CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 GENERAL:

Internship is a field based practical training experience that prepares trainees for

tasks they are expected to perform on the completion of their training. Training is a

prerequisite in order to equip students with skills for future demands.As part of

fulfilment for the award of Bachelor of civil engineering, the University sends civil

engineering students for industrial training/internship at every end of academic year

and this course is mainly intended to introduce students to various technological skills

in industries and provide on-the-job training and exposure and thereafter at end of

program come up with a report on the summary of activities done.This report is

basically a presentation of what I did, observations made, skills and different aspects

learnt and discovered in my industrial training with a construction firm called SRI

AISHWARYAM CONSTRUCTION COMPANY during the construction of the

three storied residential building.

1.2 AIM:

The internship aims to develop our skills to implement theoretical knowledge into

practical fields.

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1.3 OBJECTIVES:

 To enable the student to relate the theoretical knowledge acquired in class with

the practical skills and actual work on site.

 To provide an opportunity to students to incorporate the principals and

techniques theoretically learnt into real life problem solving situations.

 To identify and solve problems on site.

 To develop positive attitude towards work.

 To acquire good technical writing skills.

 To develop interpersonal and communication skills in associating with staff and

people from different background.

 To expose students to Civil Engineering ethics and codes of practice.

 To enable us acquire supervision skills and control of projects to ensure that the

work being done is of good quality.

1.4-STRUCTURE OF ORGANIZATION AND SITE

ADMINISTRATION:

The Client: This is the owner of the project and is the one who provides all the

necessary finance. The client may be an individual, organization, company or

government. He provide the entire funding to the project.

The Consultant: This is the team hired by the client to oversee the construction

process. This team also interprets the needs of the client and express them on paper for

2
the contractor to execute on site. The consultancy firm on board was technology

Consult.

The Contractor: This may be a company, organization or individual employed by the

client to provide the necessary resources and execute the work. The contractor for the

project was Sri Aishwaryam Construction Company. The contractor on site has a

big team of workers skilled and non-skilled, full time and part time to carry out the

day to day activities/tasks of the project. Organizational structure ensures easy control

and efficiency in the work done so that there is no collision between the workers in the

tasks to be performed.

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 CHAPTER-2

DESCRIPTION OF WORK

2.1 DESCRIPTION OF POSITIONS ON-SITE:

CONTRACT MANAGER:

He/she does the binding for the project and initiates the works contract packages.

SITE MANAGER:

This is responsible for the site layout and planning. He is concerned with organization

of the site to make sure all the works go on timely and cost effective.

THE SITE ENGINEER:

This is responsible for all the technical work on the site. He supervises all staff below

him and is charged with ensuring timely completion of all work on the site. The

student trainees are also directly supervised by him.

THE SITE MANAGER:

This is concerned with coordinating all the activities on site, overseeing logistics and

procurement, finance, security, health & safety, store and human resource. He also

oversees the mechanical department which is concerned with ensuring that all the

plant, machinery and vehicles on the site are running and in good condition and the

electrical department which caters for the electrical energy needs on site. The

installation of electrical and mechanical fittings on the site however was subcontracted.

The site manager reports directly to the site engineer.

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THE GENERAL FOREMAN:

This is in charge of overseeing all the technical labor force on the site below him.

Under him are the general supervisors for different trades (surveying,

carpentry/shuttering, steelworks, concrete works, earthworks) on the site and below

these are the skilled workers (masons, carpenters, steel benders) and the unskilled

workers (porters).

THE QUANTITY SURVEYOR:

This is employed by the contractor and his/her role is to evaluate project contracts and

to prepare bidding documents. His office makes sure that the project is kept within the

estimated costs and if there are any alterations or variations, they should be evaluated.

THE HEALTH AND SAFETY MANAGER:

He/she is concerned with keeping safety and provide first aid at the site. His/her office

provides the necessary safety gear such as boots, helmet, goggles, safety belts, overalls,

overcoats, safety gloves and first aid in case of any injuries.

