar tI IIoft heConst itut i
on. Ar t i
cle21- Amayber eadwi tht henewsubst itutedAr t i
cle45andnewcl ause( k)i nser tedi nAr ticle51- Abyt heConst itut i
on( 86t hAmendment )Act , 2002.
Tost udyt hest at usofr i
ghtt oeducat ion,i ti snecessar yt ounder st andt her elat i
onshi pbet weenAr t
.21- A,Ar t.45andAr t.51- A( k)Mohi niJai nV.St ateofKar nat aka[ AI R1992SC1858] (Alsoknownas“ Capi tat ionFee
case” )Supr emeCour thel dt hatr ightt oeducat i
oni saf undament alr ightunderAr t.21oft heConst itutionwhi chcannotbedeni edbychar gingahi gherf eei nt henameof‘ Capi t
at i
onf ees’ Fact
. s:I nt hiscase, thepet it
ioner
Mohi niJai nofMeer ut, U.P.hadchal lengedt hev al i
di tyofaNot ificat i
oni ssuedbyt hegov er nmentundert heKar nat akaEducat i
onalI nst itut i
ons( Pr ohi bitionofCapi t ationFee)Act , 1984whi chwaspassedt or egul at et uiti
on
feest obechar gedbypr ivateMedi calcol legesi nt heSt at e.Thepet it i
onerwasdeni edadmi ssi onont hegr oundt hatshewasunabl et opaysuchhi ghert uitionf ee.TheSChel dt hatsuchanot i
f i
cat ioni sv iolat iveofAr t
.14
andi t’
sar bi trary ,unf ai randunj ust .“Ther ightt oeducat ionf l
owsdi rect lyf rom t her ightt ol ife, ”andt her i
ghtt oeducat ionbei ngconcomi tantt ot hef undament alr ight , “Thest atei sunderaConst i
tut ionalmandat et opr ov i
de
educat ionali nst i
tut i
onsatal ll ev el sf ort hebenef i
toft heci tizens. ” RI GHTTODI EWHETHERCOVEREDUNDERRI GHTTOLI FE? ? Thisquest ioncamef orconsi der at i
onf orf i
rstt imebef or et heHi ghCour tofBombayi nSt at e
ofMahar asht r av.Mar ut iSr ipat iDubal[ 1987Cr .L.J.549] Int hi scaset heBombayHi ghCour thel dt hatt her ightt ol i
feguar ant eedunderAr ticle21i ncl udesr i
ghtt odi e, andt heHon’ bleHi ghCour tst ruckdownsect ion309,
IPCwhi chpr ov idespuni shmentf orat t
emptt ocommi tsui cidebyaper sonasunconst it
ut ional .nGi
i anKaurv .St at eofPunj ab[ (1996) 2SCC648] .Int hiscaseaf iv ej udgeConst i
t utionalBenchoft heSupr emeCour t
over ruledt heP.Rat inam’ scaseandhel dt hat“ Rightt oLi f e”underAr ticle21oft heConst itutiondoesnoti ncl ude“ Ri ghtt odi e”or“ Ri ghtt obeki ll
ed”andt her ei snogr oundt ohol dt hatt hesect ion309, IPCi sconst i
t ut i
onal l
y
i
nv alid.Thet ruemeani ngoft hewor d‘ l
ife’i nAr ticle21meansl ifewi thhumandi gni ty .Anyaspectofl ifewhi chmakesl i
f edi gnifiedmaybei ncl udedi ni tbutnott hatwhi chex t
ingui shesi t.The‘ Rightt oDi e’i fany ,is
i
nher ent lyi nconsi stentwi tht he“ Rightt oLi fe”asi s“ deat h”wi th“ Lif e.Aquest ionmayar i
se, incaseofady i
ngman, whoi s, ser iousl yi llorhasbeensuf feringf rom v irulentandi ncur abl ef or m ofdi seasehemaybeper mi t
ted
to ter mi nat e i
t by
apr emat ur eex tinct ionofhi sl ifei nt hoseci r
cumst ances.Thi scat egor yofcasesmayf al lwi thi nt heambi tof‘ Rightt oDi e’ wi thdi gni tyasapar tofl i
f ewi thdi gni ty.Accor dingt ot hecour tt hesear enotcasesofex tingui shing
l
ifebutonl yofaccel er at i
ngt hepr ocessofnat ur aldeat hwhi chhasal readycommenced. SAFEGUARDSAGAI NSTARBI TRARYARRESTANDDETENTI ON [ Ar ti
cl e22]Ar ti
cl e22oft heConst itut i
onpr ov idespr ev ent ive
detent i
onl aws.Theobj ectofpr ev ent ivedet ent ioni st opr eventaper sonf rom commi ttingacr i
meandnott opuni shhi m asi sdoneunderpuni tiv edet ent ion. pr ov idesspeci ficr i
ght st oar rest edanddet ai nedper sons,i n
particul art her ight st obei nf or medoft hegr oundsofar rest ,consul tal awy erofone' sownchoi ce,bepr oducedbef or eamagi str atewi thin24hour soft hear rest ,andt hef reedom nott obedet ainedbey ondt hatper iod
withoutanor deroft hemagi st rat e.TheConst itut i
onal soaut hor isest heSt at et omakel awspr ov idingf orpr ev ent iv edet ent ion, subj ectt ocer tainot hersaf eguar dspr esenti nAr t
icle22.Ar ticl e22Cl ause( 4)t o( 7)pr ovi des
fort her ight sofaper sondet ainedunderpr event i
vedet ent i
on.Ar t.22pr ov i
dest hatwhenaper soni sdet ainedunderanyl awofpr ev ent ivedet ent ion,t heSt at ecandet ainsuchper sonwi thoutt ri
alf oronl yt hr eemont hs,
andanydet ent ionf oral ongerper i
odmustbeaut hor isedbyanAdv isor yBoar d.Theper sonbei ngdet ainedal sohast her ightt obei nf or medaboutt hegr oundsofdet ent ion,andbeper mi t
t edt omakear epr esent at i
on
agai nsti t,att heear li
estoppor t
uni ty.Prev ent i
v edet ent ionhasnotbeenunknowni not herdemocr at i
ccount riesl i
keEngl andandCanadabutt hei rr ecour sehasbeenhadt oi tonl yinwart ime.I nA. K.Gopal anv.St at eof
Madr as, [AI R1950S. C.27] , theSupr emeCour thadex pressedt hev iewt hatadet enuecoul dnotcl aimt hef reedom guar ant eedbyAr ticle19( l)(d)i fi twasi nfringedbyhi sdet ent ion.Thel egi slat ivecapaci tyofPar liamentor
theSt atel egi slat urest oenactal awofpr ev ent ivedet ent ioni showev er ,limi tedt oCl auses( 4)t o( 7)ofAr t i
cle22whi chl aydownaf ewsaf eguar dsf oraper sonsubj ect edt osuchdet ent i
on.Theschemeoft hesecl ausesi s
tocl assi fypr ev ent i
v edet ent ioni nt hreecat egor ies, viz.:Apr event ivedet ent ionupt ot womont hs, provisi onf orwhi chmaybemadeei therbyPar liamentoraSt at el egi slat ure, insuchacase, nor efer encemaybemadet o
anAdvi sor yBoar d. Howev er ,Const i
tut i
on( 44t hAmendmentAct ,1978)hassubst i
t utedanewcl ausef orcl ause; whi chnowr educest hemaxi mum per iodf orwhi chaper sonmaybedet ai nedwi thoutobt ai ningt heopi nionof
Adv isor yBoar df rom 3mont hst o2mont hs.Thedet ent ionofaper sonf oral ongerper i
odt han2mont hscanonl ybemadeaf terobt ainingt heopi nionoft heAdv isor yBoar d.Pr ev ent ivedet ent ionf orovert hr eemont hs
subj ectt osaf eguar dofanAdvi sor yBoar dconsi stingofper sonsqual ifiedt oactasHi ghCour tjudges.Noper soncanr emai ni npr event ivedet ent ionf ormor et han3mont hsunl esst heBoar dhol dst hati ni t sopi nion,
therear esuf ficientcausesf ordet ent ion.Pr event i
vedet ent ionf orovert hr eemont hswi thoutt hesaf eguar dofanAdv i
sor yBoar d.Suchdet ent ioni spossi bl ei fPar liamentpr escr ibesbyl awt heci rcumst ancesunder
whi ch,andt hecl assorcl assesofcasesi nwhi chaper sonmaybedet ainedf orovert hreemont hswi thoutr ef erencet oAdvi sor yBoar d.Par liamentmayal sopr escr ibet hemaxi mum per i
odf orwhi chaper soncanbe
detai nedi ncases( b)and( c) .Thef ol l
owi ngsaf eguar dshav ebeenpr ov idedt oadet enue: Gr oundsofdet ent ionmustbecommuni cat ed:Ar ti
cl e22( 5)gi vest her i
ghtt ot hedet enuet obecommuni cat edt hegr oundsof
detent i
onassoonaspossi ble, t
hedet ainingaut hor itymaki ngt heor derofdet ent ionmustassoonaspossi bl ecommuni cat et ot heper sondet ainedt hegr oundsofhi sar restandt ogi v et hedet enuet heear l
iestoppor tunity
ofmaki ngr epr esent at ionagai nstt heor deroft hedet ent ion.Thecl ause( 5)ofAr ti
cl e22i mposesanobl igat ionont hedet ai ningaut hor ityt of ur nisht ot hedet enuet hegr oundsf ordet ent ion,“ assoonaspossi ble” .The
groundsofdet ent ionmustbecl earandeasi l
yunder st andabl ebyt hedet enue.Ri ghtofr epr esent ationAr ti
cle22i mposesanobl i
gat i
onupont heGov ernmentt oaf for dt hedet enuet heoppor tuni tyt omaker epr esent at i
on
undercl ause( 5)ofAr ticle22.I tmakesnodi stinct ionbet weenor derofdet ent ionf oronl yt womont hsandl essandf ort hosef oral ongerdur at ion. Theobl igat ionappl iest obot hki ndsofor der s.I tiscl earf rom cl auses( 4)
and( 5)ofAr ticle22t hatt her ei sdualobl igat ionont heappr opr iateGov ernmentanddual ri
ghti nf av ourofdet enue, namel y ,(1)t ohav ehi sr epr esent at i
oni rrespect i
v eoft hel engt hofdet ent i
onconsi der edbyt heappr opr i
at e
Gov er nment , and( i
i)t ohav eonceagai ni nt hel ightoft heci r
cumst ancesoft hecaseconsi der edbyBoar dbef or ei tgi vesi tsopi ni
on.I fint hel i
ghtoft her epr esent at ion,t heBoar df indst hatt her ei snosuf f i
ci entcausef or
detent i
on,t heGov ernmenthast or ev oket heor derofdet ent ionandsetatl iber tyt hedet enue. Adv i
sor yBoar d:Ar ticle22pr ov idest hatt hedet enueundert hepr ev ent ivedet ent ionl aw shal lhav et her ightt ohav ehi s
represent ationagai nsthi sdet ent ionr eviewedbyanAdv isor yBoar d.I ft heAdv i
sor yBoar dr epor tst hatt hedet ent ioni snotj ust ified, thedet enuemustber eleasedf or thwi th.Ift heAdv i
sor yBoar dr epor tst hatt hedet ent ioni s
j
ust ified, thegov er nmentmayf i
xt heper iodf ordet ent i
on. TheAdv isor yBoar dmustconcl udei tspr oceedi ngsex pedi ti
ousl yandmustexpr essi tsopi nionwi thint het imepr escr i
bedbyl aw.Fai lur et odot hatmakesdet ent i
on
i
nv alid.Al ongwi thi tsopi nion, theBoar dmustf or war dt heent irer ecor dt ot heGov ernmentwhoi ssupposedt ot akeadeci sionont heper usaloft heent ir
er ecor d.TheConst i
tut i
on( 44t hAmendmentAct , 1978)hasamended
Article22andr educedt hemax i
mum per iodf orwhi chaper sonmaybedet ainedwi thoutobt ai ningt heopi ni onoft heAdv isor yBoar df rom 3mont hst o2mont hs.I thasal sochangedt heconst it
ut ionoft heBoar dwhi chshal l
now consi stofaChai rmanandt woot hermember s.TheChai rmanmustbeasi ttingj udgeoft heappr opr iateHi ghCour tandot hermember sshal lbeei therasi tti
ngorr et i
redj udgeofaHi ghCour t.RI GHTAGAI NST
EXPLOI TATI ON[ ARTI CLE23- 24]Ther i
ghtagai nstexpl oi tat i
on,cont ainedi nAr ticles23–24,l ay sdowncer tainpr ov i
si onst opr eventexpl oi tationoft heweakersect ionsoft hesoci et ybyi ndi v idual sort heSt ate. Ar ticle23
prov idespr ohi bi tshumant raf ficki ng, maki ngi tanof fencepuni shabl ebyl aw, andal sopr ohi bi tsf or cedl abouroranyactofcompel li
ngaper sont owor kwi thoutwageswher ehewasl egal lyent itlednott owor kort or ecei ve
remuner at ionf ori t
.Howev er,i tper mi tst heSt at et oi mposecompul sor yser v i
cef orpubl icpur poses,i ncl udi ngconscr i
pt ionandcommuni tyser vice. TheBondedLaboursy stem ( Abol ition)Act ,1976,hasbeenenact edby
Parliamentt ogi veef fectt ot hisAr ticle.Ar ticle24pr ohi bi tst heempl oy mentofchi ldrenbel owt heageof14y ear si nf act or ies,mi nesandot herhazar dousj obs.Par liamenthasenact edt heChi ldLabour( Pr ohi bi tionand
Regul ation)Act ,1986, pr ov i
di ngr egul ationsf ort heabol itionof , andpenal ti
esf orempl oy i
ng, chi ldl abour ,aswel laspr ov isionsf orr ehabi litationoff or merchi ldl abour ers. Aspert hepr ov isi onsenshr inedt heConst i
tut ion, the
gov er nmentpassed“ TheI mmor alTr affic( Pr event ion)Act1956”and“ TheBondedLabourSy st em ( Abol it
ion)Act1976. ”Ev enwhent hest at et akesupr eliefwor kssuchasf ami neorf loodr el i
ef ,itcannotpayl esst han
mini mum wages.Whent hepr isoner sar esentf ort her i
gor ousi mpr isonment , t
heymustbepai dr easonabl ewages.Pl easenot et hatasperSupr emeCour tifapr isoneri snotpai dwages, itisnotav i
ol at i
onofAr t i
cl e.Buti f
theundert ri
al s, per sonssent encest osi mpl ei mpr isonment sandt hosewhohav ebeendet ainedunderpr ev ent i
v edet ent i
oncannotbeaskedt odomanualwor k.Theycandowor ki ftheywi sht odooutoft hei rchoi ceandi t
woul d requi re equi tabl e wages. For ced Labour is forbi dden. The For ced Labour means not onl y the phy sical
andl egalf or cebutal soar isingoutoft hecompul sionoft heeconomi cci rcumst ances. I
nt hiscont ex t,t
heSupr emeCour tofI ndi ai nPeopl e’ sUni onf orDemocr at i
cRi ght sandot her sv.Uni onofI ndi aandot her s[ 1982]al so
knownas“ Asi adWor ker sCase”gav et hef ol l
owi ngexpl anat i
on: “Wear e, ther ef ore, oft hev iewt hatwhenaper sonpr ov idesl abourofser vicet oanot herf orr emuner at i
onwhi chi sl esst hant hemi nimum wage, thel abouror
serv i
cepr ov idedbyhi m cl ear lyf al l
swi thi nt hescopeandambi toft hewor ds“ for cedl abour ”underAr ticle23oft heConst i
tut ionofI ndi a.”RI GHTTOFREEDOM OFRELI GI ON( ARTI CLE25- 28)Theconceptofsecul ar ism i s
i
mpl icitint hepr eambl eoft heI ndi anConst itutionwhi chdecl arest osecur et oal li tsci tizens“ liber tyoft hought ,expr essi on, bel ief,fai thandwor shi p. ”
Thewor d‘ secul ar ism’hasbeeni nser tedbyt he42ndAmendmentAct ,
1976.I nS. R.Bommaiv.UoI( 1994) ,theSChashel dt hat“ secul ari
sm isabasi cf eatur eoft heConst i
tution. ”Thechi efaspect sofI ndianSecul ar i
sm are:-1.NoSt at
eRel i
gion-Separ ationofSt ateandRel igion, 2.Peacef ul co-
existenceofal lreli
gions.3.Tr eatmentofal l r
eligi onsequal lybyt heSt ate,4.Equal it
yofoppor tuni
tyint hepubl icfieldf oral l
,i
rrespect iveofcast eorcreedorr aceorr eligionensur ingequalci ti
zenshi p,5.Fr eedom ofr eligi on
bothi ndiv i
dualandcor porate.TheRi ghtt oFr eedom ofRel igion,cov eredi nAr ti
cl es25–28,pr ovidesr eligiousf reedom t oal lcitizensandensur esasecul arst atei nI ndia.Accor dingt otheConst ituti
on,t her ei snoof fi
ci al
Stater eli
gi on, andt heSt ateisrequiredt otreatal lreligionsi mpar t
ial
lyandneut rall.Ar
y ticle25guar anteesal lpersonst hef reedom ofconsci enceandt her i
ghtt opr eachpr acti
ceandpr opagat eanyr eli
gionoft heirchoi ce.
Thisr i
ghti s, howev er, subjecttopubl icor der,mor ali
tyandheal th,andt hepoweroft heSt atet otakemeasur esf orsoci alwel fareandr ef or m.Ther i
ghtt opr opagat e,howev er,doesnoti ncludet her ightt oconv er tanot her
i
ndi v
idual ,si ncei twoul damountt oani nfri
ngementoft heot her'
sr i
ghtt of r
eedom ofconsci ence.Ar ticle26guar ant eesal lreligi
ousdenomi nationsandsect s,subj ectt opubl i
cor der ,mor alityandheal th,t omanaget hei r
ownaf fairsi nmat ter sofr eli
gion,setupi nsti
t ut i
onsoft heirownf orchar i
tabl eorr eligiouspur poses,andown,acqui reandmanagepr oper tyinaccor dancewi thl aw.Thesepr ovisionsdonotder ogatef rom t heSt ate' s
powert oacqui r
epr oper t
ybel ongingt oar eli
giousdenomi nat i
on.TheSt atei sal soempower edt oregul at eanyeconomi c,pol iti
calorot hersecul aract ivityassoci atedwi t
hr el
igiouspr acti
ce. Article27guar anteest hatno
personcanbecompel l
edt opayt axesf orthepr omot ionofanypar ti
cularr eligionorr eligiousi nsti
tuton.Ar
i ticl e28pr ohibitsr eli
gi ousinstr uct i
oni nawhol lySt ate-fundededucat ionali nsti
tution, andeducat ionali nstitutions
receivingai df r
om t heSt atecannotcompelanyoft hei rmember storecei v
er eli
gi ousi nst r
uctionorat tendr eligiouswor shipwi t
houtt heir( ort hei rguardian' s)consent .RESTRI CTIONSONFREEDOM OFRELI GIOn:Rel i
gi ous
l
ibertysubj ect edt opubl icorder,mor alityandheal th-I nt henameofr eli
gi on,noactcanbedoneagai nstpubl i
cor der,mor al i
tyandheal thofpubl ic.ThusSect ion34oft hePol iceActpr ohi bitst hesl aught erofcat tleor
i
ndecentex posur eofone' sper soni npubl i
cpl ace.Theseact scannotbej ust i
fiedonpl eaofpr acti
ceofr eligiousr i
tes.Li kewi se,i nthenameofr eli
gion' unt ouchabi li
t y'ortraff
ici nhumanbei ngs' e.g.sy st em ofDev -dasi s
cannotbet olerated.Theser i
ghtsar esubj ectedt ot her easonabl er estri
ctionsundercl ause( 2)ofAr ti
cle19.Fori nstance,aci t
izen'sf r
eedom ofspeechandexpr essi oni nmat tersofr el
igioni ssubj ect edt oreasonabl e
restr
ictionsunderAr ticle19( 2).Rightt opr opagat eone' sr eligiondoesnotgi ver ightt oany onet o"forcibly"conv ertanyper sont oone' sownr eligion.For cibleconv ersionofanyper sont oone'sownr eli
gionmi ghtdi sturbt he
publicor derandhencecoul dbepr ohibitedbyl aw. Regul ationofeconomi c,f i
nanci al,pol i
ti
calandsecul aract iviti
esassoci atedwi t
hr eligiouspr act ices-Cl ause( 2) (a)-Thef reedom t opr acticeex tendsonl yt ot hose
activi
tieswhi char et heessenceofr eligion.Itwoul dnotcov ersecul aract i
vitieswhi chdonotf ormt heessenceofr eligion.Iti snotal way seasyt osaywhi chact ivitiesf al
lunderr eli
giouspr acticeorwhi char eofsecul ar,
commer cialorpol i
ticalnat ureassoci atedwi t
hr eligionpr actice.Eachcasemustbej udgebyi tsownf act sandci rcumst ances. Soci alWel far eandSoci alRef orms-Cl ause( 2) (
b)-Undert hiscl ause, t
heSt at ei sempower ed
tomakel awsf orsoci alwelfareandsoci alref
or m.Thusundert hi
sclauset heSt atecaner adicatesoci alpr act icesanddogmaswhi chst andi nt hepat hoft hecount ry'sonwar dprogr ess.Suchl awsdonotaf fecttheessence
ofanyr eli
gi on.Pr ohibi t
ionofev ilpracticessuchasSat iorsy stem ofDev adasihasbeenhel dtobej ust i
fiedundert hisclause.Ther i
ghtpr ot ectedundert hiscl ausei sar ightt oenteri ntoat empl efort hepur poseofwor shi p.
Buti tdoesnotf ol l
owf rom t hist hat ,t hatr ighti s,absol ut eandunl imi t edi nchar act er .Noonecancl ai mt hatat empl emustbekeptopenf orwor shi patal lhour soft hedayandni ghtort hatheshoul dbeper mi ttedt o
per for m ser vicesper sonal lywhi cht heAchar yaal onecoul dper for m.TheSt at ecannotr egul at et hemanneri nwhi cht hewor shi poft hedei tyi sper for medbyt heaut hor isedpuj ar i
soft het empl eort hehour sandday son
whi cht het empl ei st obekeptopenf orDar shanorPuj af ordev ot ees.Ther ightofSi khst owearandcar ryKr i
pani sr ecogni sedasar eligi ouspr act icei nEx planat ion1ofAr ticle25.I tdoesnotmeant hathecankeepany
numberofKr ipans.Hecannotpossessmor et hanoneKr ipanwi thoutl icence.FREEDOM TOMANAGERELI GI OUSAFFAI RS( ARTI CLE26)Ar ticl e26say st hat ,subj ectt opubl icor der ,mor alit
yandheal th,ev er yr eligious
denomi nat ionoranysect ionofi tshal lhav et hef ollowi ngr ight s-toest abl ishandmai nt ai ni nst itut i
onsf orr eligiousandchar itabl epur pose;t omanagei tsownaf fai rsi nmat ter sofr eligi on;t oownandacqui remov abl eand
i
mmov abl epr oper ty ;toadmi ni st ersuchpr oper tyi naccor dancewi thl aw.FREEDOM FROM TAXESFORPROMOTI ONOFANYPARTI CULARRELI GI ON( ARTI CLE27)Ar t i
cl e27pr ov idest hatnoper sonshal lbecompel l
edt o
payt axf ort hepr omot ionormai nt enanceofanyr eligi onorr el igiousdenomi nat ion.Thi sAr ticleemphasi sest hesecul archar act eroft heSt at e.Thepubl icmoneycol lect edbywayoft axcannotbespentbyt heSt at ef ort he
promot ionofanypar ticul arr eligi on. PROHI BI TI ON OFRELI GI OUSI NSTI TUTI ON I N STATEAI DEDI NSTI TUTI ON ( ARTI CLE28):Accor di ngt oAr t i
cl e28( 1) ,nor eligi ousi nst ruct ionshal lbei mpar tedi nanyeducat ional
i
nst itut i
onwhol l
ymai nt ainedoutofSt atef unds.Butt hi scl auseshal lnotappl yt oaneducat ionali nst itut i
onwhi chi sadmi ni ster edbyt heSt at ebutwasnotest abl ishedunderanyendowmentort rustwhi chr equi rest hat
rel
igi ousi nst ruct ionshal lbei mpar t edi nsuchi nst i
t ution.ThusAr t i
cl e28ment ionsf ourt y pesofeducat ionali nst itut ons:I
i nst itut ionswhol lymai nt ai nedbyt heSt at e;Inst it
ut ionsr ecogni sedbyt heSt at e;I nst itut i
onst hat
arer ecei vi ngai doutoft heSt at ef und; Inst itut ionst hatar eadmi ni st er edbyt heSt at ebutar eest abl i
shedanyt rustorendowment .Int hei nst itut ionsof( a)t ype, nor el igiousi nst ruct ionscanbei mpar ted. In( b)and( c)t ype
ofi nst it
ut ions, religi ousi nst ruct ionsmaybei mpar tedonl ywi tht heconsentoft hei ndi v idual s.I nt he( d)t ypei nst i
tut i
on, ther ei snotr est r i
ct iononr eligi ousi nst ruct ions.CULTURALANDEDUCATI ONALRI GHTS( Ar ticle29-
30)I ndi a,bei ngadi ver secount rywi thamy riadofet hni cbackgr ounds,r eligi ousi nfluenceandv ar i
edsub-cul tur es,al sohav emi nor itygr oups.Ar ticl es29t o30oft heI ndi anConst itut ionef fect ivel yai mt oer adi cat et hi s
probl em bymaki ngapr ov isioni nt hear ticleknownas‘ Ri ghtt oCul tur alandEducat i
onalr ight sofMi nor itygr oups’ .TheCul tur alandEducat ionalr i
ght sar emeasur est opr otectt her ight sofcul tur al,l i
ngui st i
candr eligious
mi nor iti
es,byenabl i
ngt hem t oconser vet hei rher itageandpr ot ect ingt hem agai nstdi scr i
mi nat i
on. Ar ticle29gr ant sanysect ionofci tizenshav ingadi st i
nctl anguage,scr i
ptcul t ureofi t sownt her ightt oconser v eand
dev el opt hesame,andt hussaf eguar dst her ight sofmi nor itiesbypr ev ent ingt heSt at ef rom i mposi nganyext er nalcul tur eont hem.I tal sopr ohi bitsdi scr imi nat ionagai nstanyci ti
zenf oradmi ssioni nt oanyeducat ional
i
nst itut i
onsmai nt ainedorai dedbyt heSt ate,ont hegr oundsonl yofr el i
gi on,r ace,cast e,l anguageoranyoft hem.Howev er ,thi si ssubj ectt or eser v ationofar easonabl enumberofseat sbyt heSt at ef orsoci al lyand
educat ional lybackwar dcl asses, aswel lasr eser v at ionofupt o50per centofseat si nanyeducat ionali nst itutionr unbyami nor itycommuni tyf orci tizensbel ongi ngt ot hatcommuni ty .Ar ticl e30conf er suponal lr eligious
andl ingui sticmi nor i
tiest her ightt osetupandadmi ni st ereducat i
onali nstitut ionsoft hei rchoi cei nor dert opr eser v eanddev elopt hei rowncul tur e,andpr ohi bi tst heSt ate,whi legr ant ingai d,f rom di scr i
mi nat ingagai nst
anyi nst i
t utionont hebasi soft hef actt hati ti sadmi nist er edbyar eligi ousorcul turalmi nor ity .Thet erm" mi nor ity", whi lenotdef inedi nt heConst itution, hasbeeni nt er pr et edbyt heSupr emeCour tt omeananycommuni ty
whi chnumer ical lyf or msl esst han50%oft hepopul at i
onoft hest at ei nwhi chi tseekst oav ailt her ightunderAr ti
cl e30.I nor dert ocl aimt her ight , iti sessent i
alt hatt heeducat i
onali nst itutionmusthav ebeenest abl ished
aswel lasadmi nist eredbyar el igi ousorl ingui st icmi nor it y.Fur ther , ther i
ghtunderAr ticl e30canbeav ai ledofev eni ft heeducat i
onali nst i
t utionest abl isheddoesnotconf inei tsel ft ot het eachi ngoft her el igionorl anguage
oft hemi nor i
t yconcer ned,oramaj or ityofst udent si nt hati nst itut i
ondonotbel ongt osuchmi nor ity .Thi sr ighti ssubj ectt ot hepoweroft heSt at et oi mposer easonabl er egul at ionsr egar di ngeducat i
onalst andar ds,
condi tionsofser viceofempl oy ees, feest ruct ur e, andt heut ilisat ionofanyai dgr ant edbyi t .RIGHTTOPROTECTI ONOFI NTERESTS( ARTI CLE29) :Theconst itut ionofI ndi aensur esequalt oal lt heci tiz ensofI ndi al iber ty
per tai ningt oconser v i
ngt heircul tur e,l anguageandscr iptunderAr ticl e29( 1) .Thi spr ov isi onsi mpl yst at est hatt heci ti
zenshav et her ightt opr eser v et hei rl anguage,her itageandbackgr oundsandcannotbest ifledby
maj orl anguagegr oups. Thesecondr ightunderAr t i
cl e29( 2), say st hat‘ nomi nor itygr oupswi l
lbedeni edadmi ssi oni nt oanyeducat ionalsy st em ori nst itutionoft hei rchoi ce, andwi llal sonotbedepr ivedofanyf undsf rom
thest at epur el ybasedonr eligi on,cast eorl anguage’ .I nt hiscase,nomi nor it
yormaj or itycanbedeni edadmi ssioni ntoanyst at eorpr ivat ei nst it
ut ionont hebasi sofsoci alf act or ssuchasl anguageandr el i
gi on.The
i
nst itut i
onshav et her esponsi bi lityofaccept ingst udent sont hebasi sofmer itandt alent ,andnotont hebasi sofl anguage, classandr el i
gi on.Thei nst itut ionsal sohav et omakesur et hatt hecul turaldi v er sityoft hecount ry
i
swel l
- mai nt ainedi nt hef or m ofmul tifar iousl anguagesandv ar iousr el igiousgr oups. Al thought her eappear st obeov er l
appi ngofpr ov i
si onsi nr espectt oAr t i
cl e15( 1)and29( 2) ,Ar ticl e15( 1)i samor egener alpr ov ision
stat i
ngt hatt her eshal lbenodi scr imi nat ionont hebasi sofsex,cast eandr eligi on.Ar ticl e29,howev er ,ismor especi f i
cper taini ngt oapar ticul arspeci esoft hesy st em i nt hef orm ofgai ni ngadmi ssi oni nt oeducat ional
syst emsandget tingbenef itsf r om st at ef undsl ikeal lot herci tizens. RI GHTTOESTABLI SHEDUCATI ONALI NSTI TUTI ONS( ARTI CLE30) :Ar ticle30oft heI ndi anConst itutionst at est hatr el igiousandl anguagemi nor it
ies
will hav et her ightt oadmi ni sterandst ar tt hei rowneducat ional inst itut ions.Howev er ,nomi nor ity, ot hert hant heonessuggest edi nt hear ti
cl ewi llhav et her ightt oest abl ishanyi nst itut ion. Ar ticle30( 1A) -I nmaki nganyl aw
prov idi ngf ort hecompul sor yacqui si tionofanypr oper tyofaneducat ionali nst i
tut ionest abl ishedandadmi ni ster edbyami nor ity, ref er redt oi ncl ause( 1) ,theSt at eshal lensur et hatt heamountf i
xedbyordet ermi nedunder
suchl aw f ort heacqui sitionofsuchpr oper t yi ssuchaswoul dnotr est r
ictorabr ogat et her ightguar ant eedundert hatcl ause. Thesecondpr ov i
si on,underAr ticle30( 2)st at est hat ,t hegov er nmentwi llnotdenyt hese
i
nst itut i
onsanyst at ef undsorai dont hebasi st hati ti sr unandmanagedbymi nor itygr oups. PROTECTI ONOFMI NORI TYGROUPS:Thegov er nmenthascomewi thv ariedl awst ohel ppr ot ectt her i
ght soft hemi nor iti
es.
ThePr ot ect ionofCi vilRi ght sAct1989andt hePr ev ent ionofAt roci tiesActof1989ar et wosuchact sest ablishedbyt hegov er nment .TheNat ionalCommi ssi onf orMi nor ityEducat ional Inst i
t utions, 1992wassetupt ol ook
i
nt oanygr i
ev ancesl odgedbyt hemi nor itiesoranyv iol at i
onofr ight s.Thecommi ssi onwasal sosetupt oadv icet hest at eorcent r algov er nmentonanymat terr el at ingt ot hepr otect ionofeducat ional mi nor itygr oupsbypr
ovidi ngr epor tsandsuggest ions. Whatar et heact ualr i
ght soft hemi nor ities?Mi nor itiescannotonl yest abl i
sheducat ionali nst i
tut ionsoft hei rchoi cebutal soadmi nist ert hem.Supr emeCour thasf ur therl aiddownt hatt he
ri
ghtt oest abl ishandadmi nist erbr oadl ycompr isesofr ightt o-admi tst udent s;setupar easonabl ef eest r
uct ur e; const ituteagov erni ngbodyi .e.Management ;appoi ntst aff( teachi ngandnon- teachi ng) ;andt akeact ioni f
ther ei sder elict i
onofdut yont hepar tofanyempl oy ees.St at usofNon- mi nor i
tyI nst itut ions-Non- mi nor ity( i
.e.t heMaj ority)educat ionali nst itut ionsar egov er nedbyt hepol iciesandr egul at ionsoft hest at egov er nmentor
theCent ralGov er nmenti nmat ter sofadmi ssi on,appoi nt mentofst aff ,fixingt hef eest ruct ur eandconst itutionofgov er ningbody ,wher east hemi nor ityi nst itut ionsar enot .Exceptt her ightt oest abl ishandadmi nister
educat ionali nst i
tut ionsoft hei rchoi ce,t her ei snoot herr i
ghtt hatmi nor i
t i
esenj oyundert heConst itut i
onofI ndi a.RI GHTTO CONSTI TUTI ONALREMEDI ES( Ar ticle32&226) :Anypr ov i
si oni nanyConst itut ionf or
Fundament alRi ght si smeani ngl essunl esst her ear eadequat esaf eguar dst oensur eenf or cementofsuchpr ov isions.Enf or cementoft hef undament alr ight sl ar gel ydependsupont hedegr eeofi ndependenceoft he
Judi ci ar yandt heav ai l
abi lityofr el ev anti nst rument swi tht heexecut i
v eaut hor ity .Indi anConst itutionl ay sdowncer tai npr ov isionst oensur et heenf or cementofFundament alRi ght s.Thesear easunder :TheFundament al
Right spr ov idedi nt heI ndi anConst itut ionar eguar ant eedagai nstanyexecut iveandl egi sl ativ eact ions.Anyexecut i
v eorl egi sl ativ eact ion,whi chi nf r i
ngesupont heFundament alRi ght sofanyper sonoranygr oupof
per sons, can be decl ared as v oid by the Cour ts under Ar ticle 13 of
theConst itut ion. Inaddi tion, t
heJudi ci ar yhast hepowert oi ssuet hepr er ogat ivewr its.Thesear et heext raor dinar yr emedi espr ov idedt ot heci tizenst ogett hei rr ight senf or cedagai nstanyaut hor ityint heSt ate.Thesewr its
are-Habeascor pus,Mandamus,Pr ohi bi tion,Cer tior ar iandQuowar rant o.Bot h, Hi ghCour t saswel last heSupr emeCour tmayi ssuet hewr i
tsTheFundament alRi ght spr ov i
dedt ot heci ti
z ensbyt heConst i
tut i
oncannot
besuspendedbyt heSt ate,ex ceptdur ingt heper iodofemer gency ,asl aiddowni nAr ticle359oft heConst itut ion. Howev er, Ar ticle32i sr ef er redt oast he" Const itut ionalRemedy "f orenf or cementofFundament alRi ght s.
Thispr ov isi oni tsel fhasbeeni ncl udedi nt heFundament alRi ght sandhencei tcannotbedeni edt oanyper son.Dr .B. R.Ambedkardescr ibedAr ticle32ast hehear tandsoulofI ndi anConst i
tut ion,wi thoutwhi cht he
Const itut i
onwoul dber educedt onul li
ty .Byi ncl udi ngAr ticle32i nt heFundament alRi ght s,t heSupr emeCour thasbeenmadet hepr otect orandguar ant oroft heseRi ght s.Anappl i
cat ionmadeunderAr ti
cl e32oft he
Const itut i
onbef oret heSupr emeCour t,cannotber ef usedont echni calgr ounds.I naddi tiont ot hepr escr ibedf ivet ypesofwr its,t heSupr emeCour tmaypassanyot herappr opr iateor der .Mor eov er ,onl yt hequest i
ons
per tai ningt ot heFundament alRi ght scanbedet er mi nedi npr oceedi ngsagai nstAr t i
cl e32. UnderAr ticle32,t heSupr emeCour tmayi ssueawr itagai nstanyper sonorgov er nmentwi thi nt het erritor yofI ndi a.Wher et he
i
nf ringementofaFundament alRi ghthasbeenest abl ished,t heSupr emeCour tcannotr ef user eliefont hegr oundt hatt heaggr iev edper sonmayhav er emedybef or esomeot hercour torundert heor di nar yl aw.Ther eli
ef
canal sonotbedeni edont hegr oundt hatt hedi sput edf act shav et obei nv est igat edorsomeev i
dencehast obecol lect ed.Ev eni fanaggr iev edper sonhasnotaskedf orapar ticul arwr i
t,t heSupr emeCour t,af ter
consi der ingt hef act sandci rcumst ances, maygr antt heappr opr iat ewr itandmayev enmodi fyi tt osui tt heexi genci esoft hecase. Nor mal l
y , onl yt heaggr i
ev edper soni sal lowedt omov et heCour t.Buti thasbeenhel dby
theSupr emeCour tt hati nsoci alorpubl i
ci nt er estmat ter s, anyonemaymov et heCour t.Anypi eceofl egi slat i
onorl aw, whi cht endst oi nt erf er ewi tht hepowerofSupr emeCour tunderAr ticl e32shal lbedecl aredasv oi d.
Hence,t her ei snowayt hatt hel egi slat iveort heex ecut iveaut hor i
tiescanby -passt hepowerandr esponsi bili
t yent rust edt ot heSupr emeCour tbyt heConst itut ion.Wr itofHabeascor pus:I tist hemostv aluabl ewr itfor
per sonall iber ty.HabeasCor pusmeans," Letushav et hebody ."Aper son,whenar r est ed,canmov et heCour tf ort hei ssueof HabeasCor pus.I ti sanor derbyaCour tt ot hedet ai ningaut hor ityt opr oducet hear rest ed
per sonbef or ei tsot hati tmayex ami newhet hert heper sonhasbeendet ainedl awf ul lyorot her wi se.I ft heCour tisconv incedt hatt heper soni si ll
egal l
ydet ai ned, itcani ssueor der sf orhi sr elease. TheWr i
tofMandamus:
Mandamusi saLat i
nwor d, whi chmeans" WeCommand" .Mandamusi sanor derf rom asuper i
orcour tt oal owercour tort ribunalorpubl icaut hor ityt oper for m anact , whi chf allswi thi ni t
sdut y .Iti si ssuedt osecur et he
per for manceofpubl icdut i
esandt oenf or cepr ivat er ight swi thhel dbyt hepubl icaut hor ities.Si mpl y ,itisawr iti ssuedt oapubl icof fi
ci alt odoat hingwhi chi sapar tofhi sof fici aldut y, but ,whi ch, hehasf ailedt odo, sof ar.
Thiswr itcannotbecl aimedasamat terofr i
ght .I tist hedi scr et i
onar ypowerofacour tt oi ssuesuchwr its.TheWr itofQuo- War rant o:Thewor dQuo- War rant ol i
t eral lymeans" bywhatwar rant s? ”or" bywhataut hor ity ”.Iti s
awr iti ssuedwi thav iewt or est raini ngaper sonf rom act ingi napubl icof ficet owhi chhei snotent itl
ed.Thewr itofquowar rant oi susedt opr ev enti ll
egalassumpt ionofanypubl i
cof ficeorusur pat ionofanypubl icof fice
byany body .Forex ampl e,aper sonof62y ear shasbeenappoi ntedt of illapubl icof f
icewher east her et i
r ementagei s60y ear s.Now, theappr opr iat eHi ghCour thasar ightt oi ssueawr itofquo- war rant oagai nstt heper son
anddecl ar et heof ficev acant .TheWr itofPr ohi bition:Wr itofpr ohi bi tionmeanst of or bi dort ost opandi ti spopul arlyknownas' St ayOr der '.Thi swr iti si ssuedwhenal owercour torabodyt ri
est ot ransgr esst hel imi tsor
power sv est edi ni t.I ti sawr iti ssuedbyasuper iorcour tt ol owercour torat ribunalf or biddi ngi tt oper for m anactout sidei tsj ur isdi ct i
on.Af tert hei ssueoft hi swr it, pr oceedi ngsi nt hel owercour tet c.comet oast op. The
Wr itofCer t i
or ar i:Li teral ly,Cer tior ar imeanst obecer tified.Thewr itofcer tior arii si ssuedbyt heSupr emeCour tt osomei nf er iorcour tort ribunalt ot r ansf ert hemat t ert oi tort osomeot hersuper ioraut hor ityf orpr oper
consi der at ion. WRI TSOFPROHI BI TI ON,MANDAMUSANDCERTI ORARI :Thewr i
tofpr ohi bi ti
oni si ssuedbyanyHi ghCour tort heSupr emeCour tt oanyi nf er iorcour t
,pr ohi bi t
ingt hel at tert ocont inuepr oceedi ngsi na
par ticul arcase, wher ei thasnol egal jur isdi ctionoft rial.Whi let hewr itofmandamuscommandsdoi ngofpar ticul art hi ng, thewr itofpr ohi bi tioni sessent iallyaddr essedt oasubor di nat ecour tcommandi ngi nact ivity.Wr itof
prohi bi tioni s, thus, notav ai l
abl eagai nstapubl i
cof ficernotv est edwi thj udi ci al orquasi -judi cialpower s.TheSupr emeCour tcani ssuet hi swr itonl ywher eaf undament alr i
ghti saf fect ed. Thewr i
tofcer tior ar icanbei ssued
byt heSupr emeCour toranyHi ghCour tf orquashi ngt heor deral readypassedbyani nf er i
orcour t
.I not herwor ds,whi let hepr ohi bi tioni sav ai labl eatt heear lierst age,cer tior ar iisav ai labl eonsi mi largr oundsatal ater
stage.I tcanal sobesai dt hatt hewr itofpr ohi bitioni sav ailabl edur ingt hependencyofpr oceedi ngsbef oreasub- or dinat ecour t, cer tior ar icanber esor tedt oonl yaf tert heor derordeci si onhasbeenannounced. Ther ear e
sever alcondi tionsnecessar yf ort hei ssueofwr itofcer tior ar i,whi char easunder :
Ther eshoul dbecour t,tr
ibunaloranof ficerhav ingl egalaut hor it yt odet er mi net hequest ionofdeci di ngf undament alr ight swi thadut yt o
actj udi cial ly;Suchacour t,tribunal orof fi
cermusthav epassedor deract ingwi thoutj ur isdi ct ionori nexcessoft hej udi cialaut hor ityv est edbyl awi nsuchcour t, tribunalorl aw; Theor dercoul dal sobeagai nstt hepr i
nci pleof
nat ur al just iceori tcoul dcont ai naner rorofj udgmenti nappr eci at ingt hef act soft hecase

