Botany

▪ Coffee, tea
Botany o Medicine
● Scientific study of plants ▪ Vincristine- metabolites with protein inhibitors
● Traditionally encompasses all photosynthetic organisms
o Plants → chemotherapy use (Hodgkin’s lymphoma)
o Plant-like relatives
▪ Taxol- breats & lung cancer treatment
▪ algae: blue-green, red algae, brown algae,
▪ Digitoxin- cardiac glycosides to treat congestive
green algae
heart failure and cardiac arythmia
▪ fungi o Fuel
▪ bacteria o Shelter, paper, clothing
● Plants act as carbon sink (reservoir)
Plant

Food chain

● Multicellular eukaryote
● Photosynthetic autotroph
o Pigments:
chlorophyll a and b
● Cellulosic cell wall
● Cuticle
● Alternation of 2
morphologically distinct
generations
o Sporophyte and
gametophyte

Life
● The quality that distinguishes a vital functioning being from a dead
body

Attributes of Life:
1. Order- all characteristics of life emerge from an organism’s complex
organization (Atom → molecule → organelle → cell → tissue → organ

→ organ system → organism)

o Seen in both plants and animals
o Levels of organization
i. Biosphere
● Diploid: after fertilization
ii. Ecosystem
● Haploid: spores
iii. Community
iv. Population
Why study plants?
v. Organism
● Photosynthesis sustains life on earth
vi. Groups of cells
o Algae, photosynthetic bacteria, plants
vii. Cells
o ¼ of 1.5M known living organisms
viii. Molecules
o Plants- main source on land
o Algae (seaweeds) and photosynthetic bacteria- on aquatic
environments
● Plants are economically important to humans
o Food
▪ Rice, corn, wheat

▪ Banana, bean, soybean, barley, coconut,

sugarcane, sugar beet

1
 5 Kingdoms

Cell
2. Reproduction- organisms reproduce their own kind ● Smallest unit capable of performing life functions
3. Growth and development ● Basis of an organism’s structure and reproduction
o Heritable programs (DNA) direct the pattern of growth and ● Hooke, R.- 1st recorded sighting of cells (Cork cells)
development
o Producing an organism that is characteristic of its species Cell theory
4. Metabolism ● Schleiden- botanist; Schwann- zoologist
o Energy utilization 1. All organisms are made up of 1 or more cells
2. The cell is the basic unit of structure of all organisms
o Organisms take in energy and transform it to do many
3. Virchow- All cells arise from existing cells
kinds of work
5. Irritability
2 types of cell
o Ability to respond to stimulus
1. Prokaryotic
o Eg: Makahiya
2. Eukaryotic
6. Homeostasis
o Regulatory mechanisms that maintain an organism’s
internal environment within tolerable limits, even though the
environment may fluctuate
o Eg: shivering and hyper-hypoosmotic response and
hypo-hyperosmotic response

7. Evolution
o Genetic adaptation in a population through time (not an
individual); stems from adaptation
o Adaptation- a change in an organism’s structure or habits
that better enables the organism to adjust to the
environment
o Eg: Dark colored insects survive more than light colored
Prokaryotic Eukaryotic
insects in the woods → only dark insects survive Lacks nucleus True nucleus bound by a double membrane
Single circular; naked DNA Linear DNA; complexed w histones and
organized into chromosomes
Smaller simpler ribosomes Large, more complex ribosomes

2
 No membrane-bound Possess membrane-bound organelles
organelles
2 protein building blocks for Mutiple microtubules make up flagella
flagella
Slime layer; glycocalyx Possess glycocalyx in the absence of cell wall
Both have cell wall
Plasma membrane lack sterols Plasma membrane with sterols and
and carbohydrates carbohydrates
No cytoskeletal elements in Presence of cytoskeletal elements in cytoplasm
cytoplasm
→ capable of cytoplasmic streaming
70S ribosome 80S ribosome in cell
70S ribosome in organelles
Binary fission Mitosis; meiosis
Only DNA fragments are Entire DNA is transferred
transferred

Principal Differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

Organelle Functions
1. Protoplast- living portion of the cell
o Contains nucleus and cytoplasm (cytosol)
3 Domains: Bacteria, Archaea, Eukaryota 2. Nucleus
o 2 major functions:
▪ Stores hereditary information of the cell

▪ Control center of the cell- Directs cell activity;

coordinates cell’s activities
o Nuclear membrane (double membrane)
o Nuclear pores- fully permeable to the smallest molecules
up to the smallest protein
o Materials found inside:
▪ Nucleoplasm

▪ DNA → chromatin

▪ Nucleolus/Nucleoli (plural)- synthesis of

Woese, Carl (1990)
ribosomes
Why are cells small?
Surface area increases while total volume remains constant → permits
cell-to-cell communication, which is vital for function

3
3. Ribosomes—attached to nucleus and rough ER ii. Inner
o Site where the cell makes the proteins ● Cristae- infoldings
o 2 types: 11. Chloroplasts- a type of plastid; site for photosynthesis
● Contains chlorophyll; semi autonomous (has its own DNA)
▪ Free ribosomes
→ can reproduce
▪ Attached ribosomes- onto endomembrane
system ● Thylakoid (light-dependent) → granum (stack)
o Composed of: Large + small subunit ● Stroma (light-independent)- “cytoplasm” of chloroplast
4. Endomembrane system- several structures that are related and ● Other plastids
connected either through physical continuity or by transfer of i. Chromoplasts: organe, yellow, red,
membrane segments carotenoids
● Nucleus ii. Leucoplast: colorless, amyloplast (stores
● Rough and smooth ER starch); Eg: potato
● Golgi apparatus/dictyosomes
● Vacuoles
● Plasma membrane
5. Endoplasmic reticulum- network of connected membranes
● Rough: protein syn.; conn. To nuclear envelope
i. Rough ER → transport vesicle → golgi

apparatus → lysosomes (digestion or 12. Microbodies

autophagy) ● Peroxisomes
● Smooth: lipid syn., detoxification of drugs and poisons i. Generates and breaks down H2O2
6. Golgi complex/Dictyosome- manufacturing, warehousing, sorting, ii. Catalase and oxidase
shipping department of the cell iii. Breaks down fatty acid
● Has 2 different “faces” or poles: ● Glyoxysomes
i. Cis- receiving end i. Converts fats/oils into sugars
ii. Trans- shipping end ii. Found in seeds
13. Plasmodesmata- openings in the cell wall that function in the cell-cell
communication; pores of the cell wall
14. Plasma membrane/Plasmalemma- controls movement of water,
gasses, and molecules into and out of the cell; semi-permeable (only
certain materials can pass through)
● Phospholipid- phosphorus + glycerol (head) + fatty acid
(tail)
● Fluid mosaic model (Singer & Nicholson, 1972)-
phospholipid bilayer; proteins that are embedded in the
bilayer; carbohydrates attached to proteins or lipids