2.2 METHODS LEARNT DURING TRAINING:

In order to achieve the objectives of my training experience, a number of methods and

avenues were employed. The major methods I used are briefly described below:

OBSERVATION:

During our site works, we were able to observe and interpret how most of the activities

were done. Through critical observations I was able to learn and grasp most of the

techniques used

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CONSULTATIONS:

This was mainly done through meetings with the Site Engineer, the consultants and

other personnel from different trades on site who could give us detailed professional

information concerning questions raised usually after rigorous sessions of site work.

PARTICIPATION IN WORK:

My fellow trainees and I were able to work under various sections on site as a way

to participate and have a practical feel of all activities, which included;

steelworks, Carpentry/formwork, concrete works, and work force management.

PROJECT DOCUMENTATIONS:

Most of the documents concerning the project like Structural drawings, Surveying

drawings, electrical drawings, Material specifications, site store and work force

management records and documentations, material procurement records, plant,

machinery, equipment and tools management operational records among others which

are necessary for proper interpretation and understanding of all work on site were

available and accessible at the site offices. I was able to access them and draw out

as much information and knowledge about the project.

INTERNET AND TEXT BASED MATERIALS:

Through use of the internet, I was able to check out on various websites for information

concerning different activities and why most of these site works were done. I also used

some textbooks and printed material.

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 CHAPTER-3

MATERIALS USED

3.1 ABOUT SITE ELEMENTS:

3.1.1 COLUMNS:

This is a structural shaft of concrete which transfers applied vertical loads through its

length and its base.

3.1.2 LIFT SHAFT SHEAR WALL:

This is a reinforced concrete wall that resists the horizontal forces along its length. This

was constructed for the lift that carries passengers and their goods from one level in a

building to another.

3.1.3 SLABS:

This is a horizontal plate like structure usually of solid concrete or max spans (precast

units) reinforced with steel bars to function as a floor or roof structure.

3.1.4 BEAMS:

These are horizontal structural members that transfer loadings from above to its bearing

points (to the supports and joints) which are always columns or load bearing walls.

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3.1.5 STAIRCASE:

This refers to a series of steps leading from one floor to another. There are different

types which include; half turn staircase/ switch back/ u-shaped, Quarter turn staircase,

Straight staircase, Winder staircase, Curved staircase, Spiral staircases-shaped

staircase, ladder.

3.2 FORMWORK/SHUTTERING:

Formwork in concrete construction is used as a mould for a structure in which fresh

concrete is poured only to harden subsequently. Types of formwork for concrete

construction depends on formwork material and type of structural element.Formworks

can also be named based on the type of structural member construction such as slab

formwork for use in slab, beam formwork, column formwork for use in beams and

columns respectively.The construction of formwork takes time and involves

expenditure up to 20 to 25% of the cost of the structure or even more. Design of these

temporary structures are made to economic expenditure. The operation of removing the

formwork is known as stripping. Stripped formwork can be reused. Reusable forms are

known as panel forms and non-usable are called stationary forms.Timber is the most

common material used for formwork. The disadvantage with timber formwork is that

it will warp, swell and shrink. Application of water impermeable coats to the surface of

wood mitigates these defects.

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3.2.1 TYPES OF FORMWORK:

The type of formwork employed always depends on the structural design of the

member and the weight of concrete to be casted. Different types include;

 Timber formwork.

 Steel formwork.

 Plywood formwork.

TIMBER FORMWORK:

Timber for formwork should satisfy the following requirements. It should be;

 Well-seasoned.

 Light in weight.

 Easily workable with nails without splitting.

 Free from loose knots.

Sheeting for slabs, beam, column side and 25 mm to 40mm thick

beam bottom
Joints, ledges 50 x 70 mm to 50 x 150mm

Posts 75 x 100mm to 100 x 100 mm

Table 3.1 Normal sizes of members

PLYWOOD FORMWORK:

Resin bonded plywood sheets are attached to timber frames to make up panels of

required sizes. The cost of plywood formwork compares favorably with that of timber

shuttering and it may even prove cheaper in certain cases in view of the following

considerations:
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 It is possible to have smooth finish in which case on cost in surface finishing is there.

