Reporting Notes (Lesson 5-6)

Learning Theories and Styles: Behavioral Theory, Cognitive Learning Theory, and Social
Cognitive Theory
Behavioral Learning Theory
History:
Behaviorism started as a reaction against introspective psychology in the 19th century, which
relied heavily on first-person accounts. J.B. Watson and B.F. Skinner rejected introspective methods as
being subjective and unquantifiable. These psychologists wanted to focus on observable, quantifiable
events and behaviors. They said that science should take into account only observable indicators. They
helped bring psychology into higher relevance by showing that it could be accurately measured and
understood, and it wasn’t just based on opinions.
Description and Discussion:
Behaviorism is an approach to psychology that combines elements of philosophy, methodology,
and theory. It emerged in the early twentieth century as a reaction to “mentalistic” psychology, which
often had difficulty making predictions that could be tested using rigorous experimental methods.
- Behaviorism focuses on one particular view of learning: a change in external behavior achieved
through a large amount of repetition of desired actions, the reward of good habits and the
discouragement of bad habits. Behaviorism or the behavioral learning theory is a popular concept
that focuses on how students learn. Behaviorism focuses on the idea that all behaviors are learned
through interaction with the environment. This learning theory states that behaviors are learned
from the environment, and says that innate or inherited factors have very little influence on
behavior.

Behavioral learning theory is key in understanding how to motivate and help students.
Information is transferred from teachers to learners from a response to the right stimulus. Students are a
passive participant in behavioral learning—teachers are giving them the information as an element of
stimulus-response. Teachers use behaviorism to show students how they should react and respond to
certain stimuli. This needs to be done in a repetitive way, to regularly remind students what behavior a
teacher is looking for.
Positive reinforcement is key in the behavioral learning theory. Without positive reinforcement,
students will quickly abandon their responses because they don’t appear to be working. For example, if
students are supposed to get a sticker every time they get an A on a test, and then teachers stop giving that
positive reinforcement, less students may get A’s on their tests, because the behavior isn’t connected to a
reward for them.
Repetition and positive reinforcement go hand-in-hand with the behavioral learning theory.
Teachers often work to strike the right balance of repeating the situation and having the positive
reinforcement come to show students why they should continue that behavior.
Motivation plays an important role in behavioral learning. Positive and negative reinforcement
can be motivators for students. For example, a student who receives praise for a good test score is much
more likely to learn the answers effectively than a student who receives no praise for a good test score.
The student who receives no praise is experiencing negative reinforcement—their brain tells them that
though they got a good grade, it didn’t really matter, so the material of the test becomes unimportant to
them. Conversely students who receive positive reinforcement see a direct correlation to continuing
excellence, completely based on that response to a positive stimulus.
Cognitive Learning Theories
History:
Jean Piaget (1896-1980), a Swiss psychologist, is best known for his pioneering work on the
development of intelligence in children. His studies have had a major impact on the fields of psychology
and education.
From his observation of children, Piaget understood that children were creating ideas. They were
not limited to receiving knowledge from parents or teachers; they actively constructed their own
knowledge. Piaget's work provides the foundation on which constructionist theories are based.
Constructionists believe that knowledge is constructed and learning occurs when children create products
or artifacts. They assert that learners are more likely to be engaged in learning when these artifacts are
personally relevant and meaningful.

Description, Discussion, and Example:

Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that children move through four different
stages of mental development. His theory focuses not only on understanding how children acquire
knowledge, but also on understanding the nature of intelligence. In studying the cognitive development of
children and adolescents, Piaget identified four major stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete
operational and formal operational. Piaget believed all children pass through these phases to advance to
the next level of cognitive development. In each stage, children demonstrate new intellectual abilities and
increasingly complex understanding of the world. Stages cannot be "skipped;" intellectual development
always follows this sequence. The ages at which children progress through the stages are averages-they
vary with the environment and background of individual children. At any given time, a child may exhibit
behaviors characteristic of more than one stage.
- First stage – The sensorimotor stage begins at birth and lasts until 18 months-2 years of age. This stage
involves the use of motor activity without the use of symbols. Knowledge is limited in this stage,
because it is based on physical interactions and experiences. Infants cannot predict reaction, and
therefore must constantly experiment and learn through trial and error. Such exploration might include
shaking a rattle or putting objects in the mouth. As they become more mobile, infants' ability to develop
cognitively increases. Early language development begins during this stage. Object permanence occurs
at 7-9 months, demonstrating that memory is developing. Infants realize that an object exists after it can
no longer be seen.
- Second Stage – The preoperational stage usually occurs during the period between toddlerhood (18-
24months) and early childhood (7 years). During this stage, children begin to use language; memory
and imagination also develop. In the preoperational stage, children engage in make believe and can
understand and express relationships between the past and the future. More complex concepts, such as
cause and effect relationships, have not been learned. Intelligence is egocentric and intuitive, not
logical.
- Third Stage – The concrete operational stage typically develops between the ages of 7-11 years.
Intellectual development in this stage is demonstrated through the use of logical and systematic
 manipulation of symbols, which are related to concrete objects. Thinking becomes less egocentric with
increased awareness of external events, and involves concrete references.
- Fourth Stage – The period from adolescence through adulthood is the formal operational stage.
Adolescents and adults use symbols related to abstract concepts. Adolescents can think about multiple
variables in systematic ways, can formulate hypotheses, and think about abstract relationships and
concepts.
Piaget believed that intellectual development was a lifelong process, but that when formal
operational thought was attained, no new structures were needed. Intellectual development in adults
involves developing more complex schema through the addition of knowledge.
Social Cognitive Theory
History:
The conceptual roots for social cognitive theory come from Edwin B. Holt and Harold Chapman
Brown's 1931 book theorizing that all animal action is based on fulfilling the psychological needs of
"feeling, emotion, and desire". The most notable component of this theory is that it predicted a person
cannot learn to imitate until they are imitated.
The proposition of social learning was expanded upon and theorized by Canadian psychologist
Albert Bandura. Bandura, along with his students and colleagues conducted a series of studies, known as
the Bobo doll experiment, in 1961 and 1963 to find out why and when children display aggressive
behaviors. These studies demonstrated the value of modeling for acquiring novel behaviors. These studies
helped Bandura publish his seminal article and book in 1977 that expanded on the idea of how behavior is
acquired, and thus built from Miller and Dollard's research. In Bandura's 1977 article, he claimed that
Social Learning Theory shows a direct correlation between a person's perceived self-efficacy and
behavioral change. Self-efficacy comes from four sources: "performance accomplishments, vicarious
experience, verbal persuasion, and physiological states".
In 1986, Bandura published his second book, which expanded and renamed his original theory.
He called the new theory social cognitive theory. Bandura changed the name to emphasize the major role
cognition plays in encoding and performing behaviors. In this book, Bandura argued that human behavior
is caused by personal, behavioral, and environmental influences.
In 2001, Bandura brought SCT to mass communication in his journal article that stated the theory
could be used to analyze how "symbolic communication influences human thought, affect and action".
The theory shows how new behavior diffuses through society by psychosocial factors governing
acquisition and adoption of the behavior.
In 2011, Bandura published a book chapter -- The Social and Policy Impact of Social Cognitive
Theory—to extend SCT'S application in health promotion and urgent global issues, which provides
insight into addressing global problems through a macro social lens, aiming at improving equality of
individuals' lives under the umbrellas of SCT.
SCT has been applied to many areas of human functioning such as career choice and
organizational behavior as well as in understanding classroom motivation, learning, and achievement.
Description and Discussion:
 Social cognitive theory (SCT), used in psychology, education, and communication, holds that
portions of an individual's knowledge acquisition can be directly related to observing others within the
context of social interactions, experiences, and outside media influences.
This theory was advanced by Albert Bandura as an extension of his social learning theory. The
theory states that when people observe a model performing a behavior and the consequences of that
behavior, they remember the sequence of events and use this information to guide subsequent behaviors.
Observing a model can also prompt the viewer to engage in behavior they already learned. In other words,
people do not learn new behaviors solely by trying them and either succeeding or failing, but rather, the
survival of humanity is dependent upon the replication of the actions of others. Depending on whether
people are rewarded or punished for their behavior and the outcome of the behavior, the observer may
choose to replicate behavior modeled. Media provides models for a vast array of people in many different
environmental settings.
Social cognitive theory is a learning theory based gist that agrees that the environment one grows
up in contributes to behavior, the individual person (and therefore cognition) is just as important. People
learn by observing others, with the environment, behavior, and cognition acting as primary factors that
influence development in a reciprocal triadic relationship. Each behavior witnessed can change a person's
way of thinking (cognition). Similarly, the environment one is raised in may influence later behaviors.
The core concepts of this theory are explained by Bandura through a schematization of triadic
reciprocal causation. The schema shows how the reproduction of an observed behavior is influenced by
getting the learner to believe in his or her personal abilities to correctly complete a behavior.
1. Behavioral: The response an individual receives after they perform a behavior
2. Environmental: Aspects of the environment or setting that influence the individual's ability to
successfully complete a behavior