7. Cell wall- outer layer in some organisms that provides support

● Mainly made up of cellulose
● Protection
● Maintains shape
● Primary (outside) and secondary cell wall
● Middle lamella- made of pectin; glues adjacent cell walls
8. Chloroplast- photosynthetic plastid of plant cells
9. Central vacuole- storage compartment for water, sugars, ions, and ● 2 molecules thick
pigments ● Functions:
● Tonoplast- membrane surrounding central vacuole i. Barrier and selection- maintain concentration
● Filled with water, large, distinct, versatile compartment gradient (ionic gradient in neurons)
● Function: ii. Controlled transport- semipermeability
i. Storage- organic and inorganic compounds; K, iii. Signal transduction- via membrane protein
Cl, proteins; metabolic waste products; pigments (receptor)
(anthocyanin) iv. Enzymatic reaction- many enzymes bound to
ii. Digestion membranes
iii. Growth v. Cell to cell contact and communication- due to
● Crystals glycoprotein layer (similar to a name tag on the
i. Styloid- Ca oxalate; single spindle-shaped cell)
ii. Druse/Rosette- Ca oxalate; star-shaped vi. Cytoskeleton anchor- microfibril linked to
iii. Prismatic- Ca oxalate; prism-shaped membrane
iv. Raphide- Ca oxalate; group of spindle-shaped 15. Cytoskeleton
v. Cystolith- CaCO3; found in lithocysts ● Functions:
10. Mitochondria- site of cellular respiration; semi autonomous (has its i. Maintain cell shape
own DNA) ii. Forms frameworks for movement of organelles
● 2 membranes: and other cellular components
i. Outer iii. Guide/rail

4
 iv. Organized network of protein filaments: Orientation of cleavage Centripetal- start at Centrifugal- start at
1. Microtubules (largest) furrow/cell plate formation
peripher → center center → outwards
2. Intermediate filaments
3. Microfilaments (smallest) Source of spindle fibers Centriole Microtubule-organizing
● Microtubules centers (MTOC)
i. Common to all eukaryotic cells (absent in
prokaryotes) Mitosis
ii. Hollow cylinders composed of tubulin subunits Interphase
iii. Functions: 1. G1/primary growth phase- cell growth and maturation
1. As conveyor belts moving other 2. Synthesis phase- DNA replication
organelles throughout the cytoplasm 3. G2/secondary growth phase- prep. For cell division
(guide) Prophase
2. Major components of cilia and flagella ● Chromatin become more tightly coiled and thick known as
3. Participate in the formation of spindle chromosome
fibers during cell division ● Chromosome= 2 chromatids joined by the centromere (with a
● Intermediate filaments kinetochore)
i. Thicker than microfilaments; thinner than ● Disappearance of nuclear envelope and nucleoli
microtubules ● Spindle fibers become more visible
ii. Made up of one of several diff. proteins (like ● Some of the microtubules attach to the kinetochore of chromatids
keratins) Metaphase
iii. Maintenance of a more rigid, permanent type of ● Fully condensed chromosomes all become aligned at the metaphase
internal cell structure- holding nucleus in plate (a plate equidistanec between the 2 poles of the mitotic spindle)
permanent position Anaphase
● Microfilaments ● Paired centromeres of each chromosome separate
i. Common to all eukaryotic cells (absent in ● Each chromatid is now known as a chromosome
prokaryotes) ● The once-paired sister chromatids begin to move towards the opposite
ii. Solid rods composed of actin poles
iii. Functions: Telophase (reverse of prophase)
1. Determines cell shape ● Disappearance of spindle fibers
2. Help in generating forces used in ● Reappearance of nuclear envelope and nucleoli
cellular contraction and basic cell ● Chromosome mass disperse to give rise to chromatin material
movements (Eg: Muscle movement in ● Fused golgi vesciles → Phragmoplast/cell plate
animals- actin)
3. Enable a dividing cell to pinch off in 2 Significants of mitosis:
cells 1. Genetic conservation/continuity
4. Involved in cytoplasmic streaming or 2. Growth
cyclosis 3. Tissue repair/replacement
4. Asexual reproduction

Endosymbiotic theory
● Ancestral eukaryotic cell ingested an aerobic bacterium, which
became the mitochondria
● Ancestral eukaryotic cell ingested an phtotosynthetic bacterium, which
became the chloroplast

Animal cell Plant cell

Cell wall Absent Present
Plastid Absent Present
Vacuole Many, small, dispersed Single, central
Centriole Present Absent
Lysosome Present Absent
Cilia May be present Absent
Cytokinesis Cleavage furrow Cell plate
Astral fibers- attach to Present Absent
plasma membrane
5
 Lateral meristem
Plant Tissues ● Vascular cambium
Tissue o Produces secondary xylem and secondary phloem
● 2nd level of cellular organization o Gives rise to wood in plants
● Comprised of cells that are similar in structure and function and which ● Cork cambium/phellogen
work together to perform a specific function o Phelloderm- living parenchyma cells at the inner side of
the cork cambium
Primary plant tissue types o Phellem/cork cells- air-filled protective tissue on the
A. Meristematic- division of new cells for new growth or repair outside; dead at maturity
B. Permanent
a. Ground or fundamental (bulk tissue)- storage,
processing, physical support
b. Dermal- protection and sometimes nutrient absorption
c. Vascular- transport of fluids/food and physical support

Meristematic tissue
● Divide indefinitely to produce new cells
● Cell division occurs oslely in meristematic regions, which expansion
may occur anywhere
● Classification of meristematic tissues:
o Based on origin- primary, secondary
o Based on location- apical, lateral (at side), intercalary (at
nodes)
o Based on function- protoderm, ground meristem,
procambium
● Result in primary growth of plant

Primary growth
● Increase in length of roots and shoots
● Caused by apical meristems- give rise to primary meristems
● Outcome: primary plant body
● Produce tissues of the primary plant body
● Consist of:
o Protoderm → primary dermal tissue/epidermis
Permanent tissues
o Procambium → primary vascular tissue 1) Dermal tissue
2) Vascular tissue
o Ground meristem → ground tissue
3) Ground/fundamental
tissue
Apical meristem
● Shoot apical meristem
● Root apical meristem
● Quiescent center- no mitosis occurs; reserve cells

Dermal tissues
● Outer protective covering
of plant body
o Prevent

physical/mechanical damage
o Prevent dessication
o Protect against biological agents
● Roots: Absorption of water and minerals
Secondary growth
1. Epidermis
● Thickening of the stem and roots
o Forms in the 1st year of growth
● Caused by the lateral meristems a.k.a. the secondary meristems
o Usually single layered; rarely multiseriate (Eg; Rubber tree)
o Unicellular layer of meristematic cells that usually ofrm
2. Periderm
cylinders along the length of the stem and roots
o Forms in more than 1 growing season
● Common in eudicots and gymnosperms
o Mainly consists of non-living cork cells
● Rare in monocots

6
 3. Tracheary elements
a. Tracheid
i. Elongated, tapering at both ends
ii. 1st water-conducting cells in vascular plants
iii. Align themselves
iv. Bordered pits at lateral end walls
v. Lignified cell walls
b. Vessel element- aggregate of vessel members
i. Angiosperms
ii. Wider, shoter, less tapered than tracheids
iii. Dead at maturity
iv. Perforation pits at end walls
v. Pits- thinner regions where only primary walls
are present
vi. More efficient than tracheids

Epidermis
● Cuticle- composed of waxy and fatty substance, cutin
● Specialized cells: stomata, trichomes, root hairs, glands
● Stomates- specialized cells that regulate the diffusion of gases inside
the leaf; regulate water loss from leaf (transpiration)
● Trichomes- specialized cells that reflect light to protect against
overheating and excessive water loss; holds humidity; deter herbivory
by small animals; different types: hair-like, glandular
● Root hairs- for water and mineral absorption; increase the absorptive
surface area of the roots
● Salt glands- dump sites for the excess salt absorbed in water from
the soil; help plants adapt to life in saline environments