Directivepr incipl
esofSt atePolicy:PartIVoft heConst i
tutionofI ndiancont ainsDi r
ecti
v ePr i
nciplesofSt at
ePol i
cywhi chext endsf rom Ar ti
cles38t o51( bot hincl usive)
.TheconceptofDi rectivePr incipl
esunderPar t
IVofI ndi anConst itutionhav ebeeni nspi r
edbyt heDi rectivePr i
nciplesgi venintheConst i
tutionofI relandandal sobyt hepr i
nci plesofGandhi sm; andr elatetosoci aljusti
ce,economi cwelfar e,f
or eignpol i
cy ,
andl egal
andadmi nistrati
vemat ters.CHARACTERI STICSOFDI RECTI VEPRI NCI PLES:Theyar enotenf orceablei nanyl aw courtsandt hereforei fadi rectiv
ei snotobey edori mpl ement edbyt heSt ate,it
sobedi enceor
i
mpl ement ationcannotbesecur edthroughj udicialproceedi ngs; Thesear ef undament alint hegov ernanceoft hecount ryandi tshallbet hedut yoft heSt atet oappl ythesepr i
nciplesinmaki ngl aws.Despi tebei ngnon
-j
usticiabl e,theDi rect i
vePr inci
plesactasacheckont heSt ate;theor i
sedasay ardsti
cki nthehandsoft heel ectorateandt heopposi t
iont omeasur etheper formanceofagov ernmentatt het imeofanel ect i
on. The
.
directi
v esi nt henat ureofi dealsoft heSt atear e-The St ate shal lst ri
vet o promot et he wel fare of t he peopl e by secur i
ng asoci alorderper meat edbysoci al,economi candpol i
ti
calj usti
ce( Art.38) ;
The
State shal lendeav our t o secur ej ustand humane condi ti
ons of wor k al i
vingwageadecentst andardofl i
vingandsoci alandcul turaloppor tuni
tiesf oral lworkers( Art43);TheStat eshal lendeav ourt or aise
thel evelofnut ri
tionandst andardofl ivi
ngandt oi mpr ovet heheal thoft hepeopl e(Art.47) ;
TheSt ateshal lendeav ourt opr omot ei nternationalpeaceandami t
y( Art
.51) ;
TheSt ateshal ldir
ecti tspol i
cyt owar ds
secur i
ngequi tabledi str
ibutionoft hemat er i
alresour cesoft hecommuni tyandpr eventionofconcent rati
onofweal thandmeansofpr oduct i
ont ot hecommondet r
iment(Ar t.39) Di
. rect
ivesi nt henat ureofpol icyof
theSt at e–Toest ablisheconomi cdemocr acyandj usti
cebysecur ingcer tai
neconomi cr ights;
Tosecur eauni form civilcodef ortheci ti
zen.( Art.44);Topr ov idef r
eeandcompul sorypr i
mar yeducat ion( Art.45) ;
To
prohibitconsumpt ionofl i
quorandi nt
ox i
catingdr ugex ceptf ormedi calpurposes( Art.47) ;
Todev elopcot tagei ndustri
es( Ar t
.43) ;
Toor gani seagr icul
tureandani malhusbandr yonmoder nl i
nes( Art.48);Topr ev ent
slaught erofusef ulcat t
lei.e.cows, calvesandot hermi l
chanddr aught,cattle(Art.48);
Toor ganisev ill
agePanchay atsasuni tsofsel f-
gov ernment( Art
.40) ;
Topr otectandi mpr ovetheenv ironmentandt osaf eguar ds
forestandwi ldlif
e( Art
.48A) ;
Topr otectandmai ntainpl acesofhi stori
corar t
isti
cinterest( Art.49) ;Tosepar atetheJudi ci aryf r
om theExecut i
ve( Art.50)Di rect i
vesint henat ur
eofnon- justiciabler i
ghtsofever y
citi
zen- Rightt oadequat emeansofl i
veli
hood( Art.39( a) )
;Rightt obot hsexest oequalpayf orequalwor k( Art.39( d))
;Rightagai nsteconomi cexpl oit
ation( Art.39(e),
(f)
);Righttowor k( Ar t
.41) ;
Righttoeducat ion
(Art.
45)