The classification of learning according to Robert Gagné includes five categories of learned capabilities:
intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, verbal information, attitudes, and motor skills.
 
 Out of these five categories of learning outcomes, intellectual skills are the only category that is
divided into subcategories. Gagné distinguished eight different classes of intellectual skills in which
human beings learn in terms of the degree of complexity of the mental processes involved. 

 He identified eight basic types, and arranged these in the hierarchy. According to
Gagne, the higher orders of learning in this hierarchy build upon the lower levels,
requiring progressively greater amounts of previous learning for their success. 

 The lowest four orders tend to focus on the more behavioral aspects of learning, while
the highest four focus on the more cognitive aspects.

TYPES OF LEARNING
 pr
ob
le
m
so
rule
lv
learning
in
conceptglearning
discrim ination learning
verbal association
chaining
stim ulus-response learning
signal learning

Signal learning is a learning impact which individual can learn to respond to a signal in a
broader, diffuse manner. According to Gagne, signal learning is the most fundamental sort of learning and
the simplest form of learning strategies in such manners. It is like Pavlov's classical conditioning concept
in that it includes an individual making a wide, diffuse response to a signal.
In a Signal learning, the subject is conditioned to emit a desired response because of a stimulus
that would not normally produce the response. This is done by first exposing the subject to the chosen
stimulus (conditioned stimulus) along with another stimulus (unconditioned stimulus) which produces the
desired response naturally. After a certain number of repetitions of the double stimulus, it is found that the
subject emits the desired response when exposed to the conditioned stimulus on its own. The applications
of classical conditioning in facilitating human learning are, however, very limited. It is then when
situations are arising and the person is conditioned to response because of a direct signal which a person
or an animal reacts as to how it instills behavioral actions as to how we can respond as an individual the
way it is used to be, simultaneously. An example of Signal learning in the learning conditions of Gagne
would be when a car sounds the horn as we are crossing the road, our eyes swivel towards the source of
the noise and we quicken our steps. This is the simplest form of learning and consists essentially of the
classical conditioning first described by the behavioral psychologist Pavlov.
Stimulus learning response focuses on a behavioral aspect of learning which entails the
acquisition of a specific response to a distinguished stimulus by the learner. A learner obtains a specific
reaction to a distinguished stimulus through stimulus-response learning. It is a voluntary response to
learning that may be used in acquiring verbal skills as well as physical movements. Stimulus response
learning is where we learn to change our response by discriminating between as stimuli. We learn to
respond in a particular way by being rewarded or getting favorable results. This way of learning is also
known as Operant Conditioning, originally developed by Skinner. It involves developing desired
stimulus-response bonds in the subject through a carefully planned reinforcement schedule based on the
use of use of rewards and punishments. Compared to classical conditioning, the reinforcing agent
(reward, punishment) is presented after the response. Thus, it must take abide when a situation will take
its place giving commands, orders, or even doing things accordingly as to how it would react then the
outcome would be much more focusing on getting a response to that given situation where it is performed
or given with regards to that acts as a stimulus. An example of stimulus learning response is when a
student named Raoul is going to school and he is walking on a road, then he comes across a signal, and it
turns red, so he stops walking. After some time, the signal changes to green so he crosses the road and
goes to school. This happened because our brain responds differently to different stimuli. Another
example of stimulus learning response is when an instructor praises learner for deeper thinking or
provides constructive criticism during reflection or debriefing. These actions in each situation were a fact
as to how individuals would learn to cope with their behaviors as to how they would response in different
situations wherein their sense of knowing thoroughly upholds as to how individuals are asked to response
and to make actions in the desired outcome or point through a voluntary response.