Periderm
● Arises from secondary growth → replaces the epidermis
● More than 1 growing season (secondary growth)
● In mature/old stems and roots
● Consists of:
o Phellem/cork cells
o Phellogen/cork
cambium
o Phelloderm-
parenchyma that
forms inside the
cork cambium,
looking like cortical
cells
● Periderm: cork cambium +
cork
● Bark: living phloem +
Phloem
periderm
1. Phloem parenchyma
2. Phloem fiber
3. Sieve tube elements- angiosperms
Vascular tissues
4. Sieve elements- gymnosperms
● Conduct water, minerals and food
Sieve tube members
● Xylem- brings water and minerals from roots; no more cytoplasm,
● Alive at maturity
looks empty
● Stacked end to end
● Phloem- moves sugar and other organic nutrients from leaves to rest
● With sieve plates- Cell walls w
of the plant; sieve tube members and companion cells (nucleated
membrane-lined pores
cells)
● No nucleus at maturity
● Companion cell
o With nucleus
o Supple proteins
● Sieve cells and albuminous cells
→ gymnosperms (no sieve tube
Xylem members & companion cells)

1. Xylem parenchyma
2. Xylary fibers
7
 ▪ Usually cuboidal or spherical
Plant organs

Plant morphology
● Field of study that deals w the external and gross internal structure of
the plant organs
● Refer to the general shape and form of the plant organs
● Vegetative structures
o Root
o Shoot: stem, leaves
● Reproductive structures: flower, fruit, seed
Ground tissue
● Fundamental tissue system
● Consists of all tissues minus vascular and dermal tissue
● Cortex, pith
● Functions:
o Fills up the space not occupied by either derma or vascular
o Storage
o Basic metabolism
● Types: Parenchyma, collenchyma, sclerenchyma

Root system
● All the parts located below the surface
● Includes the roots as well as modified stem structures that usually
develop underground
Parenchyma ● 2 patterns of growth:
● Most common type o Taproot system
● Alive at maturity o Fibrous root system
● Least specialized
● Isodiametric Patterns of root growth
● Have primary walls; lack secondary walls ● Taproot system
● Functions: o If the primary root becomes dominant, it becomes the
o Space fillers taproot
o Basic metabolism (photosyn., respiration) o Most eudicots, gymnosperms
o Storage ● Fibrous root system
● Eg: Chlorenchyma, aerenchyma- for buoyancy in aquatic plants o Primary root withers and adventitious roots form
o Seedless vascular plants, monocots
Collenchyma o Adventitious roots- roots that grow from the shoot
● Usually elongated o More shallow and horizontal growth
● Alive at maturity o Common in dry regions
● Lack secondary walls
● Uneven thickening of primary walls
● Functions: provide flexible (plastic) support in young shoots
● Plasticity- ability to permanently change or deform
● Elasticity- ability to change temporarily and revert

Sclerenchyma
● Thick secondary walls w lignin
● Dead at maturity
● Cant increase in length
● Functions: mechanical support for regions that have stopped growing
in length
● Eg: tracheid and vessel elements
● 2 primary types:
o Fibers
▪ Elongated cells

▪ Tapered at both ends

▪ Usually occur in groups

▪ Provides elastic support (can revert to previous

shape)
o Sclereids
▪ Stone cells in pear

▪ Isolated or scattered

8
 ● All above ground parts
● Stem/trunk, branches, leaves, buds, flowers and fruits
● Develops fro mthe epicotyle of
the embryo
● Functions:
o Photosynthesis
o Reproduction
o Storage
o Transport

Stem
● Branched part that bears the
leaves and the reproductive
organs
● Functions
o Support the leaves and the
reproductive organs
o Elevate the leaves and the
reproductive organs
Root
o Conduct water and minerals
1. Anchors the plant
(from roots to leaves and
2. Absorbs water and minerals
reproductive organs) and
3. Constantly provides the shoot w water
food/sugar (from the leaves
and dissolved mienrals
to other organs of the plant)
4. Develop from apical meristem of the
● Node- point of attachment of the leaves
root tip
● Internode- region between 2 adjacent
nodes
Root structure
● Axil- upper junction between a leaf and the stem; tissue in the axil
Root cap
may divide and differentiate into a bud primordium
1. Protects the apical meristem
● Bud- immature shoot sys
2. Helps root penetrate the soil
● Veins (internal)- vascular connection composed of xylem and phloem
3. Secretes mucigel- slimy polysaccharide for lubrication
for transport
Root hairs
1. Zone of maturation
2. Where most of absorption of water and mineral occurs
3. Hairlike extensions of epidermal cells → inc. surface area for
absorption
Epidermis
Cortex
Endodermis- cortical in origin
● Cylinder of cells surrounding vascular cylinder
Stele- collective term for vascular cyliner
1. Pericycle
a. Cylindrical layer of parenchyma just inside the endodermis
b. From where lateral roots develop
2. Vascular cylinder: xylem + phloem Modified stems
1. Stolon or runner- stem with long internodes that runs on or just
Modified roots below the surface, usually terminating in a new plantlet; strawberry
1. Storage root (Fragaria sp.)
a. Taproot is greatly thickened and is able to accumulate 2. Rhizome- thick underground horizontal stem that produces roots and
reservoirs of high-energy storage compoounds (starch) has shoots that develop into new plants; Eg: ginger
b. Carrot, radish 3. Bulb- shoot consists of a small amount of vertical stem tissue and
2. Aerial root massive thick fleshy storage leaves
a. Adventitious roots that generally do not enter the soil and 4. Corm- shoot consists of globose stem tissue surrounded by scanty
may absorb water and minerals from the air or from runoff scale-like leaves; basal leaves with a towering inflorescence/one
from plants flower only
b. Epiphytic plants (orchids) 5. Tuber- enlarged rhizome; potatoes
3. Contractile root
a. Roots that contract vertically to pull the rootstock further
into the soil
4. Haustoria
a. Specialized roots of parasitic plants
b. Used to penetrate tissue of host plant
c. Eg: Rafflesia
5. Prop root
a. Adventitious roots that grow from the base of the stem
b. Provides additional support
6. Pneumatophore
a. Roots that grow upwards from the soil to the air
b. Functions to obtain additional oxygen
c. Eg: mangroves
7. Buttress roots
a. Enlarged horizontally spreading and vertically thickened
roots at the base of the tree
b. Provide mechanical support

Shoot system
9
Aerial modified stems- above ground
1. Cladode- flattened photosynthetic stem that resembles and functions
as a leaf; may also function to reduce water loss; Eg: asparagus
2. Succulent stems- contain high % of parenchyma that store large
volume of water, allowing the plant to survive drought periods; Eg:
aloe vera, cactus
3. Tendril- long, slender, coiling branch adapted for climbing; found on
weak stems and functions to provide additional support
4. Protective stems- deter herbivores
a. Thorn- sharp, pointed stem or shoot; sharp-pointed
stem/shoot (arise from axillary bud. Often w/ evidence of Leaf Arrangement/phyllotaxy
reduced leaves on the stem); will bear leaves later on ● Opposite- 2 leaves on one node
b. Aerole- reduced, non-elongating shoot apical meristem
o Simple
that bears leaf spines; where leaf and spine arise; Eg: cacti o Decussate- like a cross from the top; pairs alternate
c. Prickle- anything sharp that originates on the epidermis ● Alternate- 1 leaf per node
● Whorled- 3 or more in 1 node
Reproductive stems
1. Scape- naked (lack vegetative parts)
peduncle (inflorescence axis);
functions to elevate the flower or the
inflorescence; Eg: anthurium
2. Culm- flowering or fruiting stem of
grasses and sedges
3. Tiller- proliferative grass shoot

Leaf
• Primary photosynthetic organs of plants
• Main site of transpiration
• Generally dorsoventrally flattened Leaf Type
● Simple- lamina is undivided
Leaf parts ● Compound- lamina is divided into several leaflets (pinna): palmate
1. Blade/lamina- expanded, flat portion of or pinnate
the leaf, contains most of the chloroplast ● Pinnate- leaflets attached at rachis on petiole
2. Petiole/stipe- leaf stalk ● Palmate- leaflets attached at the same point at the end of the petiole
3. Leaf sheath- leaf or leaf part that partialy or fully clasps the stem
above the node
4. Veins- vascular bundles, also called nerves
5. Stipules- leaf-like appendages at either side of the base of the leaf;
may be present or absent