 By use of large size panels it is possible to effect saving in the labor cost of fixing

and dismantling.

 Number of reuses are more as compared with timber shuttering. For estimation

purpose, number of reuses can be taken as 20 to 25.

STEEL FORMWORK:

This consist of panels fabricated out of thin steel plates stiffened along the edges by

small steel angles. The panel units can be held together through the use of suitable

clamps or bolts and nuts. The panels can be fabricated in large number in any desired

modular shape or size.

Steel forms are largely used in large projects or in situation where large number reuses

of the shuttering is possible. This type of shuttering is considered most suitable for

circular or curved structures.

3.3 METHOD OF REMOVING FORMWORK:

The sequence of orders and method of removal of formwork are as follows:

 Shuttering forming the vertical faces of walls, beams and column sides should be

removed first as they bear no load but only retain the concrete.

 Shuttering forming soffit of slabs should be removed next.

 Shuttering forming soffit of beams, girders or other heavily loaded shuttering should

be removed in the end.

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 Rapid hardening cement, warm weather and light loading conditions allow early

removal of formwork. The formwork should under no circumstances be allowed to

be removed until all the concrete reaches strength of at least twice the stresses to

which the concrete may be subjected at the time of removal of formwork. All

formworks should be eased gradually and carefully in order to prevent the load being

suddenly transferred to concrete.

Description of structural member Period of time/ de-shuttering time

Walls, columns and vertical sides of 1 to 2 days
beams
Soffit formwork to Slabs 3 days (props to be refixed after
removal)
Beam soffits (props left under) 7 days (props to be refixed after
removal)

Table 3.2 Deshuttering time of different RCC members

For slabs spanning up to 4.5 m 7 days

For slabs spanning over 4.5 m 14 days

Table 3.3 Period of removal of props to slabs

For beams and arches spanning up to 6 14 days

m
For beams and arches spanning over 6 m 21 days.

Table 3.4 Period of removal of props to beams and arches

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3.4 STEEL FIXING:

This involves a lot of stages and procedures such as:

 Steel cutting to obtain required sizes.

 Hooking to obtain different ring sizes.

 Steel positioning.

 Providing of cover to reinforcement.

 Binding

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 CHAPTER-4

PRACTICAL WORKS

4.1 SETTING OUT, PEGGING AND EXCAVATION OF

FOUNDATION:

Setting out is the process whereby survey techniques are used to establish an
engineering project in its correct position on site. Setting out begins with a plan and
ends with some particular engineering project correctly positioned on site.
Setting out is undertaken from control points already established in the area by previous
work in surveying. These may be vertical control points e.g. benchmarks or horizontal
control points e.g. traverse and triangulation stations.

The setting out of the baseline on site was done with the help of a hand held GPS and
AN RTK and below were the steps we undertook to set out the building:

 The RTK was setup at an established benchmark at the site with its battery and
router.
 The GPS was then connected to the RTK and the benchmark at site put into the GPS.
 The surveyor then move around locating the control points coordinates desired as
per structural plan
 In the end the baseline were formed as the lines between the control points.
 After the setting out of the baselines was done by the surveyor the site engineer had
a task of offsetting the distances from the baselines in order for the excavation for
the foundation trenches to commence.
 The offsetting of the distances was done following the structural plan and
dimensions and it had to be done with the uttermost accuracy to avoid building
varying from the original plan.
 Using a steel tape from each of the known fixed points, the distance given on the
site plan to the ends of the base line or building corner was measured and Where
readings coincided a peg was driven in the ground at that point.
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 The distance was measured again across the top of the peg and a nail.
 In the case of a building line, with the position of the ends fixed, a builder’s line is
stretched from nail to nail, and using a steel tape, building corners are established
by measuring along the line.and each corner is marked with a peg and nail,
 Having found two corners of the proposed building, further seting out is done and
the others marked.
 the Pythagoras theorem is used in any combination of right angled triangles having
placed pegs at all four corners, their positions checked by measuring the diagonals
 The lengths of the diagonals should be within 6 mm of each other on a medium size
house.
 We now knew where the corners of the building’s walls would be.