CHAINING
Description: The ability to connect two or more previously-learned stimulus-response bonds
into a linked sequence.
Discussion:
It is the process whereby most complex psychomotor skills (e.g. riding a bicycle or playing the piano) are
learned. In this type of learning the person links together previously learned S-R’s. 
 The links may involve physical reactions such as an animal learning a series of tricks,
each of which gives the cue to perform the next trick.
 This type of learning often seems to occur so naturally that we do not notice the specific
series of events which led to it. 
Examples/Scenarios:
1. Gagne  uses the example of a child who learns to say “doll” at the sight of a doll, then learns
to lie down, hug the doll, and say “doll”.
2. The Child connects the activities of Bathing, Feeding and taking care of the Doll that is being
learned from the elders. It watches how elders take care of the babies and recreates it when it
looks at the doll. It learns and connects the related stimulus and response.

VERBAL ASSOCIATION

Description: Verbal association is one of the key processes in the development of language
skills.
Discussion:
 This is a form of chaining in which the links between the items being connected are
verbal in nature. 
 This learning is a type of chaining, but the links are verbal units. The simplest verbal
association is the activity of naming an object, which involves a chain of two links: An
observing response enables the child to properly identify the object he sees; and an
internal stimulus enables the child to say the proper name. 
 Gagne calls another common verbal association translation responses; in these  the
learner frequently acquires verbal associations by verbal mediation- an internal link
which helps him associate.
Examples/Scenarios:
1. When the child can name an object “ball” and also say “the red ball”  he has learned a verbal
association of three links. 
2. When the Child associates the word "BALL"  with its "SHAPE", and
"COLOR”. (A white round
ball)

DISCIRMINATION LEARNING
This involves developing the ability to make appropriate (different) responses to a series of similar
stimuli that differ in a systematic way. The process is made more complex (and hence more difficult)
by the phenomenon of interference, whereby one piece of learning inhibits another. Interference is
thought to be one of the main causes of forgetting. In this type of learning, the student must learn different
responses for stimuli which might be confusing. The student learns to distinguish between motor and
verbal chains which he has already acquired. Teachers, Gagne suggests, engage in discrimination learning
when the devise means for calling each student by his correct name.

DISCRIMINATION LEARNING IN DISCRIMINATION LEARNING IN

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING OPERANT CONDITIONING
In classical conditioning, discrimination is the In operant conditioning, discrimination refers to
ability to differentiate between a conditioned responding only to the discriminative stimulus
stimulus and other stimuli that have not been and not to similar stimuli.
paired with an unconditioned stimulus.
*For example, imagine that you have trained your
*For example, if a bell tone were the dog to jump in the air whenever you say the
conditioned stimulus, discrimination would command, "Jump!" In this instance,
involve being able to tell the difference between discrimination refers to your dog's ability to
the bell sound and other similar sounds. distinguish between the command for jumping
and similar commands such as sit, stay, or speak.
Table 1. Discrimination Learning in Classical and Operant Conditioning

EXAMPLES

 The child learns to distinguish between his mother and his aunt. This is an application of
discrimination learning.

When seeing lots of cars in the road, differentiating the cars by its name is an application of
discrimination learning.
CONCEPT LEARNING

This involves developing the ability to make a consistent response to different stimuli that form a
common class or category of some sort. It forms the basis of the ability to generalize, classify etc. In
learning a concept, we respond to stimuli in terms of abstract characteristics like color, shape, position
and number as opposed to concrete physical properties like specific wavelengths or particular intensities.
In concept learning the student’s behavior is not under the control of particular physical stimuli but of the
abstract properties of each stimulus. Concepts have concrete references even though they are learned with
the use of language.