Leaf attachment
● Nature of joining the leaf to the stem
● Petiolate – with a petiole
● Sessile – without petiole
● Sheathing – leaf base partly or wholly clasps the stem
Leaf Shape
Leaf venation
● Pattern of the vein or vein branching
● 4 general classes of venation
o Uninervous – central midrib without lateral veins
o Dichotomous – veins branch off distally into a pair of veins
of equal size and orientation, forked
o Parallel – primary and secondary veins are essentially
parallel to one another, the veinlets are at right angles with
the main veins
o Netted/Reticulate – the ultimate veinlets form an
interconnecting netlike pattern

Leaf Tissue
● Epidermis- 2 surfaces:

10
 o Upper- adaxial
o Lower- abaxial
● With cuticle
● Stomata
● Trichomes
● Mesophyll
o Ground tissue
▪ Palisade mesophyll- vertically arranged

▪ Spongy mesophyll- air spaces in between

o Vascular tissue comprise the veins
✓ In most plants, epidermis is single-layered

✓ Some, as in rubber tree, epidermis is multi-layered allowing them to

survive a variety of habitats
Accessory parts
1. Pedicel/peduncle- flower stalk
2. Receptacle- a point where the floral parts are attached to the pedicel
3. Hypanthium (floral tube)- a cup-like or tubular structure, around or
atop the ovary, bearing the sepals, petals, and stamens along its
margin

Perianth
1. Calyx- outermost series of modified leaves; typically green and
leaflike; functions to protect the young flower; individually called the
sepals
2. Corolla- innermost series of modified leaves; usually non-green and
function to attract pollinators; individually called petals
Modified leaves
1. Bract- usually smaller than photosynthetic leaves and are associated Tepals- individual parts of a relatively undifferentiated perianth
w flowers; assumes the function of the petals; Eg: Bougainvilla Androecium
2. Phyllodes- leaves that have flattened bladelike petiole ● All the male organs of a flower; collectively all the stamens
3. Spines- sharp pointed leaf or leaf part; Eg: cactus ● Stamen:
4. Pitcher- shaped like a container, bears an internal fluid and functions o Anther- produces, stores and releases pollen
in the capture and difestion of small animals o Filament- stalk that holds and supports the anther
5. Trap- leaves that mechanically move after being triggered, functions in
the capture and digestion of small animals Gynoecium- all the female organs of a flower; collectively all the pistils
● Pistil:
Flower o Stigma- sticky end of the pistil that funcitons to
● A modified reproductive shoot catch/gather pollen
● basically a stem with an apical meristem that gives rise to leaf o Style- long slender structure that connects the stigma to
primordial; however, the apical meristem stops growing after the floral the ovary
parts have formed o Ovary- contains the ovules (which develop into seed)
● Consists of two major parts:
o Accessory parts Placentation- refers to the positioning of ovules and takes into account the
o Essential parts number and position of placentae, septa, and locules
● Reproductive organ of flowering plants (angiosperms)
● Modified, determinate shoot bearing sporophylls (stamens and/or
carpels), with or w/o outer modified leaves (the perianth=covering:
calyx and corolla)
●

11
 ● Synandrous- both stamen and filaments fused
● Monodelphous- filaments are united forming 1 tube; Eg: gumamela
● Diadelphous- filaments are united (9), but 1 is separate (1) → 2
tubes
● Syngenesious- anthers united; filaments free; Eg: Sunflower

Gynoecium fusion- fusion of carpels

● Apocarpous- separated carpel; free
carpel
● Axile- central axis where ovules are attached ● Syncarpous
● Parietal- ovules attached to ovary wall on sides or near middle o Stype- stalk of the ovary
● Marginal- one side of ovary wall only o Carpels are united with the
● Basal- funiculus attached to base ovary
● Laminar- rows of ind. carpel ● Unicarpellous- carpel 1, locule 1
● Free-central- at central
● Apical-axile- top attachment
Ovary position
● Parietal-axile
● Assess the position or placement of the ovary rel. to the other floral
● Apical- attached to top
parts: hypanthium, calyx, corolla and androecium
Flower sex- refers to presence or absence of M & F parts within a flower
Perianth position
1. Perfect/bisexual- both M and F present
● Describes the placement of the perianth and androecium relative
2. Imperfect/unisexual- staminate or pistilate
both to the ovary and to a hypanthium if present

Flower cycly
● The number of cycles (series or whorls) of floral parts
o Complete
o Incomplete

Flower symmetry- presence and number of mirror-image planes of symmetry

● Bilateral/zygomorphic/irreg- 1 plane div
● Biradial- 2 plane div
● Radial/actinomorphic/regular- 3/more plane div
● Asymmetric- no plane

● Superior- flower parts under ovary

o Hypogynous
▪ No hypanthium
o Perigynous
▪ Hypanthium present
● Inferior- flower parts over
o Epigynous
Perianth fusion ▪ No hypanthium
● Deals w apparent fusion of perianth parts to one another
● Distinct- unfused to another struc. o Epiperigynous
● Connate- fused to another struc.; union of similar parts, union of ▪ Hypanthium presentd
petals
● Free- unfused to a diff. struc. Nature of flowers
● Adnate- fused to a diff. structure; union of dissimilar parts, union of 1. Regular- members of each set of organs (sepals, petals, stamen and
petals and sepals carpels) are of the same size and shape
2. Irregular- some members of one or more sets of organs are different
Stamen type in size or shape or both.
• Laminar- leaf-like stamen without a distinct anther and filament
• Filamentous- more common; with filament distinct from the anther Irregular flower- Papilionaceous
● Standard/banner petal- outermost and the largest part of the flower
Stamen fusion- wether and, if fused, how many stamens are fused
12
 ● Wings/alae- 2 lateral petals
● Keels/carinae- 2 innermost, apically connate and smallest petals

Irregular flower- Caesalpinaceous

● Wings- 2 upper lateral petals
● Banner- innermost and smallest petal
● Keel- 2 lower lateral petals

Inflorescence
Irregular flower- Bilabiate • a collection or aggregation of flowers on an individual plant.
● 2 lipper flowers: upper and lower lip • functions to enhance reproduction
• if not present, flower is solitary
1. Cyme- general term for a determinate inflorescence
2. Spike- consists of a single axis bearing sessile flowers
3. Raceme- single axis bearing pedicellate flowers
4. Corymb- single axis w lateral axes and/or pedicels bearing flat-topped
Irregular flower- or convex flowers
Orchidaceous 5. Umbel- flat-topped or convex inflorescence w pedicels attached at
one point to a peduncle
6. Head/Capitulum- determinate/indeterminate crowded group of sessile
or subsessile flowers on a compound receptable, often subtended by
an involucre
● Sepals- 3 outermost whorl a. Disk- center, smaller
● Petals- 2 innermost whorl b. Ray- periphery
● Lip/labellum- also a petal, but w a diff. shape and size 7. Spadix- a spike w a thickened or fleshy central axis, typically w
congested flowers and usually subtended by a spathe

Flower development
● Carpels and stamens- contain the sporangia
● Sporangium
o Contain the spores
o Chambers where M and F gametophytes develop
● M gametophyte: sperm-containing pollen grain
● F gametophyte:
o Egg-containing structures called embryo sacs
o Embryo sac develop within the ovules

13
 Epicotyl → shoot

Radicle → root

Seed
● Seed coat/testa- covering
● Hilum- scar of attachment of funiculus
● Raphe- ridge on seed coat formed from adnate funiculus
● Albuminous seed- endosperm present in mature seem
● Exalbuminous- little to no albumin
● Cotylespermous- cotyledon