Dif f
erence:1.TheFundament alRi
ghtsareri
ght
sav ai
labl
etotheciti
z ensofI ndi
a,soint hatsense,theyr epresentanindivi
duali
sti
cappr oach.Theyarethebasicri
ghtsofeveryi
ndivi
dualcit
izeni
nt hecountr
yandt hey
canbeenf orcedagainstanot heri
ndivi
dualort
heSt ateifvi
olat
ed.TheDi recti
vePrinciplesrepresentamor esocialapproach.Theyexi stbecauseofthewel f
areofthewholepopul at
ionoft hecountryinsteadof
i
ndi vi
duals.Theyar ecoll
ecti
veinnature.
2.ThescopeofFundament alRi ghtsisessentiall
ylimit
ed, becausegr antingli
mitl
essrightstotheci t
izensmayresulti
nanarchy.Theyaretober eadstri
ctly
.Butthescopeof
Directi
vePr i
ncipl
esislimitl
ess.Theycanbereadandi nt
erpr
etedextensivelyandcangi vebi r
thtomor eprincipl
es.3.FundamentalRightsar enegati
vei
nnature,whichmeansthattheyareprohibi
ti
onsont heSt at
e.The
Stateisrequiredfrom doingcertai
nthi
ngsthatwouldleadtotheviolati
onofani ndi
vi
dual ’
sFundament alRights.Theyar el
egallyenfor
ceabl ei
nacourtoflawoft hecountr
y.Thi
salsoimpl i
esthatFundament alRights
areofsuchanat urethattheycanbev iolated.Di recti
vePr incipl
es, ont heot herhand, donotpossesst hecharacter
isticofbei ngviolated.Theyex istasabasi sfort hel awst hatar ef or mulatedf orthecount ryandt hi
s
i
mpl iest hatt heycannotbel egallyenf orcedi nacour toflawoft hecount ry.Thisr enderst heDi r
ectivePrinci
plesposi tiv
ei nnat ure,i.
e.t heSt ateisobl igedt odocer t
aint hingsf ort hewel f
areoft hecount ry.4.Si nce
Indiaisademocr at
iccount r
y ,thereex istelement sofdemocr acyi ni tslaws.Bot h,theFundament alRightsandt heDi recti
v ePr i
nciplespr opagat et heideaofdemocr acy ,butt heki ndofdemocr acytheypr opagat eis
diff
erent .Fundament alRightspr opagat eapol it
icaldemocr acy,wher easDi rect
ivePr i
ncipl
espr opagat esocialandeconomi cdemocr acy .Itissimpl ybecauset heobj ect ivesofbot hpar tsar edi f
fer
ent.Fur t
her mor e,
Fundament alRightsstandf orwel far
eoft hei ndiv i
dual,wher easDi rectivePr i
nciplesst andf orsoci alandeconomi cwel f
are.5.Fort hei mpl ement ationofDi recti
vePr i
ncipl es, appropr iatelegislati
onsarer equired.Itis
throughl egi sl
ati
ononl ythatt heDi rectivePr i
nci plescanbeachi ev ed.Theycannotbebr oughti ntof orceautomat i
callyandi nt hel
anguaget hattheyar eincorporatedi nt heConst itution.Howev er
,Fundament alRights
areenf orceabl east heyare.Theydon’ trequireanyl awi nor dert obei mpl ement ed.Butt hatdoesnotmeant hatFundament alRightsar edev oi
dofsanct ions.DirectivePr i
nci pleshav el egalandpol i
ti
calsanct ions,but
Fundament alRightsalsohav el egalsanct i
ons. 6.Ifanylawi sv i
olat i
v eoft heFundament alRight s,acour tcandeclaret hatlawasbei ngunconst i
tutionalandi nvalid.Butt hecour t
sdonothav et hepowert odecl ar
eany
l
aw v iolati
v eofaDi recti
vePr incipletobeunconst i
tuti
onalori nval i
d.Howev er
,al aw canbeuphel dbyacour tifitgi vesef fecttoaDi recti
vePr inciple.7.TheConst it
ut ionmaker sawar dedapl aceofpr i
det ot he
Fundament alRights.Theyar et hebasi cr i
ghtsguar anteedt oev eryci ti
zen.TheDi rectivePrinciplesar egivenapl aceofper manencei nt heConst i
tutionbecauset heyf ormt hebasi sfort hel egislat
iveacti
vitythatt akes
placei nt hecount ry.
8.Violationoft heFundament alRi ghtsr esul tsi npuni shment ,aspert heI ndianPenalCode,1860.Theser i
ght scanbeenf orcedagai nstt heSt ateoragai nstanyi ndivi
dual(
s).Ther eisno
punishmentf orthev i
olat
ionofDi recti
vePr i
nciples.9.Fundament al Rightscanbesuspendeddur i
ngaper i
odofemer gency ,exceptt heFundament alRi ghttoLi f
eandPer sonal Liberty,whi chcannotbesuspendedev en
i
nanemer gency .Dir
ectiv
ePr inciplescannev erbesuspendedorr est ri
cted,underanyci rcumst ance.

TheUni f
orm Ci vilCode( UCC)cal lsf ort hef ormul ati
onofonel awf orI ndia, whichwoul dbeappl icabletoallr eli
giouscommuni tiesi nmat terssuchasmar r
iage, divorce, i
nher itance, adopt i
on.Thecodecomesunder
Arti
cle44oft heConst ituti
on, whi chl ay sdownt hatt hest ateshal lendeav ourt osecur eaUni form Ci vi
lCodef ort heci t
izenst hr
oughoutt het erri
toryofI ndia.Theobj ect i
v eofAr ticl
e44oft heDi r
ectivePr inciplesinthe
IndianConst it
utionwast oaddr esst hedi scri
mi nat ionagai nstv ulnerabl egr oupsandhar moni sedi versecul t
uralgr oupsacr ossthecount ry .Dr.BRAmbedkar ,whi leformul at ingt heConst i
tutionhadsai dt hataUCCi s
desirablebutf ort hemomenti tshoul dr emai nv olunt ary,andt hust heAr ticle35oft hedraftConst it
utionwasaddedasapar toft heDi rect i
v ePr inciplesoft heSt atePol icyi npar tI Voft heConst i
tutionofI ndiaas
Arti
cle44.Theor i
gi noft heUCCdat esbackt ocol onialI ndiawhent heBr itishgov er
nmentsubmi tteditsreporti n1835st ressingtheneedf oruni formi tyi nt hecodi fi
cationofI ndi anlawr el
at i
ngt ocrimes, ev i
dence, and
cont r
acts,speci f
icallyrecommendi ngt hatper sonall awsofHi ndusandMusl imsbekeptout sidesuchcodi f
icat i
on.Basedont heser ecommendat ions, abi l
lwast henadopt edi n1956ast heHi nduSuccessi onActt o
amendandcodi fyt hel aw r elatingt oi ntestat eorunwi l
ledsuccessi on,amongHi ndus,Buddhi sts,Jains,andSi khs.Howev er,ther ewer esepar ateper sonall awsf ormusl im,chi rsti
anandPar sis.I
nor dert obri
ng
uniformity,thecour tshav eof t
ensai di nt heirjudgement st hatt hegov ernmentshoul dmov et owar dsaUCC.I ndianl awsdof ollow auni form codei nmostci v
ilmat t
er ssuchas  IndianCont ractAct1872,Ci vi
l
Procedur eCode,Tr ansferofPr oper tyAct1882,Par tner shipAct1932,  Ev i
denceAct ,1872  etc.States,howev er,havemadehundr edsofamendment sand,t her efore,incer tainmat t
ers,ther eisdiversityev enunder
thesesecul arcivillaws. Freel egalai d: Legal Aidmeansgi vi
ngf reel egalser vicest othepoorandweakersect i
onofsoci etywhocannotaf fordt otaket heser v i
ceofadv ocat et oconductacaseoranyl egalpr oceeding
i
nt hecour toflaw, anyjudi cialaut hor ityorbef oreanyj udicialtri
bunal .Article39Aoft heConst i
tut i
onofI ndiapr ov i
dest hatStateshal l secur ethatt heoper ati
onoft helegal sy stem pr omot esj usti
ceonabasi sofequal
oppor t
unity,andshal linpar ticular ,
pr ov idef r
eel egalai d, bysui tablel egislat ionorschemesori nanyot herway ,toensur ethatoppor tunitiesf orsecur ingj ust i
cear enotdeni edt oanyci ti
zenbyr easonofeconomi cor
otherdisabili
ty.
Arti
cles14and22( 1)alsomakei tobl igat oryf ort heSt atet oensur eequal itybef orelawandal egalsy stem whi chpr omot esjusti
ceonabasi sofequaloppor tunityt oal l
.Legalai dst r
ivest oensur ethatconst itut
ional
pledgei sfulfi
l
ledi ni t
slet t
erandspi ritandequal justicei smadeav ailablet ot hepoor ,downt roddenandweakersect i
onsoft hesoci ety .
Thepr eambl eoft heI ndi anconst itutionbasi call
yai mst osecuret ot hepeopl eof
Indiajusti
ce-soci o-economi candpol i
tical .HisLor dshi pJust iceP. N.Bhagwat iaptlystatedt hatlegalai dmeanspr ovidinganar rangementi nt hesoci etywhi chmakest hemachi ner yofadmi nist
rati
onofJust i
ceeasi ly
accessibleandi nr eachoft hosewhohav et oresor ttoi tforenf orcementofr ightsgi ventothem byl aw.Ar ti
cle38( 1)av owst hattheSt ateshal lpromot ethewel fareoft hepeopl ebysecur i
ngandpr otect i
ngt hesoci al
orderincludingj ust i
ce.Arti
cl e21cl ear l
ysay st hatev eryper sonhasanequalr i
ghtt olif
eandl ibertyex ceptaccor di
ngt othepr ocedur eest ablishedbyt hel aw.TheSt at eshal lsecur ethatt heoper at i
onoft helegal
system promot esj usti
ce,onabasi sofequaloppor t
uni ty,andshal l,inpar ticular,prov i
defreel egalai d,bysui tablelegislati
onorschemesori nanyot herway ,toensur et hatoppor tuniti
esf orsecur i
ngj usticear enot

deni
edt
oanyci
ti
zenbyr
easonofeconomi
corot
herdi
sabi
l
iti
es .

Schedul edcast esandSchedul edTr i

bes:Sev eralpr ov i
si onshav ebeeni ncor poratedi nt heConst i
tuti
onf orsaf eguar dingandpr omot i
ngt hei nterest sandr ightsoft heSchedul edTr ibesinvar i
ousspher essoast oenable
them t oj oi
nt henat ionalmai nst r
eam.Anov erviewoft hepr ovisionsisasf oll
ows.Ar ticle46oft heConst i
tutionpr ovidest hatt heSt ateshal lpromot ewi t
hspeci alcar et heeducat ionalandeconomi cinter estsoftheweaker
sect i
onsoft hesoci etyandi npar t
icular,oftheSchedul edCast esandSchedul edTr ibesandshal lprotectt hem f rom soci alinjusticeandal lformsofexpl oi tati
on. Reser vationineducat i
onalinsti
tuti
onhasbeenpr ov i
dedin
Article15( 4)whi l
er eservat i
oninpost sandser v
iceshasbeenpr ov i
dedi nAr ti
cle16( 4) ,16(4A)and16( 4B)oft heConst i
tution.Ar ti
cle335  providest hatthecl aimsoft hemember soft heSchedul edCast esandt heSchedul ed
Tribesshal lbet akeni ntoconsi deration,consi stentlywi tht hemai ntenanceofef ficiencyofadmi nist
rat i
on,i nthemaki ngof  appoint ment stoser v i
cesandpost s  i
nconnect i
onwi t
ht heaf f
airsoft heUni onorofaSt ate.
Ar ticle243D  pr ovidesf orr eser vat i
onf orSchedul edCast esandSchedul edTr i
besi nPanchayat sint hesamepr opor t
ionast hepopul ationofSchedul edCast esorSchedul edTr i
besi nt hevi l
lage.
Ar ticle243T  pr omi sest hesamepr opor ti
onat er eser vat i
onofseat si nMuni cipaliti
es. Ar ticl
e330  and Ar t
icle332  oft heConst itutionr espectiv el
ypr ovidef or r
eservationofseat sinf avouroft heSchedul ed
Cast esandt heSchedul edTr i
besi nt heHouseoft hePeopl eandi nt hel egislati
veassembl i
es oftheSt ates.Pr ovisi
onsf orwel fareandpr otect i
onoft heSchedul edCast esandTr i
bes.
Indianconst itut i
onabolishesany
discr i
mi nati
ont oanycl assofper sonsongr oundorr eligionr aceorpl aceofbi rth( Article15(1)).Itisinpur suanceoft hisi dealthatt heconst itutionhasabol ishedcommunalr epresentati
onorr eservat ionofseat sinthe
l
egi slaturesori nanypubl icofficeont hebasi sofr eli
gi on. Howev er,t
he Ar t
icle46  oft hedi recti
vepr i
nciplesenj oinst hest atet otakespeci alcar ei npr omotingt heeducat i
onalandeconomi cinterestsoft heweakersect i
ons
oft hesoci etyand i npar ti
culart heschedul ed cast es and schedul ed t ribesand t o protectt hem f rom soci al injust i
ce. Anysuch pr ov i
sionmadebyt hest atecannotbechal l
enged ont hegr ound ofbei ng
discr i
mi natory .
 Similarl
y,t he 
Par tIIIconst i
tutionguar ant eesf undament alrightsandpr ov i
desmanypr ov i
sionspr otectingmi norityrights.Ov ert hey ear
s,thegov ernmenthasdoneagoodj obofpr otect i
ng,promot ing,and
uplifti
ngt heweakerpar tsofsoci ety,andst epshav ebeent akent obri
dget hegapbet weent hem andt her estoft hepopul ati
on.Forpol i
ti
cians, policy makers, socialists,andot hers,theempower mentoft heweakerel ement s
ofsoci et yhasbecomeahott opic.Theweakergr oupsmustbest r
engt henedonsoci al
,educat i
onal ,economi c,andpol iti
callev els.Thest atemustuseext remecaut ionwhi leimpl ement i
ngr egulationsr elat
ingt othe
educat ionalandmonet ar yupli
ftmentoft hepoor erpopul ation.

QUALI FICATI ONSTOBEELECTEDAPRESI DENT:Thecandi dat e:Shoul dbeaci t

izenofI ndia;Shoul dbeofnotl esst han35y ear sofage; Shoul dbequal ifi
edf orel ectionsasamemberoft heHouseofpeopl e;Shoul dnot
hol danyof ficeofpr ofitundert heGov ernmentofI ndiaoranyst ateGov er nmentoranyl ocalaut horitysubj ectt ot hecont rolofanyoft heseGov ernment ;
Mustnotbeamemberoft hepar l
i
ament .
ELECTI ON OFTHE
PRESI DENT: Thef oundingf ather soft heConst i
tuti
ondi dnotpr ov i
def orthepopul arelect i
onoft hePr esident Ar
. ticle54oft heI ndi anConst itut i
onpr ovidesf ort heel ectionoft hePr esidentofI ndi
a.ThePr esidentofI ndiai s
elect edbyi ndi rectelectiont hati sbyanel ectoralcol l
eget hroughsecr etbal lot
,inaccor dancewi ththesy stem ofpr opor t
ionalr epresent ationbymeansoft hesi ngl etransf erablev ote.Asf araspr acti
cabl e,ther eshal lbe
uni formi tyofr epresentat i
onoft hedi fferentst atesatt heel ect ion,accor dingt ot hepopul ationandt het ot
alnumberofel ectedmember soft heLegi slati
v eAssembl yofeachst ate,andpar tyshal lalsobemai ntained
bet weent heSt ateasawhol eandt heUni on( Arti
cle55) .Elector alCol l
egewhi chel ectsPr esidentconsi st sof-Elect edmember sofbot ht heHousesofPar l
iament( doesnoti ncludenomi natedmember s);Electoralcol lege
whi chel ectst hePr esidentconsi stsofel ect edMP’ sandel ectedMLA’ satt hest atelevel ;
MLA’ sofNat ionalCapi t alTer rit
oryofDel hiandt heUni ont erritoryofPondi cher ryar eal soincl uded.Theel ect i
onoft hePr esi denti s
hel dt hroughsi nglet r
ansf erabl ev otesy stem ofpr opor ti
onalr epresent ati
on.Undert hissy stem namesofal lthecandi dat esar el istedont hebal l
otpaperandt heel ectorgi vest hem number saccordingt ohi s/herpr ef erence.
Ev eryv otermaymar kont hebal lotpaperasmanypr eferencesast herearecandi dates.Thust heel ectorshal lplacet hef igure1opposi tethenameoft hecandi datewhom he/ shechoosesf orfi
rstpreferenceandmaymar k
asmanypr eferencesashe/ shewi shesbyput ti
ngt hef igures2, 3,4andsoonagai nstthenamesofot hercandi dat es.Thebal lotbecomesi nv ali
di ffir
stpr eferencei smar kedagai nstmor et hanonecandi dat eori ft hef irst
pref erencei snotmar kedatal l
.Asf araspr acti
cable,t hereshal lbeuni formityint hescal eofr epresent ationoft hedi fferentSt atesatt heel ectionoft hePr esident.Fort hepur poseofsecur i
ngsuchuni for mityamongt he
Stat es' interse'aswel laspar i
tybet weent heSt atesasawhol eandt heUni on,thenumberofv oteswhi cheachel ect edmemberofPar liamentandoft heLegi slativeAssembl yofeachSt ateisent it
ledt ocastatsuch
elect i
onshal lbedet ermi nedi nt hef ollowi ngmanner -Ev eryelect edmemberoft heLegi slativeAssembl yofaSt at eshal lhav easmanyv ot esast herear emul tipl
esofonet housandi nthequot i
entobt ainedbydi vidingt he
popul ationoft heSt atebyt het ot alnumberoft heel ectedmember soft heAssembl y;i
f,aftert akingt hesai dmul tipleofonet housand; ther emai nderi snotl esst hanf ivehundr edt hant hev oteofeachmemberr ef
er redt oi n
sub- clause( a)shal lbef urtheri ncr easedbyone; Eachel ectedmemberofei therHouseofPar l
iamentshal lhavesuchnumberofv otesasmaybeobt ainedbydi vi
dingt het otalnumberofv otesassignedt ot hemember sof
theLegi slati
v eAssembl iesoft heSt atesundersub- cl
ause( a)and( b)byt het otalnumberoft heel ectedmember sofbot hHousesofPar l
iament ,fractionsexceedi ngone- halfbei ngcount edasoneandot herf ractions
disregar ded.Theel ecti
onoft hePr esidentshal lbehel dinaccor dancewi ththesy stem ofpr opor tionalr epresent at i
onbymeansoft hesingl et r
ansf erabl evot eandt hevot i
ngatsuchel ectionshallbebyt hesecr etbal lot.
Int hisAr t
icle, t
heex pressi on" popul at i
on"meanst hepopul ati
onasascer t
ainedatt hepr ecedi ngcensusofwhi cht her elevantf igur eshav ebeenpubl i
shed.[ Arti
cle55]