TYPE OF CONCEPT DESCRIPTION & EXAMPLE

-objects that can be perceived by personal
sensations and perceptions
CONCRETE CONCEPTS *example: these are objects like chairs and dogs
where personal interactions occur with the
individual and they start to create a concept
ABSTRACT CONCEPTS -words and ideas that deal with emotions,
personality traits, and events
*example: cold could mean the physical
temperature of the surrounding area or it could
 define the action and personality of another
person
Table 2. Types of concept with example

EXAMPLES

The child learns the concept bird. He distinguishes a bird from a mammal. This is an application of
concept learning.

Classifying music as jazz, country western, rock, etc. is an application of concept learning. (The concept
is ‘music’)

Saying "round” upon seeing a manhole cover, a penny, and the moon is an application of concept
learning. (The concept is ‘round’ objects)

Rule Learning (Behavioral ─ Cognitive)

Rule Learning, considered a very high level of cognitive process that also
looks at behaviorism, forms the basis of the learning of general rules, or
procedures, and systems. These rules are generated by chaining two or more
stimulus situations to arrive at a ‘measure’. Rule learning allows the studying of
the relationships between concepts and their application to different situations.
If we want people to act according to ‘appropriation’, we establish rules.
Take for example, in the classroom, in order to establish a system for the
conducive learning of the students, teachers formulate rules based on the students’
capabilities and what they want the students to do appropriately. As a result,
students are made to follow a system that promotes the attainment of maximum
learning
This process introduces a shift from behavioral focus to cognitive
psychology. Because when a student is put to act in a certain appropriate way,
he/she is subjected to think of the tasks he/she has to complete. And then the
learning is achieved.
Problem Solving (Cognitive)
According to Gagné, problem solving is the highest level of cognitive
process. In this order of the hierarchy, a complex rule or algorithm is formulated
from the combination of known rules or principles to solve a particular problem,
and then kept to use the method for future or other problems that share the same
nature.
The most common process used to solve a problem is described by:
1. Define the problem.
 You want to use the computer in the library but someone
else is already using it, and you have an hour deadline to
submit a paper.
2. Generate alternative solutions.
 “I have a cellular phone that has an MS Word app and can
connect to the internet. On the other hand, I can always ask
my classmate to lend me her laptop.”
 3. Evaluate and select an alternative.
 “I have an hour and my classmate may still have been using
her laptop. I'll use my phone instead.”
4. Implement and follow up on the solution.
 “I am using my phone to do my paper. Although it is
slower, I was able to manage my way through the tools and
finished my paper on time.”
In this type of learning, a complete cognitive process is observed. When
the mind works to establish relationships between the problem, the alternatives,
and the solution, a maximized way of learning by thinking is achieved.

LEARNING STYLE MODELS

KOLB’S THEORY OF EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING

BACKGROUND
- Kolb’s Theory of Experiential Learning was proposed by psychologist David.
- Kolb’s experiential learning theory works on two levels: a four-stage cycle of learning and four separate
learning styles. Much of Kolb’s theory is concerned with the learner’s internal cognitive processes. Kolb
states that learning involves the acquisition of abstract concepts that can be applied flexibly in a range of
situations.

KOLB’S FOUR STAGES OF LEARNING

1. CONCRETE EXPERIENCE
- a new experience or situation is encountered, or a reinterpretation of existing experience.
- EXAMPLE: A young woman performs an initial interview for the first time.
2. REFLECTIVE OBSERVATION OF THE NEW EXPERIENCE
- of particular importance are any inconsistencies between experience and understanding.
- EXAMPLE: After the interview, the young woman reflects on what they did, then will proceed
to make observations and discuss how they went with their interviewer.
3. ABSTRACT CONCEPTUALIZATION
- reflection gives rise to a new idea, or a modification of an existing abstract concept (the person
has learned from their experience).
- EXAMPLE: The young woman then thinks about the interview process and their performance
and tries to make links between previous experience of interviewing and any theories or
knowledge they can apply.
4. ACTIVE EXPERIMENTATION
- the learner applies their idea(s) to the world around them to see what happens.