Monocot Seed: grasses

Seed
● Scutellum- cotyledon modified for absorption
● Dormancy
● Coleoptide- surround and protect shoot apex
o Low metabolic rate
● Coleorhiza- surround and protect root apex (radicle)
o Not growing and developing
o Ensures that germination will occur at a time and place
Fruit
most advantageous to the seedling ● Mature ovaries/pistils of flowering plants + any associated accessory
● Germination- resumption of growth and development parts
● Protect the developing seeds and the embryos they in turn contain
● Provide a means for dispersing seeds
● Parthenocarpy – development of fruits without passing through the
processes of pollination and fertilization

Fruit parts
● Pericarp- covering of fruit; fruit wall derived from mature ovary wall;
may be fleshy or dry; usually consists of three distinct layers:
o Exocarp- outermost; may consist of one or more layers of
cells
o Mesocarp- middle; cell thickness varies from a few layers
thin to several layers thick
o Endocarp- innermost; may also consist of one to several
layers of cells
● Accessory parts- organs, not derived directly from the ovary or
ovaries, attached to a fruit; these organs include the bracts,
receptacle, hypanthium, or perianth

Fruit types based on fruit development

1. Simple, aggregate, or multiple
o Simple- from 1 ovary of 1 flower; derived from a single
carpel or several fused carpels
o Aggregate- From many ovaries of 1 flower; results from a
single flower that has more than one separate carpel,
each forming a small fruit
o Multiple- from many ovaries of many flowers; develops
from an inflorescence
o Unit fruit – component derived from an individual pistil
2. Dry vs. fleshy
3. Dehiscent vs. Indehiscent

Dry simple fruits

A. Dry, indehiscent at maturity

14
 ● Achene- seed is attached to 1 point in pericarp
o Eg: Strawberry ● Berry- fleshy; Eg: tomato, berry, eggplant
▪ Each true fruit is the yellow dot o Exo- skin
o Meso- flesh
● Grain- seed is fused to pericarp (rice, corn, wheat)
● Utricle- large space separating seed from pericarp; Eg: cotton o Endo- seed part

● Samara- pericarp is modified → thin and pappery → fruits with wings; ● Drupe- modified mesocarp → fleshy/fibrous/with hard endocarp;
Eg: maple, narra coconut husk = mesocarp; coconut shell = endorcarp; cherry
● Nut- stony and hard pericarp ● Pepo- cucumber, watermelon, squash; leathery exocarp; fleshy
● mesocarp is eaten
B. Dry, dehiscent at maturity ● Hesperidium- leathery rind; orange; pulp = trichomes separated by
septum
● Pome- apples, strawberry and pears → not true fruit; not from the
ovary, develop from the hypanthium that has fused with the ovary

Aggregate fruit- Derived from 2 or more ovaries of a single flower

● Unit fruit- fruit corresponding to a single ovary

● Naming:
o Aggregate fruit of “unit fruit type”; or
o “unit fruit type” – cetum
● Follicle- 1 suture ● Fruit that is composed of many carpels, but only 1 flower
● Legume- 2 sutures; marginal attachment; peanut ● Strawberry, one yellow dot = achene = 1 carpel
● Silique- 2 sutures; one middle replum where seeds are attached ● Atis, guyabano, raspberry
● Capsule- 3 openings; malunggay; cotton (fluff = trichomes of seed) ● Achenecetum- strawberry
o Loculicidal ● Drupecetum- blackberry
o Septicidal ● Follicetum- magnolia
o Circumscissile
o Poricidal Multiple fruits- derived from 2 or more flowers that coalesce

Fleshy/Succulent simple fruits

• Fleshy or succulent at maturity
• General adaptation for seed dispersal by animals (zoochory)
• Reward: fleshy/succulent part
• Seeds are carried and dropped (epizoochory)
• Passed through the animal’s gut unharmed
(endozoochory)
• Generally indehiscent
• Pericarp divided into three distinct layers: exocarp, mesocarp,
endocarp

15
 II. Plant Physiology
Transport in Plants
Levels of Transport
1. Uptake and release of materials by individual cells (Cellular)
2. Short distance transport
3. Long distance transport

Cellular Transport
● Moving materials within the cell (Intracellular)
o Endomembrane system (primarily the rER)
o Cytoplasmic streaming
● Into and out of the cell
o Cell membrane

Came from many flowers → inflorescence

● Multiple fruit of achene
● Sorosis = multiple fruit of berries
o pineapple; each eye = remnant of bract
● Synconium- hypanthium of langka

Fruit & Seed dispersal

1) Anemochory- dispersal by wind
2) Autochory- dispersal by physical expulsion, often explosively
3) Endozoochory- dispersal through animal ingestion & excretion
4) Epizoochory- dispersal through animal ingestion and excretion Passive Transport
5) Epizoochory- dispersal by attachment to fur/feathers ● Process that does not require
6) Hydrochory- dispersal by water energy to move
7) Myrmecochory- dispersal by ants molecules from a high to low
concentration (or DOWN
the concentration
gradient)
● Diffusion- O2, CO2, H2O
o Osmosis
● Facilitated Diffusion- some
ions, glucose, water

Diffusion
● Movement of particles from a region of higher concentration, across a
selectively permeable membrane until equilibrium is reached
o Equilibrium- no net movement of molecules

● Osmosis is the
diffusion of
water across a
selectively
permeable
membrane;
down its
concentration
gradient
o Semi

permeable membrane is permeable to water but not to

sugar

16
 o Protein channels- no conformational changes
o Carrier proteins- changes in shape; conformational
change; moving a solute across the membrane during the
shape change
o Channel proteins – channels through which water
molecules or a specific solute can pass.

Active Transport
● Movement of molecules from low
o Region from hypotonic to hypertonic (referring to amount of to high concentration
solute in a solution) ● Energy is required as molecules
must be pumped against the
▪ Isotonic- solution has the same solute concentration gradient
concentration as that of fluid inside the cell; ● Protein that work as pumps are
equal movement of water into and out of cell; called proteins pumps
animal cell- no change in cell shape; plant cell-
Exocytosis
flaccid plant cell→ neither turgid nor
● Large molecules and multi molecular component
plasmolyzed ● Small membrane bound vesicles containing specific molecules
▪ Hypotonic- lower solute concentration as fused w plasma membrane to release content
● Examples:
opposed to interior of cell; animal cell lyses;
o Placement of cell wall components
plant cell- due to hardened cell wall; turgid cell
o Release of digestive enzymes of carnivorous plants
(normal state- required to prevent wilting)
▪ Hypertonic- higher solute concentration outside
of the cell; water will go out of the cell; animal
cell will shrink; plant cell- cell membrane will
move away from the cell wall (plasmolyzed)

Osmosis
● How do we know the direction of osmosis?
o Water Potential
▪ Combined effect of solute concentration and
physical pressure (cell wall)
▪ “Potential” refers to potential energy Endocytosis
● Receptor mediated endocytosis
▪ Relative tendency of water to leave a location

▪ Measured usually in megapascals (MPa)

▪ High water potential to low water potential

φ𝑠 + ψ𝑝 = ψ

Water Potential (ψ)

● Measure of the capacity of water to do work
● In cells it has 2 components Water and Mineral Absorption and Transport
● ψ𝑝- Pressure Potential Short distance:
The effect that pressure has on water ● From soil to root
+ pressure when compressed ● From epidermal cells of root to xylem of root
- pressure when stretched
● φ𝑠- Osmotic Potential Long distance:
The effect that solutes have on ● From root to shoot
water potential