Condi tionsofPr esi dent ’sof fice-Ar ticle59oft heConst i

tuti
onl aysdownt hecondi tions-ThePr esi dentcannotbeamemberofei therofHouseofPar li
amentorSt ateLegi slat urewhenhol di ngt heof ficeofPr esident ;The
Presidentcannothol danyot herof ficeofpr ofit;Par l
iamentbyl awwi lldet ermi net hesal aryofPr esi dent .Ter m ofof fi
ce:ThePr esident 'st erm ofof fi
cei sf orf i
vey ear sfrom t hedat eonwhi chheent ersuponhi sof fi
ce; buthe
i
sel igiblef orr e-el ection.Al l
owance:ThePr esi dentshal lbeent i
tledwi thoutpay mentofr entt ot heuseofhi sof fici
alr esidenceandshal lbeal soent itl
edt osuchemol ument s,allowancesandpr ivi
legesasmaybe
determi nedbyPar liamentbyl awt hatbehal fissomade, suchemol ument s, allowancesandpr i
v i
legesasar especi fiedi nthesecondschedul eoft heConst i
tution.ThePr esi
dentr ecei vesasal aryofRs.1, 50,000/ -permont h
andanannualpensi onont heex pirationofhi st erm oronr esignationpr ov idedhei snotr e-electedt ot heof fi
ce.Theemol ument sandal lowancesoft hePr esidentshal lnotbedi mi nisheddur inghi st erm ofof fi
ce..Posi tion
ofPr esi denti nI ndi a:TheUni onEx ecut ivebr oadl ycov ersthePr esi dent ,Counci lofMi nistersandt hePr imeMi nister.Undert heI ndi anConst i
tut i
on, thePr esidentofI ndi aenj oy sauni queposi t
ion.Pr esidenti st heheadof
theUni onExecut ive.Ar ticl
e52cr eat est heposi tionoft hePr esident .ThePr esi dentofI ndiai st heheadofst at eoft heRepubl i
cofI ndia.Hei sconsi der edt obeabov epar typol i
ticsandi snotamemberofanypol itical
party.The Pr esi dent i s t he f i
rst ci ti
zen of t he count ry and f or mal head oft heexecut ive,legi slatureandj udi ci
aryofI ndia.Hei sal sot hecommander -i
n-chiefoft heI ndianAr medFor ces.He
represent ssov er eignt yoft hecount ry.Hei sel ectedbyt heel ectedr epresent at i
v esoft hepeopl e.POSI TIONOFTHEPRESI DENTUNDERI NDIANCONSTI TUTI ON:Ar ticle52pr ov idest hatther eshal lbeaPr esidentofI ndia
andAr ticle53pr ov idest hatt heex ecut i
v epower soft heUni onshal lbev est edi nt hePr esidentofI ndi aandshal lbeexer cisedei t
herdi rectlyort hroughof ficerssubor dinatet ohi mi naccor dancewi tht heConst itut
ion.Thus
PresidentofI ndiai sboundt oacti naccor dancewi tht heConst it
ution. Also, Ar ti
cl e74oft heConst itutionpr ovidest hatt her eshal lbeCounci lofMi nisterswi tht hePr imeMi ni st eratt heheadt oai dandadv i
cet hePr esi dent
ofIndi a.Thus, aquest ionar i
seswhatdoesai dandadv i
semean?CanPr esi dentofI ndi ar efuseordi sallowordi sregar dt headv i
cet ender edorgi v enbyt heCounci lofMi nist erst ot hePr esi dent ?AsAr t
icle75( 3)pr ovides,
theCounci lofMi ni stersshal lbecol l
ect iv
elyr esponsi blet otheHouseoft hePeopl e.I nPar li
ament aryf or m ofGov ernment ,Counci lofMi nistersi sr esponsi blet ot heLokSabha.Si milarly,ifPr esidentdoesnotacti n
accor dancewi tht heConst itut i
ont hent hereispr ov isionf orhi simpeachment .UnderAr ti
cle368,apr ov isionhasbeenmadet hati fanyAmendmentActhasbeenpassedi nor dert oamendt heConst i
tuti
on,t hePr esident
shallhav et osi gni t.Iti sv erycl earf rom al ltheabov epr ov i
si
onst hatPr esi dentcannotgoagai nstt hewi shesoft heCounci lofMi nistersasheadedbyt hePr i
meMi nister.Hei ssai dtobeapuppeti nt hehandsofPr i
me
Minister .Dut iesofPr esident :Thepr i
mar ydut yoft hePr esidenti stopr eser ve, protectanddef endt heConst i
tutionandt hel awofI ndiaasmadepar tofhi soat h( Arti
cle60) .Hei sliablefori mpeachmentf orv i
olationoft he
Const itution( Ar ti
cl e61) .TheConst itutionofI ndi aenv isagesapar l
iament aryGov ernmenti nI ndia.Par tVoft heConst i
tutionofI ndiadeal swi tht heof ficeoft hePr esi dentofI ndia.Al t
houghAr t
icle53oft heConst i
tut i
on
sayst hatt heex ecut ivepowerofuni onshal lbeexer cisedbyt hePr esidentei therdi rect l
yort hroughof fi
cer ssub- ordinatet ohi m.I npr acticethePr esidenthast oabi debyt hedeci si onsoft hecounci lofmi nisterswi tht he
PrimeMi nistersatt hehead.OurConst i
tuti
oni sahar moni ousbl endoft hepol iticalsy stemsoft heU. S.A.andt heU. K.ThePr esidentmer elyrepresent st henat i
on, hedoesnotr ule.

ImpeachmentPr ocessoft hePr esidentofI ndi

a:Theimpeachmentpr ocessoft hePresi
dentofIndiaisaquasi -
judicialpr
ocess.Articl
e61descr i
best hepr
ocessofimpeachmentoft hePresidentofIndia:
ThePresidentcan
beremov edfr
om of f
icebyt hepr ocessofi mpeachmentonl yonthegr oundsofv i
olat
ionoftheconstituti
on;
Thei mpeachmentpr ocesscanbest art
edfrom anyhouseofthepar l
i
amentbyl evel
li
ngchar gesagai
nsthim; All
themember softhepar l
i
ament( elected+nomi nated)takesparti
nthei mpeachmentpr ocess;Thenoticebear i
ngthechar gesagainstt hepresi
dentmustbesi gnedbyatleastaquarterofthemember softhehouse; Then,
thenoti
ceissenttot hepresidentofI ndiaandwi t
hin14day stheprocessofi mpeachmentst ar
ts;Ther esol
uti
ont oi mpeachthepr esidentmustbepassedbyaspeci almaj or
it
y(two-t
hir
ds)intheorigi
natinghouse;Nex t,
it
i
ssenttot heotherhouseforconsi der at
ion.Theotherhouseactsast heinvest
igati
nghorse.Aselectcommi t
teeisf ormedtoinvestigatethechargeslabel
l
edagainstthepresi
dent;Duri
ngtheprocess,thePresi
dentofI ndia
hastherighttodefendhi msel ft
hroughaut hori
sedcounsel.Hecanchooset odef endhimselforappointanyper son/l
awy eroratt
orneygener alofIndi
at odoso;Af t
ertheinv esti
gat
ionbyt heselectcommi tt
ee,iftheother
housealsopassest her esoluti
onbyat wo-t
hir
dsmaj or
it
y,t
hePr esidentofIndiast andsimpeached.DisputesRegar di
ngEl ecti
onOfThePr esident:Art71.Matter
srelati
ngt o,orconnect
edwi t
h, t
heelecti
onofapr esi
dent
orVicePresident
:Alldoubt sanddi sput
esar i
singoutoforinconnect ionwiththeel ecti
onofapr esi
dentorv i
cePr esi
dentshallbeinquir
edi ntoanddeci dedbyt heSupremecour twhosedecisionshallbefinal;Ift
heel ecti
on
ofapersonasPr esidentorVi cePr esi
dentisdeclaredvoidbytheSupr emecour t,actsdonebyhi mi ntheexerciseandper for
manceoft hepower sanddutiesoftheoffi
ceofPr esi
dentorVicePr esi
dent,ast hecasemaybe,
onorbef orethedateoft hedecisionoft heSupr emeCour tshallnotbei nval
idatedbyr easonoft hatdeclarati
on;Subjecttothepr ovi
sionsoft hisconsti
tuti
on,Parl
iamentmaybyl aw regulateanymat terrelat
ingt oor
connect
edwi t
htheelectionofaPr esidentorVi cePresi
dent;Theelectionofaper sonasPr esidentorVicePresidentshal
l notbecall
edinquest ionont hegroundoftheexistenceofanyv acancyf orwhatev erreasonamong
themember soft heelectoralcol
legeelecti
nghi m.

Arti
cle73i nTheConst i
tutionofI ndiaDescript
ion: (
1)Subj ectt ot hepr ovisionsoft hisConst it
ut i
on, theexecut ivepoweroft heUni onshal lextend—( a)t othemat terswi threspectt owhi chPar l
iamenthaspowert omake
l
aws; and( b)totheex er
ciseofsuchr i
ghts,authori
tyandj urisdicti
onasar eexer cisabl ebyt heGov ernmentofI ndiabyv irtueofanyt reatyoragr eement :Providedt hatt heexecut ivepowerr eferr
edt oinsub- clause( a)shal
l
not,sav easex presslyprov idedint hi
sConst it
utionori nanyl awmadebyPar li
ament ,extendinanySt at e tomat terswi threspectt owhicht heLegi slat
ureoft heSt atehasal sopowert omakel aws.( 2)Unt i
lotherwise
providedbyPar li
ament ,aSt ateandanyof fi
ceroraut horit
yofaSt atemay ,notwithst andingany thingi nt hisart
icle,continuet oexer ciseinmat t
erswi threspectt owhi chPar l
i
amenthaspowert omakel awsf orthatState
suchex ecutivepowerorf unct i
onsast heStateorof fi
ceroraut hor it
yt hereofcoul dex er
ciseimmedi atel
ybef orethecommencementoft hisConst i
tut
ion.Legi slati
vepower s:Accor dingt otheConst ituti
on, thePresidentis
anint egralpartoft hePar li
ament .Hehasmanypower sinrelat i
ont othePar l
i
ament -
ThePr esidenti naugur at
esthePar l
i
amentbyaddr essi
ngi taf t
erthegener alel ecti
onsandal soatt hebegi nningoft hef i
r stsessioneach
year.Pr esidenti
aladdr essont heseoccasi onsi sgener al
lymeantt oout li
net henewpol i
ciesoft hegov ernment.[Arti
cle87] ;
Hesummons,pr oroguest hePar l
iament ;Hecandi ssol vet heHouseofpeopl e;Hecanaddr ess
eit
herHousesofPar li
amentorbot htheHousesj oi
ntly(i.
e.aj ointsessi onofbot ht hehousesoft hePar liament);Hecansendmessaget oei t
herHouseofPar liamentwhet herwi threspectt oaBi llpendi ngi nPar l
iamentor
otherwi se.[
Arti
cle86( 2)]
;ThePr esidentdecidesquest ionsast odi squal i
fi
cat i
onofmember s.[
Art.103] ;Hecancausecer tainr eportsandst atement st obel aidbef oret heParli
amentsuchast her epor toft heCompt r
oll
er
andAudi t
orGener al,ortheRepor toft heFinanceCommi ssion;Her ecommendst hei ntr
oduct i
onofcer tainbil
lsi nthePar li
amentsuchast her e-organisationofst atesoral terati
onofboundar ies;amoney -bil
linvolv
ing
expendi ture.
Nobi llcanbecomeal awunl essandunt ilassent edt obyt hePr esident .[Art
icle114]Al lbil
lspassedbyt hePar l
iamentcanbecomel awsonl yafterr eceiv
ingt heassentoft hePr esi
dent ;Af t
erabi l
lispresented
tohim, thePresidentshal ldeclareei t
herthatheassent stotheBi ll
, orthathewi thhol dshisassentf r
om i t.Asat hirdoption, hecanr etur
nabi lltothePar li
ament ,ifi
tisnotamoneybi lloraConst i
tutionalamendmentbi l
l
,
forreconsi derati
on; When, af t
erreconsiderati
on, t
hebi l
lispassedandpr esent edt ot hePr esident, withorwi t
houtamendment s,thePr esi
dentcannotwi thholdhi sassentf r
om it.ThePr esidentcanal sowi thholdhisassent
toabi llwheni tisiniti
all
ypr esentedt ohim( r
atherthanr eturni ttothePar l
iament )t herebyex ercisinga

pocketv et o-ThePr esidentmaywi thhol dhi sassentorr eturntheBi l

ltotheHouse, f
orr econsideration,ifitisnotamoneybi ll
.Certaint ypesofbi l
lspassedbythestateLegisl
aturear et ober eservedf orPresident s’assent.
Certainbi l
lsr equi rehispr iorsancti
onbef oret heyar eintroducedint hestateLegi slature.Themosti mpor tantlegi slati
vepoweroft hePr esidentishi spowert opromulgateOr di
nancesunderAr ti
cle123.Accor dingt othis,
thePr esidenti sempower edtopr omul gateor dinances,exceptwhenbot htheHousesofPar l
iamentar ei nsessi on, ifheissat i
sfi
edt hatci rcumst ancesexitcompelli
nghimt otakei mmedi at
eact i
on.APr esi
dent i
alOr dinance
hast hesamef or ceandef fectasanActofPar li
ament .Howev er,everysuchor di
nanceshoul dbel aidbef orebot hHousesofPar liamentwi t
hinsi xweeksfrom there-
assembl yofPar li
ament .Fail
uretocompl ywi t
ht hi
s
condition, orPar l
iament arydisapprov alwithint hesi xweeks' peri
od, wil
lmaket heOr dinancei nvali
d.ThePr esidentmayal sowi thdrawt heOr dinanceatanyt imehel i
kes.PardoningPower :ThePr esi
denthast hepowert o
grantpar donsandr epr i
v es,andsuspend,r emi torcommut esent encesofper sonsconv i
ctedbycour tmar tial,andi nallcasesi nwhi chsent encesofdeat hhav ebeenpassed.Asment i
onedi nAr ti
cle72ofI ndian
Const i
tution, thePr esidenti sempower edwi tht hepower st ograntpar donsint hef oll
owi ngsituations:Punishmenti sforof f
enceagai nstUni onLaw;Puni shmentisbyaMi li
taryCour t;Sent encei sthatofdeat hTopar don
meanst of orgiveaper sonofhi soffence.I tisanactofgr aceandcannotbecl aimedordemandedasamat terofr i
ght.Itispurelyanexecut i
veact .Thedecisi
onsinvolvi
ngpar doningandot herright
sbyt hePr esidentare
i
ndependentoft heopi nionoft hePrimeMi nisterort heLokSabhamaj ori
ty.I
nmostcases, howev er,thePr esidentexer ci
seshi sexecut ivepower sont headviceofthePrimeMi nisterandt hecabi net.
ThePr esi
dent spower
doesnotaf fectt hesi mi l
arpower soft heGov ernorandmi li
tar
yofficerswithrespectt oCour t-
Mar t
ial.Iti
snot ewor thythatt hePresident s’judici
alpowerdoesnoti ncludethepowert ogr antamnest y.Thispoweri sl efttothe
Parli
ament .Adv isoryJur isdicti
onunderAr ticle143al socomesunderj udicialpower soft hePresident .
ThePr esi dentenj oyscertainpr i
vi l
egesi nr especttocri
minalorcivi
lproceedingsagai nsthi m.Nocr iminalpr oceedings
canbest ar tedagai nsthi m duringhist erm ofof fice.Civi
lproceedingscanbei ni
tiatedonl yaf t
erhehasbeenser v edwi that womont hswr itt
ennot ice.

VICE-PRESI DENTOFI NDI A:TheVi ce-Presi

dentisel
ectedunderAr ti
cle63oft heConst itution.Hisimpor t
anceint heConstitut
ionisthatwhenev eranyv acancyoccur si ntheof fi
ceoft hePresident,
heact sasPr esidentunt i
l
anewPr esidentisel ected.TheVi ce-Presi
dentli
kethePr esi
dentiselect edi ndirectly.
TheVi ce-Presidentiselectedbyt hemember sofbot hHousesofPar liamentataj oi
ntsessionbysecr etball
otinaccor dancewi ththe
system ofpr oporti
onalr epresentat i
onbymeansofsi ngletransfer
ablev ote.TheVi ce-Pr esidentofI ndi
ashal lbeex -of
fi
cioChai r
manoft heRabaSabha.Hi snor malf unct i
onist opresideov ermeetingsoft heRaj y
aSabha.
Butsincehei snott hememberoft heRaj y
aSabha, hehasnor i
ghttov ote.Thequal i
fi
cat ionsoftheVi cePresidentaret hesameast hoseoft hePresidentexceptt hathemustbeel i
gibl
eforelecti
ont ot heRaj yaSabha. He
mustbeaci t
izenofI ndia.Hemusthav ecompletedtheageof35y ears.Hemustbeel igibletobeel ect
edasamemberoft heRajyaSabha. Hemustnothol danyof ficeofpr ofitunderanygov er
nment .TheVi ce-Presidentof
Indi
ai selectedbyt hemember sofbot hHousesofPar l
iamenti naccordancewi tht hesy stem ofpropor ti
onalrepresentati
onbymeansofasi ngletransferablev otesy stem andt hev oti
ngatsuchel ectionshal lbebysecr et
ball
ot.TheVi ce-
Presidenti selectedf orthet mf
er iv
ey ears.Theper i
odoff ivey earsst artsfrom thedat eonwhi chheent ersuponhi sof f
ice.
Hei seli
giblef orre-el
ect i
on.Howev er,hemayr esi
gnf r
om hi sof fi
cebef orethe
expiryofnor mal t
erm, evenbef oret hecompl et
ionofhistenurebywr it
ingt oPr esidentormayber emov edbyar esoluti
onoft heRajyaSabhapassedbyasi mplemaj orit
yofal lthethenmember soft heHouseandagr eedt o
byasi mpl emaj or
ityoft heLokSabha.Thedut iesoftheVi ce-Pr
esidentar et wo- fold:-
Hei stheex- offi
ciochairmanoft heRaj yaSabhaHeact sforthePr esidentwhent heof f
iceoft hePresidentisvacant .Therei snodoubt
thattheof fi
ceoft heVi ce-PresidentofI ndi
aisnexttotheof fi
ceofthePr esidentofI ndia.Butt heVi ce-Presi
dentofI ndi
adoesnotexer ciseanyimpor tantandr ealpower s.Ther ef
ore,theofficeoftheVi ce-PresidentofI ndia
i
snotofanygr eatimpor tance.

PrimeMi nister
:TheConst ituti
onofIndi apr ovi
dest hatther eshal l
beaCounci lofMi nist
erstoassi stthePresidenti ndi scharginghi sdut es.ThePr
i imeMi nist erofIndi
aheadst heCounci lofMi nisters.Hei stheleaderofthe
partythatenj oysamaj ori
tyintheLokSabha.Whi lethePr esidentofI ndiai stheheadoft heSt ate,thePrimeMi nist
eri stheheadoft heGov er
nment .APPOI NTMENT-Thel eaderoft hemaj or i
typar t
yi ntheLokSabhai s
appointedast hePr i
meMi nist
erbyt hePr esident.ThePr esidentistheConst i
tuti
onalheadoft heUni onexecut iv eandt hePr i
meMi ni
st eristherealhead. FUNCTI ONS-Hesel ectsot hermi nisters,whoar eappoi ntedbythe
Presidentont headv i
ceoft hePrimeMi ni ster
.Hepr esidesov ercabinetmeet ings.Hei stheli
nkbet weent hePr esidentandt heCabi netI tisthePr imeMi nisterwhokeepst hePr esi
denti nfor medoft hedeci sionsofthe
Counci lofMi nisters.
Hegui desthemi ni
st ersandcoor dinatest hepoliciesofv ari
ousdepar tment sandmi nistries.Hei st heleaderoft heLokSabhai nParliament .HeistheChai rmanoft hePl anningCommi ssion.Heisthe
Chiefconf identialadvisortot hePresident .
Thet erm doesnotexceedf ivey ears.Hemayal sober emov edfrom hi sof f
icewhenhi spar tylosesmaj orit
yi nLokSabha.Resi gnat ion-Ifthegov ernmenti sdef eatedi ntheLok
Sabha, theCabi netandt hePr i
meMi ni sterbot hhav etor esi gnast heyar er esponsibletotheLokSabha.Dut i
esoft hePr imeMi ni
ster:Tor eportallthewor ksdonebyt heCabi netMi ni
sterst ot hePr esidentofI ndia;
Tobrief
thePr esidentofI ndiaaboutanyst at
eofEmer gencyoranymat t
eroff oreignpol i
cyorur gentimpor tance;
 Toi nf ormt hef unct
ioningoft heGov ernmentandUni onofI ndiatot hePr esi
dent .
Whi ledr aft
ingt heconst it
uti
onof
Indi
a, Dr.Ambedkarenumer atedther oleoft hePrimeMi nisterofIndiat obeaf unctionarywhichcanbecompar edt othePr esidentofUni t
edst at
es.Therefor e,itcanbesai dthati nIndia,Presidenti sthenomi nalheadwhi le
thePr i
meMi nisteristheex ecutiveheadoft heGov ernment .Indiaisgov ernedasaQuasi -
Federaldemocr acy,inwhi chPr imeMi nistersar echosenf or,by,andf orthepeople.ThePr i
meMi nisterandCabi netMinistershavea
responsibili
tytost ri
vef orthewel f
areoft hepeopl eandt henat ion.Asar esult,
thePr imeMi ni
sterandCabi netMi ni
stershav ear esponsi bil
it
ytocar ryoutthei rdutiesandobl i
gat i
onswi thintegr i
tyandhonest y.