- EXAMPLE: The young woman considers ways to improve, and tries out methods and
strategies based on the previous stages of the cycle.

KOLB’S LEARNING STYLES

A. DIVERGING (feeling and watching - CE/RO)
- These people are able to look at things from different perspectives. They are sensitive.
They prefer to watch rather than do, tending to gather information and use imagination to
solve problems. They are best at viewing concrete situations from several different
viewpoints. People with a diverging learning style have broad cultural interests and like
to gather information. They are interested in people, tend to be imaginative and
emotional, and tend to be strong in the arts.
B. ASSIMILATING (watching and thinking - AC/RO)
- The assimilating learning preference involves a concise, logical approach. Ideas and
concepts are more important than people. These people require a good, clear
explanation rather than a practical opportunity. They excel at understanding wide-
ranging information and organizing it in a clear, logical format.
C. CONVERGING (doing and thinking - AC/AE)
- People with a converging learning style can solve problems and will use their learning to
find solutions to practical issues. They prefer technical tasks, and are less concerned
with people and interpersonal aspects. People with a converging learning style are best
at finding practical uses for ideas and theories. They can solve problems and make
decisions by finding solutions to questions and problems.
D. ACCOMMODATING (doing and feeling - CE/AE)
- The Accommodating learning style is 'hands-on,' and relies on intuition rather than logic.
These people use other people's analysis, and prefer to take a practical, experiential
approach. They are attracted to new challenges and experiences, and to carrying out
plans.

GREGORC COGNITIVE STYLES MODELS

BACKGROUND
- Anthony Gregorc investigated the concept of duality embedded within western culture,
western philosophy, religion and even psychology. He discerned two ends of a spectrum
in the assimilation of and process of acquiring new knowledge. From this research,
Gregorc (1977) defined two modes of learning which he called preference modes,
leading to the development of the Mind Styles Model.

- The four different quadrants of learning preference modes within the Mind Styles Model
are Concrete Sequential, Concrete Random, Abstract Sequential and Abstract Random.

MIND STYLES MODEL: Four different quadrants of learning preference modes

CONCRETE SEQUENTIAL
The concrete sequential learner prefers hands-on learning experiences which engage
each of the five senses. Learners prefer step-by-step, detailed directions. They learn best from
organized lesson planning, presentations and instructional formats, avoiding chaos. This type of
learner tends to be more submissive in learning situations, deferring authority.
CONCRETE RANDOM
The concrete random learner is a spontaneous learner who quickly assimilates facts and
knowledge. This learner relies heavily on their intuition to arrive at a conclusion. This learner
prefers trial and error methodology to the learner, enjoying the experimentation process. They
tend to not seek input from mentors, guides, teachers or others in leader positions.
ABSTRACT SEQUENTIAL
The abstract sequential learner is able to quickly learn through a variety of means,
decoding verbal, written and visuals. Visuals are highly essential to this type of learner. They
require learning environments which are organized, formatted and filled with valid knowledge.
ABSTRACT RANDOM
The abstract random learner collects information in a haphazard way, with little to no
formal outline or direction. They are flexible in their learning environment, being able to learn
best from verbal means. They will take the new information and, provided they are given time to
reflect and ponder, will organize the information into a pattern or schema which makes sense to
them.

Field-Independent Learning Style

 Field-independent learning style is defined by a tendency to separate details from the surrounding
context.
 A cognitive style in which the individual consistently relies more on internal referents (bodily sensation
cues) than on external referents (environmental cues).
 For teachers, it is best when the instructor’s teaching style is not too structured and to allow student
several options.

Example:
a. Field-independent learners rely less on the teacher or other learners for support.
b. In the classroom: Activities such as extensive reading and writing which learners
can carry out alone, are useful for field-independent learners.

Field-Dependent Learning Style

 Field-dependent learning style is defined by a relative inability to distinguish detail from other
information around it.
 The tendency to depend on the total field, to the extent that you do not perceive the embedded parts.
 The total field is perceived as a unified whole.