● Osmotic potential is always

negative; since there is solute
dissolved in the water; water will
not tend to move rather it will Water Uptake by Roots
always want to dissolve the
solute

Facilitated Diffusion
● Movement of larger molecules
like glucose through the cell
membrane
● Proteins in the cell membrane form channels for large molecules to
pass through

Water Movement through the Root

● Example:
17
 o Is facilitated by cohesion and adhesion of water molecules

● Cavitation- breaking of a water column

when tension overcomes t he cohesive
nature of water embolism (air bubble or
pocket of water vapor) forms
o Interruption is not permanent;
the chain of water molecules
can detour around the air
bubbles through pits between
adjacent tracheids or vessel
elements

Guttation
● At night
● Intercellular lateral transport o Stomata are closed
● Three routes:
o High soil moisture level
o Apoplast- via cell wall and extracellular region
o Water will enter plan roots
o Symplast- via plasmodesmata
● Water will accumulate in the plant
o Transmembrane- plasmodesmata and extracellular region
● Creating a slight root pressure
● Water moves to the interior of the root along an increasingly negative ● Root pressure forces some water to exude through hydathodes (water
osmotic potential gradient because of the proportional increase in glands)
solute concentration in the interior cells relative to the exterior cells ● Forming drops
● Instead, water and minerals that are passively moving through
the apoplast must cross the selectively permeable plasma Stomata
membrane of an endodermal cell before they can enter the ● Guard cells control the
vascular cylinder. In this way, the endodermis transports needed opening and closing of the
minerals from the soil into the xylem and keeps many unneeded stomata
or toxic substances out. The endodermis also prevents solutes ● Guard cells flaccid- no net
that have accumulated in the xylem from leaking back into the movement of water into and
soil solution. out of the cell
o Endoderm w Casparian strip- w suberin; impermeable to ● Turgid- open stomata
water; the casparian strip prevents water from entering the
vascular cylinder via apoplast Regulating Stomatal Opening: The P-K Ion Pump
o Symplast- advantageous since it will pass plasma Hypothesis
membrane wc is selectively permeable; materials will be ● At night: stomata are closed
sieved that will enter the vascular cylinder o Some concentration of K+ ions in
guard cells and epidermal cells
Long Distance Movement of Water
1. Root pressure ● Sunrise: Stomata Opens
● Push from below (root to shoot) o Light activates K+ pumps wc actively
2. Transpiration- Cohesion- Tension- Mechanism pumps K into the epidermal cell to the
● Pull up form above guard cells; water will follow
● Water evaporation from leaves pull water through the xylem o Increased K+ in guard cells; lowers water potential in the
of roots
guard cells; diffusion of water down the gradient
Transpiration Pull
● Water vapor in the airspaces of a leaf
o Diffuses down its water potential gradient and exits the leaf
via stomata

Food (Organic Products) Transport: Long Distance

● Transport of organic products of photosynthesis in the plant
● Sugar Source
o Photosynthetic eves
o Storage organ: starch is stored
● Sugar Sink
o Growing organs
o Developing storage tissue
o Eg. Growing roots, shoot tips, stems, fruits

Pressure Flow is the mechanism of translocation in angiosperms

Phloem Transport
o Outside air- water potential is very negative wc triggers the
movement of water from the plant part to the air
● Transpiration produces negative pressure (tension) in the leaf
o Wc exerts a pulling force on water in the xylem, pulling
water into the leaf
● The transpiration pull on xylem sap
o Is transmitted all the way from the leaves to the root tops
and even into the soil solution
1. Sugar, from source, is loaded to sieve tube
2. Sugar diluted w water from xylem creating hydrostatic pressure
3. Water, w sugar, flows from source to sink where sugar is unloaded
and is metabolized or converted to starch
4. Excess water flows to xylem back to “source”
● Translocation: movement of food from “source” to “sink(s)”
18
 Iron Fe3+, Fe2+ Activator of some enzymes, form parts of
cytochromes and nitrogenase; for
chlorophyll synthesis
Boron H2BO3- For chlorophyll synthesis; may be involved
in nucleic acid synthesis, CHO transport and
membrane integrity
Manganese Mn2+ Activator of some enzymes; active in the
formation of amino acids required in water
splitting; integrity of chloroplast membrane
Zinc Zn2+ Activator of some enzymes; formation of
chlorophyll
Copper Cu2+, Cu+ Activator of some enzymes involved in redox
reactions; component of lignin- biosynthetic
enzymes
Molybdenu MoO42- Nitrogen fixation and nitrate reduction
m
Plant Growth and Development Nickel Ni2+ Cofactor for an enzyme that functions in
● Growth- irreversible increase in size, results form cell division and cell nitrogen metabolism
enlargement
● Development- sum of all changes that progressively elaborate an Plant Hormones
organism’s body ● Coordinate growth, development and responses to stimuli
Nutritional Requirements Hormone
● CO2 ● Greek word; “ to excite”
● Mineral nutrients- essential chemical elements absorbed form the ● Small molecule that carries information from the cell where it was
soil in the form of inorganic ions produced to particular target cells, causing a change in response to
o H2O+ internal needs or external stimuli
o Minerals ● Minute concentrations are required

Essential Nutrients Six Main Types

● Required for a plant to grow from a seed and complete the life cycle Auxins
● 17 essential nutrients ● Major site: shoot apical meristems
o Macronutrients- 9 ● Can be found also in embryo of seed, young leaves, developing fruits
o Micronutrients- 8 ● Natural auxin: Indoleacetic acid (IAA)

Macronutrients ● Higher concentration → inhibit cell elongation (due to synthesis of

● Required in large amounts ethylene- inhibitor of plant growth)
● Carries out essential physiological processes ● Synthetic auxins:
● 9 macronutrients (CHONPSKCaMg) o Naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA)
1. Carbon o 2,4- dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D)- herbicide
2. Hydrogen
▪ Agent orange- used in the Vietnam war
3. Oxygen
4. Nitrogen ● Major Functions:
5. Phosphorus o Cell elongation in stem and hypocotyl
6. Sulfur o Root Growth (lateral and adventitious roots)
7. Potassium o Differentiation and branching
8. Calcium o Fruit Development (seeds synthesize auxin)
9. Magnesium o Delay abscission
o Apical dominance- apical bud suppresses lateral buds to
1. Carbon- CO2 develop; ability of apical bud to suppress differentiation of
2. Hydrogen- H2O lateral buds
3. Oxygen- CO2 o Phototropism and Gravitropism
CHO- major component of plant’s organic compounds ● Tropisms
o Growth response that result in the curvature e of plant
ment available in plants Major Functions organs toward or away from stimuli
Nitroge ent of nucleic acids, proteins, hormones, o Negative and positive
coenzymes and chlorophyll
ent of proteins, coenzymes A. Phototropism
orus HPO4 ent of nucleic acid, phospholipids, ATP, several
coenzymes
m that functions in protein synthesis; major
solute in water balance; operation of
stomata
of cell walls, maintaining membrane structure
and permeability; enzyme cofactor,
regulating stimulus response
um activator, component of chlorophyll ● Blue light is absorbed by phototropin
o Phototropin – photoreceptor sensitive to
Micronutrients blue and violet light, particularly blue light.
● Required in small amounts
● Usually cofactors for enzymes; can be recycled ● Movement of auxin to darker side
● 8 micronutrients ● Darwin and Darwin experiment
Element Available Major Functions o Control- curved toward source of light
Form in Plants o Tip removed- no curving observed
Chlorine Cl- Essential in water splitting; water balance o Tip covered by opaque cap- no curving
o Transparent cap- same result as control
19
 o Base covered- same w control
o Water shortage can stress the root system → production of
● Substance that induces the phototropic response of
the plant towards light ABA→ transported to leaves