Ai dandadv i
cePr esi
dentAr ti
cle74oft heConst i
tut i
onpr ovidest hatthereshal lbeaCounci lofMi nisterswi tht hePr i
meMi nist
eratt heheadt oai dandadv isethePr esi dentwhoshal l
,intheexer ci
seofhi sf uncti
ons,actin
accordancewi thsuchadv ice.TheCounci lofMinister sismadeupoft hePr imeMi nisterandot herMi nisters.CabinetMi ni
st er
s,Mi nistersofSt ate,andDeput yMi nister saret het hreet ypesofmi nisters.ThePr esidentof
Indiaappointseachoft hem.Ar ticle74:Counci lofMi nist
erst oaidandadv icePresident- Clause( 1)t hereshal lbeaCounci lofMi nisterswi t
hthePr imeMi nisteratt heheadt oai dandadv i
set hePr esidentwhoshal l
,inthe
exerciseofhi sf unctions,acti naccor dancewi t
hsuchadv i
ce:Prov i
dedt hatthe Presidentmayr equi ret heCounci lofMi nisterst or econsidersuchadv i
ce,ei t
hergener all
yorot herwise,andt he Presidentshal lactin
accordancewi tht headv icet ender edaftersuchr econsi derati
on; Clause( 2)t hequest i
onwhet heranyandi fsowhat , 
advicewast ender edbyMi nisterstothePr esidentshal lnotbei nqui r
edi ntoi nanycour t
.Arti
cle75(1) 
of
theConst it
uti
onsay sthat“ thePr imeMi nistershallbeappoi ntedbyt hePr esi dentandt heot herMi nister sshal lbeappoi ntedbyt hePr esidentont headv iceoft hePrimeMi ni
ster.”Arti
cle61, DraftConst it
ution1948( 1)There
shallbeaCounci lofmi nisterswi tht hePr i
meMi nisteratt heheadt oaidandadv iset hePr esidenti nt heexer ciseofhi sf unctions. (2)Thequest ionwhet herany ,andi fsowhat ,adv icewast ender edbymi nister
st othe
Presidentshallnotbei nqui r
edi nt oinanycour t.DraftAr ti
cle61( Arti
cle74oft heConst ituti
onofI ndi a,1950)wasdi scussedon  30t h December1948.Thi sar ticler egulatedt heex erci
seoft hePr esident’
spower .A
member  moved anamendmentt or egul
at et heselectionofCabi netmi ni
st ersandr estri
ctt henumbert o15mi nisters.He proposed  thatt hemi nistersbeel ectedbyt hehousesoft hePar l
i
amentont hebasi sofpr oporti
onal
representati
on.Thi swoul dpr eventamaj ori
tari
angov ernment .He  i
nvoked  thesystem inSwi tzerlandt oi l
lustratehowt heel ecti
onofcabi netmi nister
swoul dnotr esul tinanyoppr essi onorr ev oluti
on.TheChai rmanoft he
Drafti
ngCommi tteedi sagr eedwi tht hesepr oposals.He  argued thatthePr imeMi nistermustnotbeconst i
tutionall
ymandat edt ohav e15mi nistersi ntheCabi net;he/ shemi ghtf inditpr acticalandef f
ici
entt ohav efewer
mi ni
sters. Onthepr oposalt oel ectmi nistersbasedonpr oportionalrepr esentati
on,he  urged  thatt heI nstrumentofI nstructionsf orPr esident ,thattheDr afti
ngCommi tteewoul ddr aft,woul dt akecar eofmi norit
y
representati
onint heCabi net .

MoneyBi ll:Arti
cle110oft heConst i
tutiondef i
nesMoneyBi ll
.Itprovidest hat-1.Fort hepur poseoft hischapt er,aBillshallbedeemedt obemoneybi llifitcontainsonl ypr ov isionsdeal ingwi thalloranyoft hefollowing
mat ters,namel y:
-a.thei mposi ti
on, aboliti
on,remi ssion,al
terat
ionorr egul at
ionofanyt ax;b.
ther egul at
ionoft hebor r
owi ngofmoneyort hegi vingofanyguar anteebyt heGov ernmentofI ndia, ortheamendmentoft hel aw
withr espectt oanyf inancialobl i
gationsunder takenort obeunder takenbyt heGov ernmentofI ndia; c.thecust odyoft heConsol idatedFundort heCont ingencyFundofI ndia, thepay mentofmoney sintoort hewi thdrawal
ofmoney sf rom anysuchFund; d.theappr opriationofmoney soutoft heConsol idatedFundofI ndi a;e.thedecl ari
ngofanyexpendi t
ur et obeexpendi tur echargedont heConsol i
dat edFundofI ndiaort heincreasingoft he
amountofanysuchex penditure;f.ther eceiptofmoneyonaccountoft heConsol i
datedFundofI ndi aort hepubl i
caccountofI ndiaort hecust odyori ssueofsuchmoneyort heaudi toft heaccount soft heUni onorofa
State; orf.anymat terincident altoanyoft hemat tersspecifi
edinsub- clauses( a)to( f
).2.ABi llshal lnotbedeemedt obeaMoneyBi llbyr easononl ythati tprov i
desf ort heimposi t
ionoff i
nesorot herpecuni arypenal ti
es,
orfort hedemandorpay mentoff eesf orli
cencesorf eesf orservi
cesr ender ed, orbyr easont hati tprov i
desf orthei mposi ti
on,abol it
ion, remi ssion,alt
er ati
onorr egul ati
onofanyt axbyanyl ocalaut horit
yorbodyf orl ocal
purposes. 3.Ifanyquest i
onar i
seswhet heraBi llisaMoneyBi l
lornot ,thedeci sionoft heSpeakeroft heHouseoft hePeopl ether eonshal lbef inal.
4.Ther eshal lbeendor sedonev eryMoneyBi l
lwheni tistransmi ttedto
theCounci lofStatesunderar ti
cle109,andwheni tispresentedtot hePr esidentf orassentunderar t
icle111,t hecer tif
icat
eoft heSpeakeroft heHouseoft hePeopl esi gnedbyhi mt hati tisaMoneyBi ll
.Procedur ein
respectofMoneyBi ll
-AMoneyBi llshallnotbei ntroducedi ntheCounci lofSt atesexceptont her ecommendat i
onoft hePresident .AfteraMoneyBi l
lhasbeenpassedbyt hehouseoft hePeopl eitshallbetransmi ttedto
theCounci lofStatesf oritsrecommendat i
onandt heCounci lofStatesshal lwi thinaper iodoff ourteenday sfrom t hedat eofi t
sr eceiptr eturnt heBi l
ltot heHouseoft hePeopl ewi thi t
srecommendat i
onsandt heHouseof
thePeopl emayt her euponei theracceptorr ejectal loranyoft herecommendat i
onsoft heCounci lofSt ates.I
ft heHouseoft hePeopl eaccept sanyoft her ecommendat ionsoft heCounci lofSt ates,theMoneyBi llshallbe
deemedt ohav ebeenpassedbybot hHouseswi tht heamendment sr ecommendedbyt heCounci lofSt atesandaccept edbyt heHouseoft hePeopl e.I
ft heHouseoft hePeopl edoesnotacceptanyoft herecommendat i
on,
oftheCounci lofSt ates,theMoneyBi llshallbedeemedt ohavebeenpassedbybot htheHousesi nt hefor minwhi chi twaspassedbyt heHouseoft hePeopl ewi t
houtanyoft heamendment sr ecommendedbyt heCounci l
ofSt ates.

Or di
nar yBill
:Arti
cles107&108dealwi thOr di
naryBills;AnOr dinaryBillcanbei ntroducedanyoft heHousesofPar li
ament ;
Anor dinaryBil
lcanbei nt r
oducedonl ywitht herecommendat i
onofbPr esident; Adead-
lockmay
occur;AJoi ntsessi onofHousesmaybe' li
edt oresolvet hedead-look;WhenaBi llispassedinoneHouseandi tissenttotheot herHousef orpassi ng,theot herHousemaykeept hatBillf
orsixmont hswi thit
;TheHouse
hast oobligether ecommendat ionsoft heotherHouse; Certi
fi
catef r
om t heSpeaker ’snotnecessary.Compositi
onofPar l
iament :TheUni onPar li
amentofI ndiaconsi stsoft hePr esidentandthet woHousesknownast he
Houseofpeopl e( LokSabha)andt heCounci lofst at es( Raj
yaSabha) .TheHouseofpeopl ei stheLowerchamberwher east hecounci lofst atesist heupperchamberoft hehouseofpar li
ament .TheRajyaSabhai s
composedmanyofr epresentati
vesoft hestateselectedbyt heSt ateAssembl ies.TheLokSabhai scomposedofdi r
ectl
yelectedr epresentat
ivesont hebasisofadul tfranchiseandt er
ri
tori
alconst i
tuencies.ThePr esi
dent
i
sani ntegralpartoft hepar li
ament .
Undert heConst i
tut ionofIndia, t
hel egi
slatureoft heUnioniscalledParl
iamenti st
hepi v
otonwhi chthepol it
icalsystem oft hecount ryr evolves.TheHouseofpeopl ei sknownast he
LowerHouse'ofPar
' l
iamentort he‘LokSabha’I tsmember sareel ecteddirectlybyt hepeople.Compositi
onofLokSabha:Undert heConst i
tution,notmor et han530member sar etobechosenbydi rectel
ecti
onfrom
terr
it
or i
alconstit
uenci esint hestates,andnotmor ethan20member st orepresentt heunionTerri
tori
es.I
naddit
ion,twomember soft heAnglo-Indian,communi tymay benomi natedbyt hePresident, i
fhei softheopinion
thatthecommuni tyi snotadequat elyrepresentedint heLokSabha.Thust hemax imum strengthoftheHouseenv isagedintheconst i
tuti
onist hus552. Thet otalelectedst r
engt hoft heLokSabhai sdi str
ibutedamongt he
statesinsuchawayt hatther
atiobetweenthenumberofseatsandt
hepopulat
ionofanyst at
ei sasf araspossibl
ethesamef oral
lstat
es.AtpresenttheLokSabhaconsi st
sof545member s.
LokSabhahasbeenpr ov
ided
withaf i
xedterm asi
nt hecaseoft hepopular
lyel
ectedHouseofRepresent
atives.Theexpirati
onoft heperiodoff i
veyearsoperat
esasi t
sdi ssoluti
on.Accordingt oArt
icle84oftheConst i
tut
ion,fol
l
owi ngarethe
qualifi
cati
onsforthemembershipofLokSabha.Acandi dat
emustbe-
aciti
zenofIndia;
haveattainedtheageoft wentyfiv
eyears;mustpossesssuchot herqual
if
icationsasmaybepr escri
bedbythepar l
i
ament .Aperson
holdinganofficeofpr
ofi
tisdisqual
if
iedfr
om becomingamemberoft heHouse.TheLokSabhashal lmeetatleasttwiceayearandtheinter
valbetweent woconsecut i
vesessionsshal
lbelessthansixmont hs.Theti
me
andpl aceofmeetingwil
lbedecidedbythePresi
dentwhowi l
lsummontheHouset omeet.TheRaj yaSabhai sthe'UpperHouse'ofParl
i
amentandi ssomet i
mescalledt HouseofEl
he' ders'
.

Composi tionofRaj yaSabha( Ar

ti
cle80):Thepresentst rengthoft heRajy
aSabhai s245ofthese, 233ar eelectedbyt hevariousSt at
eLegislativeAssembl ies,thusmaki ngt heRajyaSabhapredomi nantl
yani ndir
ectl
y
electedbody .Whereast heLokSabhai sdir
ectl
yelect
edont hebasi sofadultsuffr
ageforfi
veyears,theRajyaSabhai sindirectl
yelectedonapr opor tionalr
epr esentati
onbasisbyt hestateLegi
slat
ures.Fort hepurposeof
thiselectiont oeachSt ateisall
ott
edacer t
ainnumberofseat sintheRajyaSabha.Themai nbasi
sofsuchal lot
menti sthest r
engthofthepopulationi neachSt ate.Themember sofeachSt at
eLegisl
ati
veAssembl yfr
om the
elect
or atef orthepur poseofel ecti
ngther equi
sit
enumberofmember sal l
ott
edt oeachstatet husensur i
ngt hepr incipleofStater epr
esent ati
oni nthe' upperchamber 'ofparliament
.Anot
herpr inci
plethatisgiven
recognitioni nthecomposi tionoftheRajyaSabhaisr epresentati
onoft al
ent,experi
enceandservice.TheRaj yaSabhaenj oysacont i
nuityofli
fe.Undert heConst it
ution,t
heRaj yaSabhacannotbedi ssolved.Thet er
m of
themember soft heRaj yaSabhaissixyearsandi nthisrespectitresemblest hesenateoftheUnitedSt at
eswhosemember sarealsochosenf orsixy ear
s.Inf act,t
heRajyaSabhai sapermanentbodyl i
ket heAmer i
can
Senat e,onet hir
doft hemember softheRajyaSabhar eti
reaftereverytwoy ears.
TheVice-
Presi
dentofI ndiaisex-off
iciochai rmanoftheRaj yaSabha.Hei selectedbyanel ectoralcol
legeconsi
sti
ngoft hemember sofboth
theLokSabhaandt heRaj y
aSabha.

LokSabhav sRaj yaSabha:Ther ear esomepower sandf unct i

onswher eLokSabhai ssuper i
ort oRajy aSabhasuchast hei nt
roduct i
onandadopt ionofmoneybi l
ls,aswel lastheremov alofacabi netviaa no- confidence
mot ion;RajyaSabhahasbeengi venex clusivepower sincer t
ainar eassuchasi tcandecl areast atesubj ecttobeofnat ionali mportanceandf aci l
it
atingcentrall egislation;Thent hereareanumberofar easwher ebot h
Houseshav eequalaut hor i
tysuchast headopt ionofbi l
lsot hert hanmoneybi l
l
s, approv alofpr oclamat ionofemer gency,mov i
ngofadj ournment ,et c.TheLokSabhai snotaper manentHouseofPar li
ament .Itisdissol ved
attheendofi t
sf i
ve-
yeart erm.Howev er,thePr esident,ont headv iceoft heCounci lofMi nisters,hast heaut hori
tytodi ssolvei tbeforethef i
v e-yearper i
odi supv sRaj yaSabhai saper manentHouset hatcannotbe
dissolved.Ev eryt woy ear s,one-thirdofi t
smember sr et
ire,andt her emai ningseat saref i
lledbynewmember s.TheLokSabhacanhav eamaxi mum of552member s.530member sar eel
ect edf rom thest ates, and20ar e
el
ect edf r
om t heuni ont errit
or i
es.ThePr esidentappoi ntsther emai ningtwomember sf rom t heAngl o-I
ndi ancommuni t
yv sTheRaj yaSabhahasat otalof250member s.I tisarepresentati
veHouseofSt ates,butt hest ates
arenotequal l
yr epresent ed.Theseat sar eal l
ottedtodi ff
er entstat esbasedonpopul ation.12member soft heHousear enomi natedbyt hePr esi
dentf rom amongt hosewi thspecialknowledgeorex peri
encei nt hef i
eldsof
l
iterature,science,ar t,andsoci alservice.Member soft heLokSabhaar edi rectl
yel ect edbyt hepeopl eusingasecr etbal lotandt heuni ver
salf ranchisev sMember soft heRaj yaSabhaar eelectedont hebasi sof
propor t
ionalrepr esentationbyt heLegi slati
v eAssembl i
esoft her espect i
v eSt ates.TheLokSabha' sSpeakerandDeput ySpeakerar emember soft heHousewhoar eel ect edbyt hemember soft heLokSabhav sTheRaj ya
SabhaChai rmani snotamemberoft hisHouse.TheRaj y aSabhai schai redbyt heVi ce- PresidentofI ndiaonanex- offi
ciobasi s.Howev er
,theRaj y aSabha' sDeput y-Chai rmani selectedbyt heRaj y
aSabhamember sf rom
amongi tsmember s.TheCounci lofMi nistersar eresponsi bleonl yt otheLokSabhaandcanber emov edbyi ti
fano- confi
dencemot ionispassedv sTheCounci lofMi nistersarenotaccount abl etoRaj yaSabhaandhence
cannotber emov edbyi tt hroughano- conf i
dencemot i
on.TheLokSabhal ackst heaut hor i
tyt odecl areaSt ateListit
em ofnat ionalimportancev sI thast heaut horityt odeclareasubj ectincl udedont heSt ateListasa
mat terofnat i
onali mpor tancebypassi ngar esolut
ionsuppor tedbyatl eastt wo- thi
rdsoft hemember spr esentandv oti
ng; TheLokSabhacanei therappr oveorr ejectapr oposalfortheremov aloftheVi cePr esident,butit
cannoti nit
iatesuchapr oposalv sThepr oposalt or emov et heVi cePr esidentcanbei nt roducedonl yint heRaj y
aSabha.LokSabhadoesnothav et hisoppor t
unityasRaj yaSabhai snotsubj ectt odi ssoluti
onv sTheRaj ya
Sabhaappr ov est hedecl arationofEmer gencyi fandwhent heLokSabhai sdi ssolvedandt hedecl arat
ionofEmer gencyisinef fect.

DISQUALI FI
CATI ONSFORTHEMEMBERSHI POFPARLI AMENT:Noper sonshal lbememberofbot htheHousesoft hePar li
ament ;Noper sonshal lbememberoft hePar l
iamentandaSt ateAssembl y
.Thedi squal i
fication
forthemember shipofPar l
i
amenti sdi f
ferentt hingf rom t hedisqualif
icati
onf orthemember ship.Aper sonshal lbedi squalif
iedf orbeingchosenasamemberofei t
herHouseofPar l
iament ;I
fheholdsanof f
iceofpr ofi
t
undert heGov t.ofIndiaort heGov ernmentofanySt ate;Ifheisofunsoundmi ndandst andssodecl ar
edbyacompet entcour t;Ifhei sanundi chargedi nsolvent;Ifhei snotaci ti
zenofI ndia; I
fheacqui resci t
izenshi pofany
otherSt ate;heshowsal l
egiancet oanyot herSt ate;Ifhei sdi squali
fi
edunderanyl aw madebyt hePar l
iament .Ifanyquest ionar isesast odi squalif
icationofamember ,thedeci sionofPr esidentshal lbef inal.
Disqualifi
cationonGr oundofDef ecti
on:Apar tf r
om ar ti
cle102, the 
TenthSchedul e t
oConst i
tutionpr ovidesf ordi squal if
icati
onoft hemember songr oundofdef ecti
on.Def ectionreferst odeser t
ionofone’ spar t
yi nf avor
ofanopposi ngone.Aspert hepr ov i
sionsoft heTent hSchedul e,amembermaybedi squali
fiedi fhe:Vol unt aril
ygi vesupt hemember shipofhi spoliticalpartywhi chgav ehi mt i
ckettocont estandwi n;Vot esorabst ains
from votingint heHousecont rarytoanydi rectioni ssuedbyt hepol it
icalpart
yt owhi chhebel ongs,unl esssuchv otingorabst enti
onhasbeencondonedbyt hepol i
ticalpar tywithinfift
eenday s;A memberel ect edasan
i
ndependentcandi dateshal lbedi squalifi
edi fhej oinsanypol it
icalpartyafterhiselecti
on; Howev er ,anomi natedmemberi sallowedt ojoinapol i
ticalpar t
yprov i
dedhej oinssuchpol i
ti
calpar tyofhischoi ceswi thinaper iod
ofsixmont hs.Af t
ert hatper i
od,joiningapol i
ticalpar t
ywoul dl eadtodef ect
ionanddi squalifi
cat i
on.Article191- Disqual i
fi
cat i
onf ormember ship.-(1)Aper sonshal lbedi squalif
iedf orbei ngchosenas,andf orbei ng,a
memberoft heLegi sl
at i
veAssembl yorLegi slat i
veCounci lofaSt at
e-(a)ifhehol dsanyof fi
ceofpr ofitundert heGov er
nmentofI ndi
aort heGov ernmentofanySt atespeci fiedint heFi rstSchedule,ot herthananof fi
ce
declaredbyt heLegi slatureoftheSt at
ebyl awnott odi squal i
fyitsholder;(b)i
fhei sofunsoundmi ndandst andssodecl aredbyacompet entcour t;(
c)i fheisanundi schar gedi nsolvent;(d)ifheisnotaci t
izenofI ndi a,or
hasv oluntari
lyacqui r
edt heci t
izenshipofaf oreignSt ate,orisunderanyacknowl edgmentofal l
egianceoradher encet oaf oreignSt at
e; (e)ifhei ssodi squalif
iedbyorunderanyl awmadebyPar li
ament .Ex pl
anat ion-For
thepur poseoft hisclauseaper sonshal lnotbedeemedt ohol danof fi
ceofpr ofi
tunderGov ernmentofI ndi anort heGov ernmentofanySt atespeci fi
edi nthef i
rstSchedul ebyr easononl yt hathei saMi ni st
ereitherf ort he
Unionoff orsuchSt ate.(2)Aper sonshal lbedi squal if
iedf orbeingamemberoft heLegi slat
iveAssembl yorLegi slativeCounci lofaSt ateishei ssodi squal i
fi
edundert ent hSchedul e.