Example:
a. Field-dependent learners often work well in teams as they tend to be better at interpersonal
relationships.
b. In the classroom: Activities that connect different parts of a lesson are useful for field-dependent
learners. For example, learners can discuss what they know about a topic, predict content, or look at and
listen to related material.

Matching Learning Styles to Instruction

The broadest level of instructional methods and instruction models give a philosophical orientation to
instruction. For a specific instructional emphasis, models are used to select and
structure teaching tactics, methods, skills, and student activities. Theories on how humans learn
are linked to instructional models.
A teacher’s approach in achieving learning objectives is determined by his/her strategies. Below we have
some instructional approaches
that is used:
II. INSTRUCTIONAL APPROACHES
● DIRECT INSTRUCTION
In a highly structured environment, direct instruction entails directing student attention toward
specific learning. It is instruction that is aimed at achieving certain learning objectives. Content is broken
down into little portions and taught individually, and topics are taught in a logical order and directed by
the teacher. It entails a combination of explanation, demonstration, and practice. Children are given
direction and a disciplined framework.
● COOPERATIVE LEARNING
Cooperative learning is the process of dividing a class of students into small groups so that
they can work together to learn a new idea. Effective cooperative learning is defined by five aspects,
according to David Johnson and Roger Johnson (2009):
1.Positive interdependence: Each student in the group relies on the other learners.
2.Individual accountability: The class develops checks to ensure that everyone is doing what they are
supposed to be doing.
3.Integrative face-to-face interaction: Group members support and encourage one another.
4.Social and interpersonal skills: Groups concentrate on leadership, communication, conflict resolution,
and other soft skills development and practice.
5.Group processing: Learners discuss what has worked (and what hasn’t) to achieve their objective or
assignment as a group.
● INQUIRY-BASED LEARNING
“A teaching style that blends students' curiosity and the scientific method to foster the
development of critical thinking skills,”. Inquiry-based learning encourages students to be engaged,
curious, and try new things. Students are empowered to investigate issues by asking questions and
finding or inventing solutions, rather than being told what to do.
● PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING
PBL (problem-based learning) is a teaching method that encourages students to take charge
of their own education. Problem-based learning encourages students to build problem-solving abilities
and acquire concepts rather than memorizing facts by using difficult, real-world challenges as the
classroom’s subject matter. Problem-based learning is iterative and circular in nature.
EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING
Experiential learning is a type of active learning in which students learn by doing and then
reflect on what they have learned. Hands-on laboratory experiments, internships, practicums, field
exercises, study abroad, undergraduate research, and studio performances are examples of experiential
learning activities.

ADULT LEARNING

Adult Learning is a formal and informal system of education for older and nature person. It is carried out
on a part time basis, and it is entirely voluntary. It involves a conscious effort towards developing the
individual capabilities of adults by public or private agencies through informational, cultural, remedial,
vocational, recreational, professional and other means. Adult learning can be defined as the range of
formal, non-formal and informal learning, activities which results in the acquisition of new knowledge
and skills. Adult learning is also a practice in which adults can engage in systematic and sustained self-
education activities in order to gain new forms of knowledge, skills, attitudes or values

Knowles’ 5 Assumptions of Adult Learners

1. Self-Concept - As a person matures his/her self-concept moves from one of being a dependent
personality toward one of being a self-directed human being.
2. Adult Learner Experience- As a person matures he/she accumulates a growing reservoir of experience
that becomes an increasing resource for learning.
3. Readiness to Learn - As a person matures his/her readiness to learn becomes oriented increasingly to
the developmental tasks of his/her social roles.
4. Orientation to Learning - As a person matures his/her time perspective changes from one of postponed
application of knowledge to immediacy of application.
As a result his/her orientation toward learning shifts from one subject-centeredness to one of problem
centeredness.
5. Motivation to Learn -As a person matures, the motivation to learn is internal