 All points that were to be offset were ensured that were at right angles to the beeline
and at a distance of 2m from the baseline, this was as per the structural plan and
design. The right angle method was used ta site to ensure the offset were at right
angles.ie
 A distance of 3m was measured along the baseline and the distance of 4m measured
along the offset. The diagonal distance was measured and found out to be 5m and
hence this was a perfect right angled triangle hence the offset were at right angles to
the baseline.
 The site engineer found errors with the surveyors’ set baseline and were to be
repeated. Further still the project was to be shifted by 1m to reserve room for the
feeder road. We repeated the work and new points were set.
 Pegs were used to demarcate the offset distance and wire gauze was tied around the
pegs to clearly show the offsets and distances marked on the wire to clearly show
the dimensions of the building.

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Figure 4.1 Offsetting distances from baseline Figure 4.2 an RTK set-up at Benchmark

4.2 EXCAVATION OF FOUNDATION BASES & TRENCHES:

After offsetting the offset distances, excavation were to commence for the
foundation trenches. The foundation trenches were dug as per the structural dimensions.
Each of the trenches had different dimension.

 The excavations were done at some distance from the pegs to avoid interfering with
the set points and were dug following the marked distances on the pegs to avoid
going beyond the required width
 Dumpy level and staff were used to monitor the depth of excavation and to ensure
all parts of the trenches were level
 As per the structural plan the trenches were to be 2m deep. But the width and lengths
varied depending on the location for the trench on the structural plan
 In areas where over excavation were done some filling was done while in areas
where under excavation was done, more excavations were done.
 After excavation it had to be ensured that all the foundation trenches were level.
And this was done by making use for the dumpy level and staff.A dumpy level was
set up at distance far away from the foundation trenches and staff held while inside
the trench.
15
 Levels were taken at each corner and compared more excavations or filling was to
ensure all points in the foundation trenches were at the same level.

Figure 4.3 Excavation of foundation bases Fig 4.4 a dumpy level monitors the depth

4.3 STEELWORKS:

Steel is widely used as a reinforcing material for concrete. Steel is strong in tension
while concrete is strong in compression, therefore; the two materials are used to provide
a strong structure.

The two materials bond together very well so there is little chance of slippage between
the two, and thus act together as one unit in resisting forces.

The natural roughness of the bars and the closely spaced rib-shaped deformations rolled
on the bars surfaces also contribute to the excellent bonding between steel and concrete.

The high tensile ribbed steel bars (H) were used on site for reinforcement. These were
of different diameters like H8, H12, H16, H20, and H25. The diameter size used
depended on the purpose and the structural member to be reinforced.

The design specifications required that;

 Steel bars for making of rings were to be of size H8

 Chair maximum spacing was to be less than 1m2
 Chair minimum of H12 bars were to be used.
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 Minimum number of bars for square column were 4 and 6 for a circular column
 Main bars in the slab were not supposed to be less than 8mm and the distributors
not less than 8mm and not more than an eighth of slab thickness.

The steel works included are as follows;

 Straightening of the bars: this was done with the help a steel bending tool
 Cutting the bars into appropriate lengths: for small diameter bars an arc saw was to
cut the steel bars into desired lengths and for large diameter bars greater than 25mm,
a steel grinder was used to cut them into desired lengths
 Bending to form rings; this was done on the steel bending plat form and the
dimensions of the ring are already demarcated on platform by large nails banged
into the platform.
 Arrangement of the reinforcement bars depending on the structural design and plan
for a specific structural member
 Binding the bars to form the reinforcement frame work using binding wire.

4.3.1 STEELWORK FOR COLUMN AND COLUMN BASES:

Rectangular solid reinforced concrete columns were designed by the structural

engineer and there sizes depended on the load sizes expected in different parts of the
structure. Different column sizes were used on site and these included;

 450*450mm being the commonest size for outer columns and supports for the ramp
 450*200mm designed to support the staircases and outer parts of the ramp
 650*650mm being the biggest in size and designed to support slabs were huge loads
were expected.
i. All the square and rectangular columns on site had at least 6 steel bars.
ii. Depending on the structural design, different steel bar sizes were used.
iii. H25 reinforcement bars were used in square columns of sizes 650*650mm.
iv. Rings of size H8 were used to hold these reinforcements together.
v. Ring spacing of 100mm was used and it was consistent throughout the column
length.
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vi. For square column sizes of 450*450mm, reinforcements of size H20 were used
with ring spacing of 100mm throughout the column length.