▪ Closure of stomata
B. Gravitropism

Ethylene

● Gaseous form
● Initiated by high concentrations of AUXIN
● Ripening of fruits, thickening of stems and roots, senescent leaves
and flowers
● Major Functions:
o Represses growth in length while stimulating expansion in
width
o Growth maneuver: triple response—when obstructed
● Roots w statolith- starch grains wc moves in response ▪ Slowing of stem or root elongation
to gravity
● Starch grain or other particle inside plant cells that ▪ Thickening of root or stem
moves in response to gravity and is thought to
influence the way shoots or other organs grow ▪ Curving to grow horizontally
o Abscission of leaves
Gibberellin (GA) o Senescence/Aging
● Cell elongation and seed germination
● Derived its name from Gibberella, a fungus ▪ Progression of irreversible change that
● Site: root apical meristems, fruits, young leaves and embryos eventually leads to death
● Ex: cabbage without internodes ▪ Related to fruit ripening and leaf abscission
● Major Functions:
o Fruit ripening
o Stem elongation
▪ Chlorophyll degradation
▪ GA- facilitate movement of expansins into correct
position in cell wall ▪ Softening of fruit
▪ Acidified cell wall; faster enlargement of cell wall→ o Thigmotropism

elongation ☺ ▪ Growth response to touch

o Reverse dwarfism ▪ Involves ethylene
o Seed germination
▪ Release of ethylene inhibits growth on the side
▪ Stimulate production of alpha amylase
that touches an object
o Juvenility
o Promotes flowering Brassinosteroids
▪ Biennials flower in their first year ● Newly discovered
● First discovered in Brassica, which includes cabbage
o Fruit formation- increases size of fruits ● Bind to receptor protein in the plasma membrane
● Act like auxin
Cytokinin o Stimulate cell division and elongation in stems
● Stimulate cytokinesis or cell o Cause differentiation of xylem cells
division
o Pollen tube growth
● Discovered from corn and coconut
o Slows down root growth
milk (Zeatin)
o Delay leaf abscission
● Sites: growing tissues in roots,
embryos and fruits
● Major functions; Jasmonic Acid
o Cell division and differentiation ● Fatty acid
● Inhibits growth of seeds, pollen and roots
o Counteracting apical dominance
● Promotes accumulation of proteins in seeds
▪ Promotes lateral bud growth ● Stimulates formation of flower, fruit and seed
o Delaying aging of leaves (senescence) ● Plant defense

Metabolism
Abscisic Acid ● All of the processes in the body that yields or uses energy
● Terpenoid hormone
● Sites: Leaves, stems, roots and green fruit Anabolic Pathways
● Slows growth ● Constructive phase of metabolism
o Seed dormancy ● Consume energy to build complex molecules to form simpler ones
o Dormant buds, inhibits cell division of vascular cambium ● Photosynthesis
● Stress hormones
o Closes stomata Catabolic Pathways
● Breakdown phase of metabolism
● Release energy by breaking down complex molecules to simpler
compounds
20
 ● Cellular respiration

Redox Reaction

Light Reactions
Light Dependent Reactions
● Occurs across the thylakoid membranes
● Uses light energy
● Produce oxygen from water
● Convert ADP to ATP
● Also convert NADP+ into the energy carrier NADPH

● Oxidation—lose an electron Light and Pigments

● Reduction – gain an electron ● Energy from the sun enters Earth’s
biosphere as photons
Photosynthesis o Photon- light energy unit
● Light contains a mixture of wavelengths
● Different wavelengths have different colors
o Absorbed by different pigments
● Photons of light “excite” electrons in the
plant’s pigments
o Excited electrons carry the
absorbed energy
o Excite electrons move to higher
energy levels

Pigments
● Structures in the chloroplasts that absorb light
o Chlorophyll a- blue green; primary pigment
▪ Absorbs best in the red and blue wavelength,
least in the green
o Chlorophyll b- yellow green; accessory pigment
o Carotenoids- shades of yellow and orange
● Arranged in photosystems

● Occurs in the leaves

● Chloroplast
● Stroma- light independent reaction
● Thylakoid- light dependent reaction

I. Light Reaction- “Photo” Photosystems

● Light dependent reaction ● Chlorophylls are organized along with other proteins and smaller
organic molecules into photosystems (in thylakoid membrane)
● Light energy → chemically energy (ATP, NADPH)
● Photosystems
● Occurs across the thylakoid membrane o Has light gathering “antenna complex” consisting of a
● Uses light energy cluster of chlorophylls a, b and carotenoid molecules
● Reaction Center
II. Dark Reaction- Calvin Cycle- “Synthesis” o One of the Chlorophyll A + a Primary electron acceptor
● Light independent reactions o Accepts electrons from the excited chlorophyll pigments
● Makes sugar ● Photosystem I or P700 (700 nm wavelength)
● Occurs in the stroma ● Photosystem II or P680
o Optimum wavelength of light that they can absorb

21
 (2) PS II antenna pigments → Chl a pair reaction-center complex → e- →
Two Pathways:
1. Cyclic primary acceptor
● Only PS1 is used (3) enzyme → split H2O into H+ and O2 → e- supplied to P680 pair; H+ released
● Produces ATP only
into thylakoid space, O combines with another O to form oxygen molecule
● Final electron acceptor: Ferredoxin
(4) e- from PS II → PS I via ETC (electron carriers: plastoquinone, cy complex,
2. Non Cyclic plastocyanin)
● Predominant route: PSI and PSII
● ATP and NADPH (5) exergonic fall of e- to lower energy → energy for ATP synthesis; more H+
o Enters “dark” reactions pumped into thylakoid for chemiosmosis of ATP
(6) meanwhile PS I cycle occurs; when photon excites e- and e- received by
Pathway 1: Cyclic Electron Flow primary acceptor, P700 ready to receive e- from PS II
(7) ETC through Fd (final e- carrier; does not produce proton gradient QED not
ATP)
(8) enzyme NADP reductase catalyzes transfer of e- from Fd to NADP+ to form
NADPH (2 e- needed; removes water from stroma); NADPH at higher energy
level than H2O; e- more readily available for Cavin cycle

A Mechanical Analogy for Light Reactions

● Plastoquinone, Plastocyanin and Ferredoxin are mobile electron

carriers
● Photoexcited electrons shunted back from ferredoxin to the chlorophyll
via cytochrome complex and plastocyanin
● Supplements ATP supply via chemiosmosis but dow not make
NADPH
● Fd is the final electron acceptor
Calvin Cycle/ Dark Reactions/ Light Independent Reaction
Pathway 2: Non-Cyclic Electron Flow ● Uses ATP and NADPH to convert CO 2 to sugar
● Also called Z scheme
● Involves PI and II ● Direct product: Glyceraldehyde 3 Phosphate (G3P), NOT glucose → 3
● Results in the formation of ATP and NADPH wc will enter the Calvin carbon sugar
Cycle stage ● Cycle must take place twice for the net synthesis of glucose
● Water is hydrolyzed (split) ● 2 cycles of Calvin cycle would produce glucose
● Oxygen is formed and released
I. Carbon Fixation
● Enzyme will split water into H and O2→ releasing electrons wc will be
● CO2 joins ribulose biphosphate (RuBP) by RuBP carboxylase
fed to reaction center (Rubisco)
● O will combine w another O to form O2 ● Product is a very unstable 6-C molecule that instantly breaks into 2,3,
● Electrons will move via electron transport chain carbon molecule named 3- phosphoglycerate
● If P700 chlorophyll pair is not excited electron will occupy it
II. Reduction
● 3-phosphoglycerate receives a phosphate group → 1,3
diphosphoglycerate
● NADPH reduces 1,3- bisphosphoglycerate
● Yields glyceraldehyde- 3- phosphate (G3P)