Knowles’ 4 Principles of Andragogy

1. Adults need to be involved in the planning and evaluation of their instruction.
2. Experience (including mistakes) provides the basis for the learning activities.
3. Adults are most interested in learning subjects that have immediate relevance and impact to their job
or personal life.
4. Adult learning is problem-centered rather than content-oriented

GAGNE’S CONDITION OF LEARNING

History (Conditions of Learning): Robert Gagne was an experimental psychologist who was concerned
with learning and instruction for several decades. His earlier work was in a behaviorist tradition, but later
he was influenced by the information-processing view of learning and memory. He is well known for his
synthesis of research on learning and the identification of internal and external conditions of learning

Description: Gagne identifies five major categories of learning: verbal information, intellectual skills,
cognitive strategies, motor skills and attitudes. Different internal and external conditions are necessary for
each type of learning.

Discussion: This theory stipulates that there are several different types or levels of learning. The
significance of these classifications is that each different type requires different types of instruction.
Gagne identifies five major categories of learning: verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive
strategies, motor skills and attitudes. Different internal and external conditions are necessary for each type
of learning. For example, for cognitive strategies to be learned, there must be a chance to practice
developing new solutions to problems; to learn attitudes, the learner must be exposed to a credible role
model or persuasive arguments. Gagne suggests that learning tasks for intellectual skills can be organized
in a hierarchy according to complexity: stimulus recognition, response generation, procedure Following,
use of terminology, discriminations, concept formation, rule application, and problem solving. The
primary significance of the hierarchy is to identify prerequisites that should be completed to facilitate
learning at each level. Prerequisites are identified by doing a task analysis of a learning/training task.
Learning hierarchies provide a basis for the sequencing of instruction.

PEDAGOGY ANDRAGOGY
 Pedagogy = paidi (child) + ago (guide)  Andragogy = andras (man) + ago (guide)
 Pedagogy is a child-focused teaching approach.  Andragogy an adult-focused teaching
 Pedagogy is an education method in which the approach.
learner is dependent on the teacher for  Andragogy refers to the methods and
 guidance, evaluation, and acquisition of
knowledge.
 Learning behavior - Adult learners are self-
directed; they have control over their learning
experience and they are 100% responsible for
their own learning. They are also deeply
involved not only in planning, but also in
evaluating their learning, as they know what
knowledge they want to acquire.
 The role of learners’ experience - Adult
learners have clearly more experience than
young learners. Their experience becomes the
main resource of both their learning and the
personal identity they have developed, as the
richer and more diverse their experience, the
more the diversity they can bring to their own
learning.
 Orientation to learning - adult learners seek
information that is useful in their personal lives
and work environment. This audience demands
that their learning is relevant to their real life
issues, problems, and tasks, and that their
education will boost their performance levels
and help them live their lives in a better, and
more satisfying way.  their skills to achieve the next level of
 Readiness to learn - Adult learners’ readiness
to learn can be triggered by literally anything; a
sudden change in their lives, a need for dealing
with life tasks and problems more successfully,
the desire for self-improvement and self-
development  failure.
 Motivation for learning - What motivates
adults to find time for their learning in their
busy schedule? Mostly intrinsic motivators;
self-esteem, self-confidence, desire for better
quality of life, curiosity, self-development, and
recognition are only a few factors that motivate
adult learners to learn.
approaches used in adult education and is
directed towards self-actualization, gaining
experience, and problem-solving.
 Learning behavior - young learners are not
self-directed; they still depend on their
teachers throughout the learning process.
Therefore, their teachers should be
responsible not only of what will be taught,
but also of how it will be taught and
evaluated.
 The role of learners’ experience - Young
learners, on the other hand, present little
personal experience by default, and so it is
impossible for this experience to serve as a
learning resource; it can be only used to build
upon.
 Orientation to learning - Young audience’s
learning, on the contrary, is subject centered,
meaning that the subject determines the
sequence according to which the learning
content units will be presented and taught.
 Readiness to learn - Children, on the other
hand, are usually told what to learn; the
reason behind their learning is developing
mastery.
 Motivation for learning - children and
teenagers are mostly motivated by extrinsic
factors, such as getting good grades or other
perks, or avoiding the consequences of