Attor
neyJour nalofI ndia:TheAt t
orneyGener alofIndi aist hehighestlaw off
iceroft hecount ryandal sothechi eflegaladv i
sort othegov ernmentofI ndia.TheAt torneyGener al(AG)ofI ndiais apartoft heUni on
Executi
ve. AGi sthe highestlawof ficerint hecountry.Articl
e76oft heConst i
tut
ion providesf ortheof fi
ceofAGofI ndia.Appointment :TheAt t
orneyGener alofIndiaisappoi nt
edbyt hePr esi
dentofI ndiaont headv i
ceof
theUnionCabi netofmi nisters;
Theper sonappoi ntedmustbeaci ti
zenofIndia;Tobeappoi ntedast heAttorneyGener alofIndia,apersonmustbequal i
fiedtobeaSupr emeCour tjudge,i
.e.theymustei t
herbeaj udgeofa
HighCour tf orfiveyearsoranadv ocatei naHi ghCour tfor10y earsoranemi nentj uristi
nt hePr esident'
sopi ni
on.Dut i
es:Beingt hehighestlawof ficeroft hecount r
y,itisthedut yoft heattorneygener altoadv iset he
governmentonl egalmat t
erst hatarereferredtohi m byt hepr esi
dent;
Heisalsodut y-boundt ounder t
akeanyr esponsibil
it
iesofdut i
esofl egalcharactert hatareassignedt ohim byt hepresident;Simil
arl
y ,
hei salsobound
toperform anyot herfunct i
onsconf erreduponhi m byt heconst it
uti
on;Amongt hedut iesconf erreduponhi m bythepr esidentare,toappearonbehal foft hecentralgovernmentSupr emeCour t,torepresentthecent ral
governmenti nanyr ef
erencemadet ot heSupr emeCour tunderarti
cle143byt hepr esident,andt oappeari nanyHi ghCour tforacasewher etheGov ernmentofI ndiaisconcer ned.Speci alr
ightsenjoy edbyt heAt tor
ney
GeneralofI ndia:Theat torneygener alenjoy st
her i
ghtofaudi enceinanycourtoft hecount rywhenconcer nedwi t
hhisdut i
es, Hefurtherenjoysalltheimmuni ti
esandspeci alpri
v i
legesavai l
abletoanMP; Hehast her ight
toparti
cipatei ntheproceedi ngsofbot ht hehouseswi thoutther i
ghttovoteandcanbedesi gnatedasamember .

Parliament arypr i
vil
egei st hetotalofspeci ficr ightsenjoy edbyeachHousecol l
ectivelyandbymember sofeachHousei ndividuall
y,whichout wei ght hoseownedbyot hergr oupsorper sonsandwi t
houtwhi cht heycoul d
notex ecutet hei rtasks;Somepr ivi
legesar ebasedpur elyonPar l
iament ar ylawandcust om, whi leother saregov ernedbyst atute.Theor i
ginsofPar l
iament ar ypower sinI ndia canbet racedbackt o1833  whent hegov ernor -
counci lgeneral '
swasex pandedt oi ncl udeaf our t
hmemberf ol l
owi ngt he 1833Char terAct .Anewf orm ofl egi slat
iveappar atuswascr eated.Thi scr eatedt hegr oundwor kforani nst i
tutiont hat ,throught ime,ev olvedi ntoa
full
-fl
edgedl egi slativ
ebody .
Thef i
v esour cesoft hepr i
vil
egesar e:Const i
tutionalpr ov isions; Variousl awsmadebyPar l
iament ;
Rulesofbot ht heHouses; Par li
ament aryconv enti
ons; Judi cialinterpretations.Par li
ament ary
privi
leges (Art105&194)  arespeci alright s,immuni ti
es,ex empt i
onsenj oy edbyt hemember soft het wohousesofPar li
amentandt heircommi t
tees:Theser i
ght sar eal sogi vent ot hosei ndivi
dual swhospeakand
partici
patei nanycommi tteeoft hePar l
iament , whichincludest heAt tor neyGener alofI ndiaandt heUni onMi nisters;President ,whoisi ntegralpar toft hepar li
ament ,doesnotenj oyt hese; Article105( 3) wasamendedby
the Const i
tution44t hAmendment  andnowhast woaspect s;Power s, privi
legesandi mmuni tiesofeachHousesofPar li
ament ,it
sMember sandCommi tt
eesshal lbesuchasmaybedef inedbyPar l
iamentbyl awi nt i
me;
Til
lsuchpower s,privi
legesandi mmuni tiesar edef i
nedbyPar l
iament ,shal lbet hesameast hatenj oy edbyt heHouseofCommonsason26t hJanuar y1950;Ar t
icle105( 3)
 hasav oideddi r
ectr eferencet ot heHouseof
Commonsbutef f
ectivel
ysuchpr i
vilegescont i
nuet il
lPar l
iamentf ramesal aw. Thepr i
v il
egesbel ongingt oeachHouseofPar l
iamentcol lectiv
elyar e:Theabi li
tyto publishr eports,debat es,andpr oceedi ngs,aswel last he
abil
ityt opreventot hersfrom doi ngso.I tcanpubl i
shtruthfulr epor tsofPar liament arypr oceedi ngswi thouttheHouse' sauthor i
zat i
onundert hefreedom oft hepr ess.Howev er,i
nt hecaseofaHousemeet inghel dinsecr et,
thi
sr i
ghtoft hepr essdoesnotappl y ;
Keepst ranger soutoft hegat her ingandor gani zecov ertsessi ons toaddr essv it
alissues; Maker ulest ogov ern i
tsownpr ocedur eandcommer cialact ivi
ty,aswel last oadj udicat eon
suchi ssues;Ri ghtt oimmedi atenot ificationofamember '
sar rest ,cust ody ,conv i
ction,i mpr i
sonment ,andr elease;Init
iat
ei nqui ri
esandcompela  per son'sat tendance;Thecour tsar enotal lowedt oinvest i
gateaHouse' sor
i
ts commi t
tees' proceedings;Withoutt heconsentoft hePr esidi ngof f
icer ,noone( whet heramemberoranout sider)canbear r
ested,andnol egal pr ocess( civilorcriminal)canbeser vedwi thint heHouse' sboundar ies.The
pri
v i
legesbel ongi ngt othemember si ndividual lyare:Duringt hesessi onofPar l
iament , from  40day sbef oret hebegi nningt o40day saftert hefinish, nomembermaybear rested.Thi spr i
vilegei sonl ygrant ed 
inci vi
l mat ters;
i
tisnotgr antedi ncriminalorpr ev ent ivedet entionsi t
uations;InPar li
ament , member shav et he righttof r
eeexpr ession. 
NomemberofPar li
amentori tscommi tt
eesi saccount ableinanycour tf orany thingsai dorv otedi n
Parliamentori tscommi t t
ees.Thi si ndependencei s l
imitedbyt heConst i
tution'sprov isions  aswel last henor msandst andi ngor dersthatgov ernPar l
iament 'sfunctioning;Member sofPar li
amentar eex emptf rom  jurydut y
whenPar li
amenti si nsessi on. 
Theyhav et her i
ghtt odeclinet ogi v eev idenceandt estifyi ncour t.

Supr emeCour t:I

nademocr ati
cset -upl ikeIndia,judiciar yisthesupr emeaut hori
tyint hesenset hati tist heguar dianoft heConst it
utionandt herightsoft heci t
izens.Al so,ithasbeenv est edwi t
ht hedut yt ost r
ikea
balancebet weent hecent ralgov ernmentandt hegov ernment soft hef eder atingunits,otherpi l
larsoft hedemocr acy .Ther efore, existenceofani ndependentandi mpar ti
aljudiciaryi sanessent ialpr e-r
equi siteofaf eder al
form ofgov ernment .Itactsast hecust odianofdemocr acyandt heguar dianoft her i
ghtsandl ibertiesoft hepeopl e.Unl ikeot herf eder alsy stems,wedonothav esepar atehierar chiesoff eder alandst atecour t
s.Fort he
entir
eRepubl i
cofI ndia,therei soneuni fi
edjudicialsy stem-onehi erarchyofcour ts-wi t
htheSupr emeCour tast hehi ghestort heapexcour t.Thent herear eHi ghCour tsatt hest atelevelandsubor dinat ecour tsbelow
them. TheSupr emeCour tofI ndiaconsi stsoft heChi efJust iceand30ot herj udges,appoi ntedbyt hepr esident .ThePar l
i
amenthast hepowert opr escri
bet henumberofj udgesandnof ormalamendmentoft he
const i
tuti
oni sr equi redfort hispurpose. Ar t
icl
e124pr ovidesf ort heest abl ishmentandconst it
utionofSupr emeCour t-Ther eshal lbeaSupr emeCour tofI ndiaconsi sti
ngofaChi efJust i
ceofI ndiaand, untilPar liamentby
l
awpr escr i
besal ar gernumber ,ofnotmor ethan30Judges;Ev eryJudgeoft heSupr emeCour tshal lbeappoi nt edbyt hePr esi dentbywar r
antunderhi shandandsealaf t
erconsul t
ati
onwi t
hsuchoft heJudgesoft he
SupremeCour tandoft heHi ghCour tsi ntheSt atesast hePr esidentmaydeem necessar yf ort hepur poseandshal lhol dof ficeunt i
lheat t
ainst heageofsi xtyfivey ears:Providedt hatint hecaseofappoi ntmentofa
Judgeot hert hant heChi efJust ice,theChi efJusticeofI ndiashal lal way sbeconsul ted:Providedf urt
hert hat—aJudgemay ,bywr itingunderhi shandaddr essedt othePr esident ,resignhi sof fice;aJudgemayber emov ed
from hisof fi
cei nt hemannerpr ov i
dedi ncl ause( 4).Forappoi ntmentasaj udgeoft heSupr emeCour taper sonmustbe- Mustbeaci ti
zenofI ndi a;hasbeenf oratleastf iveyear saJudgeofaHi ghCour toroft woormor e
suchCour tsinsuccessi on; orhasbeenf oratleastt eny ear sanadv ocateofaHi ghCour toroft woormor esuchCour tsinsuccessi on;ori s, i
nt heopi nionoft hePr esident,adi sti
ngui shedj urist.Thus, anon- pr acticingoran
academi clawy ermayal sobeappoi ntedasaj udgeoft heSupr emeCour tifhei s,i
ntheopi nionoft hePr esident ,adi st
ingui shedj ur ist.Prov isionhasal sobeenmadef ortheappoi ntmentofaj udgeofaHi ghCour tasadhoc
j
udgeoft heSupr emeCour tandr eti
redj udgesoft heSupr emeCour torofHi ghCour ttositandactasj udgeoft heSupr emeCour t.TheConst i
tutiondebar sar etir
edj udgeofSupr emeCour tf rom pr acticingi nanycour tof
l
aworbef oreanyot heraut horit
yinI ndia.Thesal aryoft hej udgesi schar gedupont heConsol i
dat edFundofI ndia.Remov alofJudges:Thej udgesoft heSupr emeCour tcanber emov edf r
om of ficebyt hePr esi dentonl y
afteranaddr essbyeachhouseofPar l
iamentsuppor t
edbymor et hant wot hirdsmaj ori
tyofmember spr esentandv oti
nghasbeenpr esent edt othePr esi dentint hesamesessi onf orr emov aloft hej udgesont hegr oundof
provedmi sbehav iourori ncapaci tyOat
. h-Ev eryper sonappoi ntedasaj udgeoft heSupr emeCour tbef oreheent er suponhi sof fice, takesanoat hbefor et hePr esidentorsomeper sonappoi nt edi nt hatbehal fbyhi mi nt he
form pr escribedi nt heConst i
tuti
on.TheConst it
ut i
onpr ohibitsaper sonwhohashol dof ficeasaj udgeoft heSupr emeCour tf rom pr actici
ngl aw bef oreanycour tint het er r
itoryofI ndi a( Ar t124( 6)and( 7)).
The
Const it
utionpr ohibi tsaper sonwhohashel dof fi
ceasaJudgeoft heSupr emeCour tfrom pr act i
cingoract ingasaj udgei nanycour torbef oreanyaut horitywi t
hint heterritoryofI a.ButunderAr
ndi ticle128,t heChi ef
Justicemayappoi ntt heretiredjudgest oactasadhocj udgesi nt heSupr emeCour t

.
Appointmentofadhocj udgesandhi squal i
fi
cati
on-Articl
e127oft heConsti
tutionprescri
besfortheappoi ntmentandquali
ficat
ionsoft headhocJudges.I
treadsasunder -I
fatanyt imethereshouldnotbeaquorum of
theJudgesoft heSupr emeCour tav ai
labletoholdorcont i
nueanysessionoft heCourt,theChiefJusticeofIndiamay,wit
ht hepr evi
ousconsentofthePresi
dentandaf terconsultat
ionwiththeChiefJust
iceoftheHigh
Courtconcerned,requestinwrit
ingtheat t
endanceatthesitti
ngsoftheCourt,asanadhocJudge, f
orsuchper iodasmaybenecessar y,ofaJudgeofHighCour tdulyquali
fi
edforappoi nt
mentasaJudgeoft heSupreme
Courttobedesignat edbytheChi efJusticeofIndi
a.I
tshallbethedutyofJudgewhohasbeensodesi gnated,i
nprior
it
ytootherdut i
esofhi sOff
ice,
toat
tendthesitt
ingsoftheSupr emeCour tattheti
meandf ortheperi
od
forwhichhisattendanceisrequired,andwhi l
esoat t
endingheshallhaveallt
hej uri
sdi
ction,powersandpr ivi
l
eges,andshal
ldischar get
hedut i
esofaJudgeoft heSupremeCour t.ORIGINALJURI SDICTI
ON( ARTICLE131)
Thisref er
stot hecasest hatdir
ectlyori
ginateint heSupr emeCour t
.Ithasoriginalexclusivejuri
sdictioninanydi sputebet ween-theGovernmentofI ndiaandoneormor eSt at
es;ortheGov ernmentofIndiaandanySt ateor
Statesononesi deandoneormor eotherSt at
esont heot her;ortwoormor eSt ates.Suchadi sput eshould,howev er,involv
esomequest ionofl aworf actonwhi cht heexistenceorex t
entofal egalrightdepends.The
treati
esconcl udedbet weentheCent reandt hepr incel
yst atesareexcl udedfrom theCour t
’sori
ginalj uri
sdi
cti
on.ThePr esidentmay ,however ,r
efert heabov ement ioneddi sput
est ot heSupr emeCour tforopinionandt he
SupremeCour tshal
l,aft
ersuchhear i
ngasi tthinksf i
t,reporttothePresidentitsopini
ont hereon.Article32empower st heSupr emeCour ttoissuedi rectionsoror dersint henatureoft hewr it
sofhabeascor pus,mandamus,
prohibiti
on,quowar rantoandcer t
iorar
i,oranyoft hem, fortheenforcementoff undament alri
ghts.Itist obenotedt hatthisjuri
sdict
ionisnotexcl usive.Itisconcur rent.Hi ghCourtsofSt ateshavealsobeengr antedsimil
ar
power s.Art139al soempower stheSupr emeCour twit
hexact l
ysimil
arpower s.Itsays-"Parl
iament ,byl aw,mayconf eront heSupr emeCour t,powert oi ssuedi r
ections, ordersorwr i
tsincludi
ngwr it
sinthenat ureofhabeas
corpus, mandamus, prohi
bit
ion,quowar rantoandcer t
iorarioranyoft hem.Undert heschemeoft heConst i
tut
ion,Articl
e131conf er
sor i
ginaljuri
sdict i
onont heSupr emeCour tinregar dtoadi sputebetweent woSt atesof
theUni onofIndi aorbetweenoneormor eStatesandt heUni onofIndia.

APPELLATEJURI SDICTI ON( ARTI CLES132TO136) :Thi srefer stothepowerofr evi

ewi ngandr evisi
ngt heor dersoflowercour tsandt ri
bunals.Thi sjurisdictionext endst obotht hecivilandt hecr iminalappeal sf rom the
HighCour tsundercer t
ificati
onf rom t hesecour tsor ,i
ni t
sabsence, permittedbyt heSupr emeCour tit
self.Nor mally,
theseappeal sareincasesi nv olvingsubst ant i
alquest i
onofl awofgener alimpor t
anceori nterpretat
ion
oft heConst i
tutionordeat hpenal tyawar dedbyaHi ghCour t .
TheAppel l
atejurisdicti
onoft heSupr emeCour text endstot hreebr anches: Civil
,
Criminal ,Const it
ut i
onal .CIVILAPPELLATEJURI SDI CTION( ART.133) Anappeal
shal ll
ietot heSupr emeCour tfrom anyj udgment ,decr eeorf inalorderinaci vilpr oceedingofaHi ghCour tint heterr
itoryofI ndiaiftheHi ghCour tcer tif
iesunderar ticl
e134A—t hatthecasei nv olvesasubst anti
alquest ion
oflawofgener ali mpor tance; andt hati nt heopi nionoft heHi ghCour tthesai dquest i
onneedst obedeci dedbyt heSupr emeCour t;Notwi t
hstandingany thinginar t
icle132, anypar t
yappeal ingt ot heSupr emeCour tunder
clause;may ur geasoneoft hegr oundsi nsuchappealt hatasubst anti
alquest i
onofl aw ast ot heinterpretati
onoft hisConst it
utionhasbeenwr onglydeci ded;Not wi t
hstandingany thingint hisar t
icle,noappealshal l,
unlessPar l
iamentbyl awot herwi sepr ovides,lietot heSupr emeCour tfr
om t hej udgment ,decreeorf inalor derofoneJudgeofaHi ghCour t.
CRIMI NALAPPELLATEJURI SDICTION( SEC.134)Accor dingt oAr t
icle134an
appeall i
est ot heSupr emeCour tf rom anyj udgment ,finalor derorsent encei nacr iminalpr oceedingofaHi ghCour tint hef oll
owi ngtwoway s-wi thacer tificateoft heHi ghCour t
,orwi thoutacer t
ifi
cat eoft heHi gh
Cour t
.Withacer tifi
cateoft heHi ghCour t — Undercl ause( e)anappeall iest ot heSupr emeCour tiftheHi ghCour tcer ti
fiesunderAr ti
cle134-A( Addedby44t hAmendment ,1978)t hatitisaf itcasef orappealt othe
Supr emeCour t
.[ Art134( c)]Undert henewAr t.134-At heHi ghCour tcangr antacer t
if
icatef orappealt otheSupr emeCour tt i
nderAn.132ei theroni tsownmot ionoron' oral'
appl i
cati
onoft heaggr i
evedpar tyimmedi atel
y
afterpassi ngt hej udgment ,decr ee,orf i
nalor der.Priort othis,t heHighCour tdoessoonl yontheappl i
cationoft heaggr i
ev edpar t
y.UndernewAr ticle(134- A);i tcannowgr antacer t
ifi
cateoni t
sownmot ioni fitdeems
fi
t.Wi thoutacer ti
ficateoft heHi ghCour t—Anappeall iestot heSupr emeCour twithoutt hecer t
ifi
cateoft heHi ghCour tiftheHi ghCour t—hasonappealr eversedanor derofacqui t
talofanaccusedper sonandsent enced
himt odeat h,orhaswi thdrawnf ort ri
albef or
ei tself
,anycasef r
om anyCour tsubor dinatet oitsaut hori
tyandhasi nsucht ri
alconv i
ctedt heaccusedper sonandsent encedhimt odeath.Buti ft heHi ghCour thasr eversed
theor derofconv i
ctionandhasor der edt heacqui t
talofanaccused, noappealwoul dli
et ot heSupr emeCour t.

MAI NTENANCEOFI NDEPENDENCEOFJUDI CI ARY:Onl yani mpar ti

alandi ndependentj udiciarycanpr otecttherightsoft hei ndividualandpr ovi
deequalj ust i
cewi t
houtf orceandf ear.Iti
sv er
ynecessar ythatt heSupr eme
-Cour tshouldbeal lowedt ofuncti
onwi t
houtf earandpol it
icalpressure.Ther emustbesecur it
yoft enur eoft hejudges, noal terati
oni nt hesalar
iesdur i
ngt het er
m oft heiroffi
ceet c.toenabl eaj udget oadmini sterjust i
ce
freely.TheConst it
utionhasmadet hefoll
owingpr ovisionst oensur etheindependenceofj udi ci
ar y—Secur it
yofTenur e—TheJudgesoft heSupremeCour thav esecurityoft enure.Theycannotber emov edfrom t heirof fi
ce
exceptbyanor deroft hePresidentandthatal soont hegr oundofpr ovedmi sbehav i
ourori ncapaci tysuppor tedbyar esoluti
onadopt edbyamaj orit
yoft otalmember shi pofeachHouseandal sobyamaj ori
tyofnotl ess
than2/ 3oft hemember soft heHousepr esentandv ot i
ng.Par l
iamentmay ,howev er,regul atet hepr ocedur ef orpresent ati
onoft headdr essandf orinvestigati
onandpr oofofmi sbehav i
ourori ncapacit
yofaJudge.But
Par l
iamentcannotmi susethi
spowerbecauset hespeci alproceduref ortheirremov almustbef ollowed. Salari
eset c.ar efixed—Thesal ar i
esoftheJudgesoft heSupremeCour tandHi ghCour tarefixedbytheConst i
tution
andchar gedont heConsol i
datedFundofI ndia.Theyar enotsubj ecttov ot eoflegislat ur
e.Dur ingt het erm oft heirof f
ice,theirsal ariesandal lowancescannotbeal teredt othei rdisadvantageexcepti ngr av efinanci al
emer gency.Jur
isdicti
onofSupr emeCour tnott obecur tai
led—Inr espectofi tsjur
isdiction, Parliamentmaychangepecuni arylimitf orappeal st
ot heSupr emeCour t,
conf ersuppl ement arypowert oenableittowor kmor e
effect i
vely
,conferpowert oissuedi r
ecti
ons,or dersorwr itsincludi
ngal lthepr erogativ ewr itsf oranypur poseot hert hant hosement ionedinAr t.132.Int hisrespect,thePar l
iamentcanext endbutcannotcur taildie
j
ur i
sdi ct
ionofSupr emeCour t.
Nodi scussioninLegi slature—Nei therinPar li
amentnori naSt ateLegi slatureadi scussioncant akepl acewi threspecttot heconductofaJudgeoft heSupr emeCour tindischar geofhi s
duties.