III. Regeneration of CO2 Acceptor (RuBP)

22
 ● 3 CO2 one at a time incorporated into 3 5-carbon RuBP via action of ● CAM Pathway is similar to C4 Pathway
Rubisco (RuBP carboxylase-oxygenase) enzyme → 3 molecules of
6-carbon intermediate, very unstable and readily splits into 2
molecules of 3PPG TOTAL: 6 mols 3PPG

Respiration
● Catabolic process that breaks down glucose (sugars) so that energy
may be stored in the form of Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
● Starts w glucose and breaks it down to CO2, H2O and ATP
● 6 moles of 3PPG + Pi from ATP → 6 moles of 1,3-bisPPG ● Uses O2 and some ATPs to prime the pump and enzymes
● Three stages: glycolysis, the Krebs (Citric acid) cycle and the ETC
● Pair of e- from NADPH reduces 1,3bisPPG → 6 moles of G3P +
Pi(lost) ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)
● G3P – same sugar formed from splitting of glucose in glycolysis ● Immediate source of energy that powers cellular work
● Only 1 (3C) G3P mol is net gain or output (exits cycle for plant cell
use) since the other 5 needed (15C) to regenerate 3 molecules of
RuBP (5C)
● Carbon skeletons of 5 G3P rearranged into 3 mols of RuBP using
3ATPs

Alternative Mechanisms of Carbon Fixation

Photorespiration
● C3 plants- first organic product of carbon fixation is 3 carbon molecule
(3 phosphoglycerate) How does it perform work?
● Some plants close stomata during hot, dry days ● When ATP is hydrolyzed, it releases free energy
● CO2 entry is prevented; Calvin cycle starves ● The cell couples the energy to endergonic processes by transferring
● Inside the leaf, O2 production increases because of photosynthesis a phosphate group from ATP to some other molecule
● Rubisco can also accept O2
● Product splits How is ATP Produced?
● One 2 C compound is exported from the chloroplast ● Phosphorylation
● Mitochondria and peroxisomes break this product
o ADP receives inorganic phosphate to become ATP
● CO2 is released ● Types
● Wasteful process since it does not generate ATP and produces no o Substrate level- occurs in
food; but require CO2 so must undergo this process—uses ATP the presence of an
instead of generating it enzyme
▪ When an
C4 Plants enzyme
● Reactions within the mesophyll cells of leaf transfers a P
● PEP Carboxylase adds CO2 to Oxaloacetate wc will form a 4C group from a
compound such as malate which will convey in turn CO2 into the substrate to
bundle sheath cell where Calvin cycle will occur ADP
● (Mesophyll cells) enzyme PEP carboxylase adds CO2 to PEP.
o Oxidative
▪ Electrons are passed from 1 electron acceptor to
another
▪ Oxidative because it is derived by the loss of
electrons (oxidation)
▪ Energy released at each step is used to make
ATP
▪ Accounts for 90% of ATP generated

CAM Plants (Crassulacean Acid Metabolism)

● Succulent plants such as pineapples, cacti members of Crassulaceae
family
● Open their stomata at night, incorporating CO2 into organic acids
● During the day, the stomata close
o And the CO2 is released form the organic acids for use in
the Calvin Cycle
● CO2 is incorporated into a 4C organic acid (carbon fixation) Respiration: Overview
● Organic acids release CO2 to Calvin cycle
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 (7) Pi group from 1-3bspG added to ATP (substrate) in an exergonic reaction
(8) remaining Pi group relocated
(9) enolase → double bond to form in the substrate, H2O extracted → PEP, high
energy
(10) Pi from PEP→ ATP + pyruvate

A. Energy Investment Phase

Glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water + ATP
B. Cleavage Phase
● Complete opposite of photosynthesis C. Energy Payoff Phase

Summary of Glycolysis

I. Glycolysis
● Cytosol
● Breakdown of glucose into 2 molecules of pyruvate II. Krebs Cycle/ Citric Acid Cycle or Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle
● Splitting of sugar ● Mitochondrial matrix
● Net Output- 2 pyruvate, 2 H2O, 2 ATP, 2 NADH and 2H + ● Decomposes pyruvate into CO2
● Before the citric acid can begin
o Pyruvate must first be converted to acetyl CoA which links
the cycle to glycolysis

1. Release of CO2
2. Reduction- gain of electron
3. Coenzyme A- attachment to acetyl CoA (?)
Output of NADH from the process

(1) hexokinase transfers Pi from ATP to glucose, more chemically reactive

(2) g6p → f6p
(3) PFK transfers from ATP to opposite end of sugar (ATP invested); KEY STEP
for regulation of glycolysis
(4) aldolase cleaves into 2 3-carbon sugars
(5) isomerase converts DHAP into G3P, g3p used in the next step as it forms
(6)
(a) sugar oxidized by electron transfer → NADH
(b) exergonic redox (energy) Pi added to oxidized substrate (high-energy
product)
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 ● Quinone→ III → Cytochrome C → IV →
● Final electron acceptor- O2 which forms water when H+ is released
● Continuous pumping of protons to intermembrane space → Proton
gradient- creation of proton motive force wc forms ATP
● ATP are pumped into the matrix
● 1 proton= 1 ATP
● Per NADH= 3 pumps = 3 ATPs
● Per FADH2= 2 pumps= 2 ATPs

ATP Yield

(1) Acetyl CoA adds its two-carbon acetyl group to oxaloacetate,

producing citrate.
(2) Citrate is converted to its isomer, isocitrate, by removal of one water
molecule and addition of another.
(3) Isocitrate is oxidized, reducing NAD+ to NADH. Then the resulting
compound loses a CO2 molecule. ***
(4) Another CO2 is lost, and the resulting compound is oxidized, reducing
NAD+ to NADH. The remaining molecule is then attached to Fermentation
coenzyme A by an unstable bond. (***) ● Enables some cells to produce ATP without the use of oxygen
(5) CoA is displaced by a phosphate group, which is transferred to GDP, ● Cellular respiration
forming GTP, a molecule with functions similar to ATP. GTP can also o Relies on oxygen to produce ATP
be used, as shown, to generate ATP. (ATP+++_
(6) Two hydrogens are transferred to FAD, forming FADH2 and oxidizing Types of Fermentation
succinate. ● Consists of glycolysis plus reactions that regenerate NAD+ wc can be
(7) Addition of a water molecule rearranges bonds in the substrate. reused in glycolysis
(8) The substrate is oxidized, reducing NAD+ to NADH and regenerating
oxaloacetate.

In Alcohol Fermentation
● Citrate ● Pyruvate is converted to ethanol in 2 steps, one of wc releases CO2
● Isocitrate
● α Ketoglutarate
● Succinyl CoA
● Succinate
● Fumarate
● Malate
● Oxaloacetate
o The cycle repeats
o 3 NADH
o 1 FADH2
o 1 ATP
During Lactic Acid Fermentation
● Pyruvate is reduced directly by NADH to form lactate as a waste
III. Electron Transport Chain + Oxidative product
Phosphorylation

Fermentation and Cellular Respiration Compared

● Both fermentation and cellular respiration
o Use glycolysis to oxidize glucose and other organic fuels to
pyruvate
o Therefore: glycolysis is used by all living things in making
ATP
● Occurs in the inner membrane of mitochondria ▪ ATP produced is far greater in cellular
● Series of enzymes wc takes electrons from electron carriers and use respiration
their energy to pump protons from the matrix to the intermembrane
space, creating a proton gradient
o Used to create ATP
● NADH passes to protein complexes

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● Fat is easier to metabolize compared to protein
● Study the summary of the processes

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