Appoi ntmentofJudges—TheConst itutiondoesnotl eav et heappoi ntmentoft heJudgesoft heSupr emeCour ttotheungui deddi scretionoft heEx ecut ive.TheEx ecuti
v eisr equiredt oconsul tJudgesoft heSupr emeCour t
andHi ghCour tsi ntheappoi ntmentoft heJudgesoft heSupr emeCour t.Thust heposi ti
onoft heSupr emeCour tisv eryst rongandi tsindependencei sadequat elyguarant eed.st aredeci sis:Deci siont akenbyahi ghercour t
i
sbi ndingont hel owercour tandatt hesamet i
mest andasapr ecedentt ot helowercour tjudgement , whi chcannotbedi stor tedbyt hel owercour t.Thi spr incipl
ei sknownasSt aredeci sis,whi chessent iall
ymeanst ost and
byt hedeci dedmat ters.InIndi a,itiscommonl yknownast heconceptofpr ecedent .
AsperBl ack’slawdi ctionarystar edeci sisr ef erst ost andbydeci dedcases, upholdingpr ecedent sormai ntainingf or meradj udicat i
onson
i
ssuest hatar esi mil
ari nnatur e.Thewantf orconsi stencyandper manencei nl awgav er iset ot hedoct r
ineofst aredeci si
s.Thi sdoct r
inewasi nusei ni ti
allyinmedi evalEngl andandAmer i
ca, wher et hecommon- lawcour t
s
l
ookedi ntot hejudgementofear li
ercasesasgui danceal sot heyhadt hepowert or ejectt hosewhi cht heydonotconsi dergoodorwhi cht heyconsi der edbad. Thedoct ri
neofst aredeci sisunderAr t.141oft heConst i
tuti
on
ofI ndia:Ar t.141oft heI ndianConst itutionst atest hat“ Anyl awdecl aredbySupr emeCour ttobebi ndi ngonal lcour tswi thi nt het erri
toryofI ndia.”Ar t.141st atest hatonl yther ati
odeci dendiofacasei sbi ndingnott he
obiterdi ctaandt hemer efact soft hecases.Ther ef ore,whi l
eappl yi
ngt hedeci sionofS. C.byot hercour ts,whati sr equi redi st ounder standt her i
ghtpr i
nciplelaiddownbyt hepr eviousdeci sion.Somebasi cconcept s
under l
inedunderAr t.
141:Al lcour tsi nI ndiaar eboundbyl aw t ofol
low t hedeci si
onoft heSupr emeCour tandkeept hepr incipleconst ant;First l
yt hej udgementhast ober eadasawhol eandatt hesamet i
me,t he
obser vationsf r
om t hejudgementhav et obedet ermi nedi nt hel ightofthequest i
onspr esent edbef oret hecour t
;Aj udgementi susedasapr ecedentonl yifitisbasedondeci dingorr esol vingaquest ionofl aw; Somet imes
whi ledeci dingacasecour ti sdi vided, dur ingt hatsituat i
ont hedeci si
ont akenbyt hemaj orityofj udgeswi l
lbelaterusedasapr ecedent ,notthedeci siont akenbyt hemi nor ityofj udges;Ex- par tedeci sionsbyS. Car ealso
bindi ngi nnat ureandcanbeusedaspr ecedent s;S. C.isnotbondedbyi tsowndeci sion;Pr ocedur alirregul ari
tyandi mmat eriali
t ydonoti nval
idatet hebi ndingnat ureofaj udgement ;Speci alleav epet iti
onsar ebi ndingin
natur e.Theadv antagesourl egalsy stem enj oysbyadapt ingt hisdoct r
inear e:
-Itistime- sav i
ngandav oi
dsunnecessar yl i
ti
gat i
ons; Ther eisanor der lydev elopmentoft helaw; I
tbr oughtgr eatercer taint yandconsi stencyin
thel aw, whi chi sthemostr emar kabl eadv antage.Agooddeci sion-
maki ngbodyneedst ohav econsi stencyandav oi dar bitrarinessi ni tsjudgement s;I telimi natest heelementofambi guityandenabl est hel owercour tsto
foll
owt hedeci sionoft hehighercour tunani mousl yandwi thoutquest i
on; Thepr esenceofpr ecedentdecr easesthepr obabi l
ityofaj udgemaki ngami stakei nconsi der i
ngt hepr i
nciplebei ngenf orced.Someoft henegat i
ve
effect sofst aredeci sisdoct rinear e:-Al so, practi
callawi sbasedonex perience, byconsi deringpr ecedentt hescopeofexper iencedecr easeswhi chhamper stheessenceofpr actisinglaw; Itisbei ngcr iticisedbecauseofi t
s
effectofl imi ti
ngt hef reedev elopmentofl aw;Thef irstandf oremostdi sadv antageoft hi sdoct ri
neandt hepr ecedentsy st em i si tsr i
gi di
tyandunwi ll
ingnesst oal l
owchange;Anot herdi sadv ant agei si tscompl ex it
ywhi ch
somet imesmakest hesi t
uat i
onmor euncer tai
n; Manyt i
mej udicialdecisionsdeemedasmi st akesar ebei ngcont inuedi nt hef orm ofpr ecedentlaw

Gov ernor :Gov ernmentatt heSt at ei st hesameast hatf ort heUni on, thati s,aPar l
iament arysy st em.Theheadoft hest at esi scal l
edt heGov er nor , whoi st heconst i
tutionalheadoft hest ateast he
Presi denti sf ort hewhol eofI ndi a. TheGov er nori susual lyadi st i
ngui shedel derst atesman,whocandi schar gehi sr atherper funct orydut ieswi thdi gni tyandwhoi sonaposi ti
ont oex ercisewhat
Gandhi calledan" allper vadi ngmor ali nfluence” .TheGov er norofast at ehasadualr ol et opl ay -
ast heconst itutionalheadoft hest at eandast heagentorr epresent ativeoft hecent r
e. AsperAr t.157,
noper sonshal lbeel igiblef orappoi ntmentasGov er norunl ess- hei saci tizenofI ndi aandhascompl etedt heageof35y ear s.TheGov ernorofaSt at eshal lbeappoi ntedbyt hePr esi dentbywar r
ant
underhi shandandseal[ Ar t.155] .
;Subj ectt ot hepl easur eoft hePr esi dent ,heshal lhol dof ficef orat er m of5y ear sandont heexpi ryofsuchper iodcont i
nuest ohol di tunt ilhi ssuccessorent er s
uponhi sof fice. ;Theappoi ntmentmayt ermi nat eei therupondi smi ssalbyt hePr esi dentoronr esi gnat i
onaddr essedt oPr esidentbyt heGov ernor .[Ar t
.156] .;
TheGov ernorshal lnotbeamemberof
eitherHouseofPar l
iamentoroft heLegi slat ureofanySt at eandi fanysuchmemberi sappoi nt edasGov er nor ,hi sseatassuchmembershal lbedeemedt ohav ebeenv acat edont hedat eonwhi ch
heent er suponhi sof fi
ceasGov er nor .;
Heshal lnothol danyot herof ficeofpr ofit.;Heshal lbeent itledwi t
houtpay mentofanyr entt ot heuseofhi sof f
icialresidenceandshal lal sobeent itl
edt osuch
emol ument s, al l
owancesandpr ivilegesasmaybedet er mi nedbyPar liamentbyl aw, and, unt ilpr ov i
sioni nt hatbehal fissomade, suchemol ument s, allowancesandpr ivilegesasar especi fi
edi nthe
SecondSchedul eoft heConst itution. ;
Theemol ument sandal lowancesoft heGov er norshal lnotbedi mini sheddur inghi st er m ofof fce.[
i Ar t.158] .THEPOWERSOFTHEGOVERNOROFASTATE:I t
i
st hedut yoft heGov ernort hatt heGov ernmentshoul df unct ionaccor dingt oConst itution.Hemayr ecommendt ot hePr esi dentf orPr esident '
sr ulei nt heSt at eand,accor dingt oAr t.356," Ifthe
presi dent ,onr ecei ptofar epor tfr om t heGov ernororot her wi sei ssat isf i
edt hatasi tuat ionhasar iseni nwhi cht heGov ernmentoft heSt atecannotbecar ri
edoni naccor dancewi tht hepr ovisi onsof
thisConst it
ut ion, hemayi ssueapr ocl amat ion.Byt hatpr ocl amat iont hePr esi dentmayassumet ohi msel fal loranyoft hepower sv est edi norexer cisabl ebyt heGov ernororany bodyoraut hor i
tyin
theSt at e” ;TheGov ernori st or epor tt ot hePr esi dentt hatasi tuat ionhasar iseni nwhi cht heGov er
nmentoft heSt at ecannotbecar riedouti naccor dancewi tht hepr ov isi onsoft heConst ituti
on.
Suchar epor tmaysomet i
mesbeagai nstaMi nist ryi npower ,forex ampl e,i fitat tempt st omi susei t
spowert osubv er tt heConst i
tut ion.I ti scl eart hati nsuchcasa,t her epor tcannotbemade
accor dingt omi nisterialadv ice.Mor eov ernosuchadv icewi llbeav ai labl ewher eami nist ryhasr esignedandanot heral ter nat ivemi nist rycannotbef or med.Thus,i nmaki ngr epor tt ot hePr esi dent
underAr t.356,t heGov ernorexer ciseshi sdi scr et ion;TheMi nister soft heSt at ehol dof fi
cedur i
ngt hepl easur eoft heGov ernor .Thef actt hateachhol dshi sof fi
ceatt heGov er nor '
spl easur e
i
ndi cat est hathi sof ficei satal lt imesatt heChi efMi nister '
sdi sposal , fori nt hesemat ter stheGov ernor ,liket heKi ngi nEngl and, act sont headv iceoft heChi ef-Mi nister .Mor eov erf ort heef fect ive
realisat ionoft her ul
eofCol lectiv eResponsi bi l
ityoft heCounci lofMi ni ster siti snecessar ythatnoper sonshoul dbenomi nat edt ot hecabi netex ceptont headv iceoft heChi efMi nist er .Secondl yno
per sonshoul dber etainedasamemberoft hecabi neti ft heChi ef-Mi ni stersay st hatheshoul dbedi smi ssed. TheGov er nori nt er msofAr ti
cle156oft heConst itutionhol dsof ficedur ingt hepl easur e
oft hePr esident .THEPOSI TI ONOFTHEGOVERNORI NRELATI ONTOHI SCOUNCI LOFMI NI STERS:I ngener al, ther elat ionbet weent heGov er norandhi smi nist ersi st hesameast hatbet weent he
Presi dentandhi smi nisters,wi tht hisi mpor tantdi fferencet hat, whi let heConst itutiondoesnotempowert hePr esi dentt oexer ciseanyf unct ions' inhi sdi scr etion'i taut hor isest heGov er nort o
ex ercisesomef unct ions' i
nhi sdi scr et i
on'.[ Ar ticle163( 1)].Int heexer ci seofhi sdi scr etionar ypour erst heGov er nori snotr equi redt oactont headv iceofChi efMi nisterorev ent oseekhi sadv ice.
TheConst it
ut iondoesnotdef i
neast owhatar et hedi scr etionar ypower soft heGov ernor .Thi sr ai sesani mpor tantquest ionwhet hert heGov er norl i
ket hePr esidenti smer el yaconst itutional heador
whet herhehassomer ealpower s.Thi ssuspi cioni showev erunf oundedi nv iewoft hePar li
ament arysy stem ofGov er nmentadopt edi nt heConst i
t ution.WhenaCabi net , col lect i
v elyr esponsi bleto
theLegi slat ure,i st ogi veadv i
cet ot heGov er nori nt hedi schar geofhi sf unct ions,occasi onsar eal mostnon- ex i
st entf rom hi mt oactcont rar yt ot headv iceoft heCabi net .I
nt het imeofcr isi s,the
Gov ernorcanef fectivelyandconst i
tut i
onal lyut ilizet hepr ov isionandacti nhi sdi scr etionpar ticul ar l
yincaseswher et her emi ghtbeaconf li
ctbet weent heGov er norandhi sCounci lonanyi ssue.I n
viewoft her esponsi bilit
yoft heGov er nort ot hePr esident ,oneoft heactt hat" theGov ernor '
sdeci sionast owhet herheshoul dacti nhi sdi scr et i
oni nanypar ticularmat teri sf inal ",itwoul dbe
possi bl ef ort heGov ernort oactwi thoutt headv iceofhi sCabi netev ent hought heyar enotspeci f i
callyment i
onedi nt heConst it
ut ionasdi scr etionar yf unct i
ons. Thust heGov er normayex er cise,in
ex cept ional circumst anceshi sowndi scr etionar ypower si n—Theappoi ntmentoft heChi efMi nist er; t
hedi smi ssalofMi nist ry;t hedi ssol ut i
on, pr orogat i
onandsuspensi onoft heLegi slat iveAssembl y
;
andadv isingt hePr esidentf ort hepr ocl amat ionofemer gency .ThePower soft heGover norcanbedi scussedundert hef ol l
owi ngf ourheads- EXECUTI VEPOWERS:Theex ecut iv epoweroft heSt at e
i
sv est edi nt heGov ernort obeex er cisedbyhi m ei therdi rect l
yort hr ought heof ficer ’
ssub- or di natet ohi m[ Ar t.154] ;Al lexecut iveact ionsofaSt at eshal lbeexpr essedt obet akeni nhi sname
[Ar t
.164] ;Theex ecutivepowerofaSt ateshal lext endt omat tersi nr espectt owhi cht heLegi slat ur eoft heSt atehaspowert omakel aws; Inanymat terwi t
hr espectt owhi chbot ht heLegi slat ur eofa
Stat eandPar liamenthav epowert omakel aws&i fi tisamat terment ionedi nt heConcur r
entLi st ,t
heex ecut i
v epoweroft heSt at eshal lbesubj ectt oandl i
mi tedbyt heexecut ivepowerconf erred
byt heConst i
tut i
onorbyanyl awmadebyPar l
iamentupont heUni onoraut hor iti
est her eof .[Ar t.162] ;
TheGov er nmentappoi nt st heChi efMi nist erandot herMi nist ersonhi sadv i
ce, andt heCounci l
ofMi ni ster shol dof fi
cedur inghi spl easur ebutt heCounci l ofMi nister si scol lect iv elyr esponsi bl et ot heSt at eLegi slat ureort ot heLowerHouseofsuchLegi slatur ewher et heLegi slat ur econsi st sof
twoChamber s.Thi smakest heGov ernorconst itut ionalheadl iket hePr esidentanddet er mi nest hechar act erof 'St at eGov er nmentofExecut iveasaPar li
ament ar yGov er nmentofEx ecut iv e.The
mosti mpor tantLegi slativepowerort heGov ernori shi sor di nancemaki ngpower ,Thi sOr dinancemaki ngpoweri ssi mi lart ot hatoft hePr esi dent .UnderAr ti
cle123, whenev ert heLegi slatur ei snot
i
nsessi onandi ftheGov ernmenti ssati
sf i
edt hatcircumst ancesex i
stwhi chr equirehimt ot akeimmedi ateacti
on,hemayl egislatebyOr dinance, howev ert heGov ernorcannoti ssueanOr dinance
withoutpr evi
ousi nstruct i
onf r
om t hePresidenti ncasei nwhi ch–Bi llwoul dhav er equiredhispr ev i
oussanct i
on,orr equir
edt ober eservedundert heConst i
tuti
onf ort heassentoft hePr esi dent.
FinancialPower :Amoneybi llcannotbei ntroducedi nt heLegi slati
veAssembl yoft heSt atewi thouttherecommendat ionoft heGov er nor .Nodemandofgr ant scanbemadeex ceptont he
recommendat ionoft heGov ernor.TheGov er norisrequiredt ocauset obel aidbef oret heHouseorHousesoft heLegi slat
uret heannualf inanci alstatement ,knownasBudget .JUDI CI
ALPOWERS:
TheGov er norofaSt ateisempower edt
ogr antpar don,reprieve,respite,orremi ssi
on, ofpunishmentort osuspend, r
emi torcommut et hesent encei nrespectofanyof fenceagai nstanyl awr elati
ng
toamat tertowhi cht heex ecut i
v epoweroft heStateex tends.[Art.161].Thepowerofgr anti
ngpar donunderAr ti
cle161i sverywi deanddoesnotcont ainanyl imitationast ot het imeonwhi chand
theoccasi ononwhi chandt heci r
cumstancesi nwhicht hesaidpowercoul dbeexer cised.Butt hesai dpowerbei ngaconst it
utionalpoweri ssubj ectt ojudicialreviewoncer t
ainl i
mi t
edgr ounds.The
Cour t,
ther efore, woul dbej ust i
fiedinint
er f
er i
ngwi t
hanor derpassedbyt heGov er
nori nexerciseofpowerunderAr t
icle161oft heConst i
tution, i
ft heGov ernorisf oundt ohav eex erci
sedt hepower
himsel fwi thoutbei ngadv i
sedbyt heGov ernmentori ftheGov ernort r
ansgr essest hej uri
sdicti
oni nexerci
singthesameori ti sest abl
ishedt hatt heGov ernorhaspassedt heor derwit houtt he
applicationofmi ndort heor derinquest i
oni samal afi
deoneort heGov ernorhaspassedt heor deronsomeex tr
aneousconsi derati
on.Gov ernorsdonothav edi plomat i
c,mi lit
aryandemer gency
power swhi cht hePr esidenthas.TheGov ernorofAssam hascer taindiscretionarypower sintri
balaf fai
rsinwhichhei snotrequi redtoactaccor dingt ot headv iceofhi sMinisters.ThePr esidental so
hascer tai ndiscr eti
onar ypower s.Theex ecut i
vepower soft heGov ernorissubj ecttoandl i
mitedi nsomer espectsbyt heexecut ivepoweroft hePr esidentt owhom t heGov ernorisr equir
edt or eport
situati
onr equir
ingt hepr oclamat ionofemer gency
Counci lofMi nist er s:Accor dingt oAr ticle163( 1)t hereshal lbeaCounci lofMi ni ster swi tht heChi efMi nist eratt heheadt o' aidandadv ise' theGov er nor .TheCounci l
ofMi nist ersi nt heSt at eisconst itut edandf unct ionsi nt hesamewayast heUni onCabi net .
TheChi efMi nist eri sappoi nt edbyt heGov ernor .Asamat terofawel lest abl ishedconv ent ioni ti st hel eaderoft heLegi sl ativeAssembl ywhoshoul dbeappoi nt edas
theChi efMi ni ster .Thusi nnor malci rcumst ancest hechoi ceoft heGov er nori sl imi tedt ot hel eaderoft hemaj or itypar ty.Butt her emaybeci rcumst anceswher et he
Gov er norwoul dhav et oex er cisehi sdi scr et i
oni nsel ect ingt heChi efMi nist er .Theot hermi ni st er sar eappoi ntedbyt heGov er noront headv iceoft heChi efMi nist er
.
Int heappoi ntmentofot hermi ni st erst heChi efMi nisterhast hef i
nalsaybecausei ti st heChi efMi ni st erwhohast or unt heGov ernment .Thi si s, i
ndeed, necessar yi n
ordert oensur et hesuccessf uloper at ionoft her uleofcol lect i
ver esponsi bility.TheGov er normayappoi ntaper sonasaChi efMi nist eroraMi ni st erwhoi snota
memberofei therHouseoft heSt at eLegi slatur e.Buthemustbeel ect edt ot heHouseofSt at eLegi slat ur ewi thint heper iodofsi xmont hs.I fhedoesnotbecome
memberoft heLegi slat ur ewi thint hesi xmont hsofhi sappoi ntmentasChi efMi ni sterorMi nist erhewi l
lceaset obeChi efMi nist erorMi nist er .Bef or eaMi nister
ent er suponhi sof f i
ce,t heGov er nori st oadmi nist ert ohi mt hepr escr ibedoat hofof ficeandsecr ecy .Accor dingt oAr ticle164( 1) ,t hemi ni st ersshal lhol dof fice
dur ingt he' pleasur e' oft heGov er nor .Butt hispl easur ei st obeex er ci sabl ebyt he, Gov er noront headv iceoft heChi efMi nist er.Thi sf ollowsf rom Cl ause( 2)ofAr ticle
164whi chsay st hatt heCounci lofMi nist ersshal lbecol l
ect ivelyr esponsi bl et ot heLegi sl at iveAssembl yoft heSt at e.Ti l
lt hemi ni stryenj oy st heconf idenceoft he
LowerHouseofaSt at e,t heGov ernori sboundt oacceptt headv iceoft heChi efMi nist er .I ndeed,i twoul dbest ranget hatami ni stryr esponsi blef ori tsact sand
polici est ot hel egi slat urecanbedi smi ssedbyt heGov er nor .Thi smeanst hatami ni sterhol dsof ficedur ingt hepl easur eoft heChi efMi nist er .TheGov er nori sbound
todi smi ssaMi nist erasandwhenadv i
sedbyt heChi efMi nister .I ti sonl yt hent hatt hesmoot hf unct ioni ngoft hepr inci pl eofcol lect iver esponsi bili
tycanbe
mai nt ai ned. Ar ti
cl e167( a)say st hati tist hedut yofChi efMi nisterofSt atet ocommuni cat eal ldeci si onsoft heCounci lofMi ni ster sr elat i
ngt ot headmi ni strat ion
oft heSt at eandpr oposal sf orl egi sl ation.I ftheGov er noraskshi mt of ur ni shsuchi nf or mat ioni tist hedut yoft heChi efMi nist ert odoso.TheChi efMi ni ster ,i
f
requi r edbyt heGov er nor ,wi llal sosubmi tf orconsi der ationoft hecabi netanymat t eronwhi chadeci si onhasbeent akenbyaMi nist erwhi chhasnotbeen
consi der edbyt hecabi net Ar
. ticle167( c)f urtherst rengt henst her ul eofcol lect iver esponsi bilityandgi vespowert ot heChi efMi nistert or ev iewt hedeci siont akenby
anymi nist eri ndi vidual ly.Whenadeci sioni st akenbyanymi nisterwi thoutr efer encet ot hecabi net ,Gov er normayr equi rei tt obeconsi der edbyt hecabi net .The
Gov er norcannotov errideadeci sionofMi ni ster.I ft hecabi netst andsbehi ndhi mt hemi ni st err emai nsandt heGov er nori sboundt oaccepthi sdeci sion.I f,howev er,
thecabi netdoesnotuphol dhi sdeci si onhewi l
lhav et oqui tt hemi nist ry.I fhei nsi st st or emai nhewi llbedi smi ssedbyt heGov ernoront headv iceoft heChi ef
Mi nist er .Iti sasaf eguar dwhi chensur est hewor ki ngoft hepr inci pleofcol lect iv er esponsi bi li
tyandt hepoweroft heChi efMi nist erandnotapowerwhi chi nt erfer es
witht heGov ernment .DURATI ONANDRELATI ONSBETWEENTWOHOUSESOFTHESTATELEGI SLATURE:Ev er yLegi slat iveAssembl yofev er ySt at e, unl esssooner
dissol ved, shal lcont i
nuef orf ivey ear sf rom t hedat eappoi nt edf ori tsf irstmeet ingandnol ongerandt heexpi rationoft hesai dper i
odoff ivey ear sshal loper at eas
dissol utionoft heAssembl y:Pr ov idedt hatt hesai dper iodmay ,whi l
eaPr ocl amat ionofEmer gencyi si noper ation, beext endedbyPar liamentbyl awf oraper iodnot
exceedi ngoney earatat imeandnotex tendi ngi nanycasebey ondaper i
odofsi xmont hsaf tert hePr ocl amat ionhasceasedt ooper at e.TheLegi sl at iveCounci lofa
Stat eshal l notbesubj ectt odi ssol ut ion.Asnear lyaspossi bleone-t hirdoft hemember st her eofshal l retireassoonasl imybeont heexpi rat ionofev er ysecondy ear
i
naccor dancewi tht hepr ov isionsmadei nt hatbehal fbyPar li
amentbyl aw. Qual ificat ionsf ormember shi p[Ar t.173] Aper sonshal lnotbequal ifiedt obechosent of i
ll
aseati nt heLegi sl atur eofSt at eunl esshe:i saci ti
zenofI ndi aandmakesandsubscr ibesbef or esomeper sonaut hor izedi nt hatbehal fbyt heEl ect ionCommi ssi on
onanoat horaf f i
rmat ionaccor di ngt ot hef or m setoutf ort hepur posei nt heThi rdSchedul e; isi nt hecaseofseati nt heLegi sl ativeAssembl y, notl esst hant went y
-
fi
v ey ear sofageand, i
si nt hecaseofseati nt heLegi sl at i
veCounci l,notl esst hant hirtyy ear sofage; andPossessessuchot herqual ificat ionsasmaybepr escr ibed
i
nt hatbehal fbyorunderanyl awmadebyPar l
iament .Di squal ifi
cat ionsf ormember shi p[ Ar t.191] 1.Aper sonshal lnotbedi squal ifi
edf orbei ngchosenas,andf or
being, amemberoft heLegi slat iv eCounci lofaSt at e—i fhehol dsanysuchof ficeofpr of i
tundert heGov er nmentofI ndi aort heGov er nmentofanySt at especi fiedi n
theFi rstSchedul e,asi sdecl ar edbyPar l
iamentbyl aw t odi squal ifyi tshol der; ifI lei sofunsoundmi ndandst andssodecl ar edbyacompet entcour t;i
fhei san
undi schar gedi nsol vent; i
fhei snotaci tizenofI ndi aorhasv olunt ar il
yacqui redt heci t i
z enshi pofaf or eignSt at eori sunderanyacknowl edgementoral l
egi anceor
adher encet oaf or eignSt at e; ifhei sdi squal if
iedbyorunderanyl aw madebyPar liament .Thenecessar yqual ificat ionsanddi squal i
ficat i
onsar epr escr ibedby
Par liamenti nt heRepr esent at ionoft hePeopl esAct ,19512.Fort hepur posesoft hisAr ticleaper sonshal lnotbedeemedt ohol danof f
iceofpr of itundert he
Gov er nmentofI ndi aort heGov ernmentofanySt at especi fiedi nt hef irstSchedul ebyr easononl yt hathei saMi nist erei therf ort heUni onorf orsuchSt ate.Deci si on
onquest ionsast odi squal if i
cat ionsofmember s- TheConst i
tut i
on( 44t hAmendment )Act ,1978subst i
tut edt heol dAr ticle192asi twaspr iort o42ndAmendment
Act .1976.Accor di ngt ot henewAr ti
cl e192( 1)i fanyquest ionar isesast owhet heramemberofHouseoft heLegi slat ur eoraSt atehasbecomesubj ectt oanyoft he
disqual i
ficat ionsment ionedi ncl ause( I)ofAr ti
cle191, thequest ionshal lber ef er redf ort hedeci sionofGov er norandhi sdeci sionshal lbef inal .( 2)Bef or egi v i
ngany
deci si ononanysuchquest iont heGov ernorshal lconsul tt heEl ect ionCommi ssi onandt heEl ect ionCommi ssi onmay ,fort hispur pose,madesuchenqui ryasi f
thinksf i
t.STATEJUDI CI ARY:TheHi ghCour tsofI ndia:Composi t i
on, Appoi nt mentofJudges:Ar ticle214pr ov idest hatev er ySt atehasaHi ghCour toper at i
ngwi thin
i
tst err i
tor ialj urisdi ct ion.Butt hePar liamenthast hepowert oest abl ishacommonHi ghCour tf ort woormor eSt at es( Ar ticle231) .I
nI ndi a, nei thert heSt at eex ecut ive
nort heSt at eLegi slat ur ehasanypowert ocont rolt heHi ghCour tsort woaf teri tsConst itut i
onoror gani sat ion.I ti sonl yPar li
amentwhi chcandoi t .IncaseofUni on
Ter ritor i
est hePar l
iamentmaybyl awext endt hej ur i
sdi ct i
onofaHi ghCour tt oorex cludet hej ur isdi ctionofaHi ghCour tf rom anyUni onTer ritor y ,orcr eat eaHi gh
Cour tf oraUni onTer r it
or y.ThusDel hi ,aUni onTer ri
tor y ,hasasepar ateHi ghCour tofi tsownwhi let heMadr asHi ghCour thasj urisdi ctionov erPondi cher ry,t he
Ker al aHi ghCour tov erLakshadweepandMumbaiHi ghCour tov erDadr aandNagarHav el i,theKol kat aHi ghCour tov erAndamanandNi cobarI sl ands,t hePunj ab
Highcour tov erChandi gar h. Composi tionofHi ghCour ts:Ev eryHi ghCour tshal lconsi st sofaChi efJust i
ceandsuchot herj udgesast hePr esi dentofI ndi amayf rom
ti
met ot imeappoi nt ;Besi des, thePr esi denthast hepowert oappoi nt-Addi tionalJudgesf orat empor ar yper i
odnotex ceedi ngt woy ear s, f
ort hecl ear anceofar easof
wor k i n a Hi gh Cour t ;
an act ing j udge, when a per manent j udge of a Hi gh Cour t ( other t han Chi ef Just i
ce) i s t empor ar i
ly ab
sentorunabl et oper for m hi sdut iesori sappoi nt edt oactt empor ar ilyasChi efJust ice.Butnei theranaddi tionalnoranact i
ngJudgecanhol dof f i
cebey ondt heage
of62y ear sageofr et irementr ai sedf rom 60t o62.Appoi nt mentandCondi tionsofOf ficeofaJudgeofaHi ghCour t:Ev eryJudgeofaHi ghCour tshal lbeappoi nt ed
byt hePr esi dent .Inmaki ngt heappoi nt ment ,thePr esidentshal lconsul tt heChi efJust i
ceofI ndi a, theGov er noroft heSt at e( andal sot heChi efJust i
ceoft hatHi gh
Cour ti nt hemat terofappoi nt mentofaJudgeot hert hant heChi efJust ice) Tenur
. e:AJudgeoft heHi ghCour tshal lhol dof ficeunt iltheageof62y ear s.Ev eryJudge,
per manent ,addi tionaloract ing,mayv acat ehi sof f i
ceear li
eri nanyoft hef ollowi ngway s- byr esi gnat ioni nwr i
tingaddr essedt ot hePr esi dent ;bybei ngappoi nteda
Judgeoft heSupr emeCour torbei ngt ransf erredt oanyot herHi ghCour t,byt hePr esi dent ; byr emov albyt hePr esi dentonanaddr essofbot hHousesofPar liament
(suppor tedbyt hev ot eof2/ 3oft hemember spr esent )ont hegr oundofpr ov edmi sbehav iourori ncapaci ty ,.Themodeofr emov alofaJudgeoft heHi ghCour tshal l
thusbet hesameast hatofaj udgeoft heSupr emeCour t.Sal ar yandAl l
owancesoft heJudges:I ti spr ov idedt hatt hej udgesoft heHi ghCour tshal ldr awsuch
salar iesandal l
owances, ast hePar liamentmaybyl awf ixf rom t imet ot ime.I naddi t i
ont heywi llal sobeent itledt or ecei veot herpr escr ibedal l
owances.Bypr ov i
di ng
theex pendi t uresal ariesandal l
owancest hej udgesshal lbechar gedont heconsol idat edf undofSt at e.Thesecannotber educedexcepti nf inanci alemer gency .Nor

cant
heal
l
owancesandr
ight
sbev
ari
edbyPar
li
amentt
othedi
sadv
ant
ageofaj
udgedur
inghi
s/hert
erm ofof
fi
ce .
Fundament alDut ies:Ri ght sandDut iesar eliket wosi desofacoi n,absol utelyinsepar able.Whenev erandwher everwehav eanyr i
ghts,wemusthav ecor respondi ngdut ies.Whet heri tbet hehome,t hesoci etyort he
country ,inev eryspher eofl if
ewehav er ightsanddut iest hatgohandi nhand.Wehav erightsi nt hesamemeasur easwehav edut i
es.TheFundament alDut iesar eanov elf eatureoft heIndianConst i
tut i
on.ORI GIN:The
Fundament alDut i
esofci tizenswer eaddedt otheConst ituti
onbyt he42ndAmendmenti n1976bywayofi nser tingPARTI V-Aupont her ecommendat ionsoft heSwar anSi nghCommi tteet hatwasconst i
tutedbyt he
governmentear li
ert haty ear .Allthef undament aldut i
eswer ei ncor por atedi nonear t
icleonl yi e.Ar
. ti
cle51- A.Or i
ginal lyt eni nnumber ,theFundament alDut ieswer ei ncr easedt oelev enbyt he86t hAmendmenti n2002,
whichaddedadut yonev eryparentorguar diant oensur et hatt hei rchi l
dorwar dwaspr ov i
dedoppor t
uni t
iesf oreducat i
onbet weent heagesofsi xandf our teeny ear s.Thei deaf orFundament alDut ieshasbeenbor r
owed
fr
om er stwhi eUSSR.Fundament
l aldut iesar eobl i
gat oryi nnat ure.Butt her eisnopr ov i
sioni nt heconst it
utionf ordi rectenf orcementoft hesedut ies.Ther ei snosanct i
onei t
hert opr ev
entt heirv i
olation.Howev ert he
i
mpor tanceoff undament aldutiescanbegaugedf rom t hef ollowi ngf act s:Asr i
ght sanddut iesar ethet wosi deoft hesamecoi n,itisex pectedt hatoneshoul dobser veone’ sdut iesi nor dert oseekt heenf orcementof
one’sf undament alr ights,i nthecont ex tifaper sonappr oachest hecour tf ort heenf orcementofanyofhi sfundament alr ights,thecour tmayr efuset ot akeal enientv iewofhi mi fitcomest oknowt hatt heconcer ned
i
ndividualhasnor espectf orwhati sex pect edofhi m byt hest ateasaci tizenoft hecount ry
;Theycanbeusedf orinter pret i
ngambi guousst atutes.Thecour tmayl ookatt hef undament aldutieswhi leinterpretingequi vocal
stat
ut eswhi chadmi toft woconst ructions. ;Whi l
edet ermi ni ngt heconst i
tut i
onal i
tyofanyl aw, i
fcour tfi
ndst hati tseekst ogi veef fectt oanyoft hedut ies, itmayconsi dersuchl awt obe‘ reasonabl e’
,andt her eby ,
sav esuch
l
awf r
om unconst itutionality.
FUNDAMENTALDUTI ESI NI NDI A: Thesedut iesar edef i
nedast hemor alobl i
gat i
onsofal lci ti
zenst ohel ppromot easpi ri
tofpat ri
otism andt ouphol dt heuni tyofI ndia.Thef ollowingar et he
ElevenFundament alDut iesofev erycitizenofI ndia:Toabi debyt heConst ituti
onandr espectt heNat i
onalFl agandt heNat ionalAnt hem-Thef i
rstandt hef or emostdut yassi gnedt oev eryci ti
zenofI ndiai stoabi debyt he
Const ituti
onandr especti tsidealsandi nst i
tutions, t
heNat ionalFl agandt heNat i
onalAnt hem.Thesear ethev er yphy si calf oundat ionsofourci ti
zenshi p.Ci tizensar esupposedt omai ntainthedi gnityoft heConst i
tuti
onby
notindul gingi nanyact iviti
esinv i
olationoft hel etterorspi ri
toft heConst i
tuti
on.Our si sav astcount rywi thmanyl anguages,sub- culturesandr eligiousandet hni cdi v
er sit
ies,butt heessent i
alunitoft hecount ryi s
epit
omi zedi ntheoneConst i
tut
ion, onef lag, onepeopl eandsi ngleci t
izenshi p.Wear eal lgov ernedandgui dedbyt hisConst it
utioni rrespect i
veofcast e, r
el i
gi on, r
ace, sex, etc.Tocher i
shandf ollowt henobl eideal swhi ch
i
nspi r
edournat ionalst r
uggl eforf reedom- Theci tizensofI ndiamustcher i
shandf ol
lowt henobl ei dealswhi chi nspi redt henat i
onalst ruggl eforf r
eedom.Thebat tleoff r
eedom wasal ongonewher ethousandsofpeopl e
sacrif
icedt hei rl
ivesf orourf reedom.I tbecomesourdut yt or emembert hesacr if
icesmadebyourf orefathersf ort hecauseoft hecount ry.Touphol dandpr otectt hesover eignty,unityandi nt egrityofI ndia-Itimposesa
Fundament alDut yonev er yciti
zenofI ndi athatheshal lnotdoany thi
ngder ogatoryofuphol di ngorpr otecti
ngt hesov er eignty, unityori ntegr i
tyofI ndia.Iti sadut ypr ohi bit
or yinnat ureaddr essedt ot r
ai t
orsandspi es.To
defendt hecount r
yandr endernat i
onalser vicewhencal ledupont odoso- Inmoder nnat i
onSt ates, i
tisgoeswi thoutsay i
ngt hatev erycitizeni sboundt ober eadyt odef endt hecount r
yagai nstwarorex ternalaggr ession.
Thepr esentdaywar sar enotf oughtont hebat tl
efieldonl ynorar et heywononl ybyt hear medf or ces;theci tizensatl ar gepl ayamostv i
talroleinav arietyofway s.Somet imes,ci vil
iansmayber equiredal sot ot akeup
armsi ndef enceoft hecount ry.

Topr omot ehar monyandt hespi ritofcommonbr other hoodamongstal lpeopl eofI ndiat r
anscendi ngr eligious,l i
ngui sti
candr egi onalor
sect ionaldi versiti
esandt or enouncepr act i
cesder ogat or yt ot hedi gnityofwomen- Thedut yt opr omot ehar monyandt hespi r
itofcommon
brother hoodamongstal lthepeopl eofI ndiaessent iallyf lowsf rom thebasi cv al ueoff raterni t
yenshr i
nedi nt hePr eambl et ot heConst itution.
Indiai sacount r
yofdi fferentcast es,l anguages,r eligi onsandmanycul turalst reamsbutwear eonepeopl ewi thoneConst it
ut ion,onef l
agand
singleci ti
z enship.Spi ritofbr other hoodshoul dcomev erynor mal l
yamongt heci tizensofacount ryl i
keI ndi awher et henor m hasbeent o
consi dert heent i
rewor ldasonef ami ly.Tov al ueandpr eser vet her ichher itageofourcomposi tecul ture- Ourcul turalher itagei soneoft he
nobl estandt her ichest .Whatwehav ei nherit
edf rom t hepast ,wemustpr eser veandpassont ot hef ut uregener at ions.I nf act,eachgener ati
on
l
eav esi tsf ootprintsont hesandsoft ime.Wemusthol dpr eciousanddearwhatourf ore- fathershav ecr eat edandt heirsuccessi vegener at i
ons
bequeat hedt ousassy mbol soft hei rar t
isti
cexcel lenceandachi evement s.Topr ot ectandi mpr ovet henat ur alenvi ronmenti ncludi ngf or est s,
l
akes,r iver sandwi ldl ifeandt ohavecompassi onf orl ivingcr eatures-Int hef aceoft hemenaceoft hei ncr easi ngpol l
ut i
onandenv ironment al
degr adat ion,i tist hedut yofev eryci ti
zent opr otectandi mpr ovenat ur alenv i
ronmenti ncl udingf orest s,lakes,r iv er sandwi l
dl if
eandt ohav e
compassi onf orlivingcr eat ures.Ther isingai r,wat erandnoi sepol l
uti
onandl ar ge- scal edenudat i
onoff or estar ecausi ngi mmensehar mt oal l
humanl ifeonear th.Todevel opt hesci ent i
fict emper ,humani sm andt hespi ritofi nqui ryandr efor m- Itist heboundendut yofev er yci tiz ent o
preser veandpr omot easci entifictemperandaspi ritofi nqui rytokeeppacewi tht hef astchangi ngwor ld.Tosaf eguar dpubl icpr oper tyandt o
abjur evi olence- Itismostunf ortunat et hatinacount rywhi chpr eachesnon- vi
ol encet ot her estoft hewor ld,weseef r
om t imet ot imei nst ances
ofsensel essv i
olenceanddest ruct i
onofpubl icpr oper tyi ndul gedi nbyaf ew ofi tsci ti
zens.Thi si swhyi tbecamenecessar yt opr escr ibet he
responsi bili
ty" t
osaf eguar dpubl icpr oper tyandabj ur ev i
olence"asaf undament aldut yoft heci tizens.Tost rivet owar dsexcel l
encei nal lspher es
ofindi vidualandcol lectiveact ivity
, sot hatt henat i
onconst ant lyrisest ohi gherl ev elsofendeavourandachi ev ement -Thedr i
vef orex cellencei n
allspher esofi ndividualandcol l
ect i
v eact iv
ityi st hedemandoft imesandabasi cr equi rementi nahi ghl ycompet itivewor ld.Thi swoul di nclude
respectf orpr ofessi onalobl i
gat i
onsandex cellence. Topr ovi deoppor tunitiesf oreducat i
onbyt hepar entt heguar dian,t ohi schi ld,orawar d
betweent heageof6- 14y ear sast hecasemaybe.Si gnificantpoi ntsofFundament alDut i
es- TheFundament alDut iesofci tizenswer eaddedt o
theConst i
tutionbyt he42ndAmendmenti n1976,upont her ecommendat ionsoft heSwar nSi nghCommi tteet hatwasconst itut edbyt he
gov er nmentear l
iert haty ear ;
Fundament aldut i
esar eappl icabl eonl ytoci ti
zensandnott ot heal iens; I
ndi abor rowedt heconceptofFundament al
Dutiesf r om USSR; Thei nclusionofFundament alDut iesbr oughtourConst itutioni nl inewi t
hAr ti
cle29( 1)oft heUni versalDecl ar ati
onofHuman
Right sandwi thpr ov isionsi nsev eralmoder nConst itutionsofot hercount r
ies;Outoft het encl ausesi nAr t
icle51A, sixar eposi ti
v edut iesandt he
otherf ivear enegat ivedut ies;Itissuggest edt hataf ewmor eFundament alDut i
es, namel y ,dutyt ov otei nanel ection,dut ytopayt ax esanddut y
tor esi sti njust i
cemaybeaddedi nduecour set oAr ticle51A; Anumberofj udi cialdeci sionsar eav ailablet owar dst heenf orcementofcer tain
clausesunderAr ti
cle51A.