Fig 4.5 Bending of steel bars Fig 4.6 Steel column base

4.3.2 STEEL REINFORCEMENT FOR BEAMS:

The structure had both primary and secondary beams. These beams transfer
loadings from above and from the slab to the bearing points/ supports.

Primary beams are those beams that run from one column to another and hence
transfer their loadings to the columns directly while Secondary beams are those beams
that span from one primary beam to another primary beam. They therefore distribute
their loadings to the primary beams.

Secondary beams are less reinforced compared to primary beams and the sizes of
the reinforcement bars sometimes differs.

All the beams on site (primary and secondary) were of size 600*200mm having
dropdowns of 400mm and therefore slab thickness of 200mm. and Depending on the
structural load design, different beams were reinforced with different steel bar sizes
such H12, H16, H20, H25.

Primary beams were reinforced with stronger and bigger sized bars (H20 and H25)
since they were expected to be carrying a much larger load while secondary beams were
reinforced with H16 since are presumed to be carrying a lesser load compared to
primary beams.
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 Fig 4.7 Secondary beams

 With the form work already in place, the lower steel bars for the beam were
arranged first in the mould meant for the slab, rings were then put and tied tightly
with the reinforcement to avoid them from moving out of position.
 Ring spacing was 150mm near the bearings/ supports for 1000mm from both side
and 200mm at the center.
 The upper reinforcement were then pushed in and tied tightly too using binding
wire and a steel hook.
 Centre reinforcements were then shoved in at the top near the supports and at the
bottom in the center if the beam, they were also tied together with the rings using
binding wire and a pincher.

4.3.3 STEEL REINFORCEMENT FOR THE FLOOR SOLID SLAB:

All the slabs on site were two way reinforced ribbed waffle slabs and
reinforcement is put in ribs where waffles meet or at joints.The ribs of the slab on site
were of thickness 200mm. spacer blocks of thickness 20mm were used to ensure
provision of concrete cover. Main bars and distribution bars were used. The ribs of the
slab had double reinforcement on both the lower and upper parts to counteract the
hogging and sagging. The upper reinforcements were applied close to the bearings/
supports so as to counteract the hogging in the slab. Main bars and distribution bars
used on site were of size H16. The main bars are those bars spanning a short length
(width) and the distribution bars are those spanning a longer length.

19
Steel chairs to support the upper reinforcements were also used. These were of size H12
diameter and they were placed at each square meter.

 The process began with placement of the waffles on the shutters.

 The main bars were then placed between waffle joints and arranged on the boards
starting with the extreme bars (bars close to the supports)
 Intermediate bars were then added within the spaces accordingly.
 Distribution bars were then arranged on top of these main bars following the
markings made.
 At the ends, these bars were bent so as to get support from the adjacent beams.
 Binding wire was used to tie together the main and distribution bars at the points of
intersection.
 Upper reinforcements were then arranged on top of these lower reinforcements close
to the bearing points.
 Steel chairs were used to support these upper reinforcements from moving out of
position during concrete casting.

Fig 4.8 Placing of waffles on shutters Fig 4.9 Concrete spacer for cover

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4.3.4 STEEL REINFORCEMENT FOR STAIRCASE:

The stair case had side beams that were supporting it. Steel work for the side beams,
landing and the stairs commenced since they were going to be casted monolithically.

Steel bars of size H20 were used to reinforce the side beams since they would take up
the loading distribution from the staircases. Staircases had double reinforcements
(lower and upper reinforcements).

 The formwork already established the slope of the staircase and hence markings
were made to show the spacings in the reinforcements.
 Steel bars of size H16 were used as both the main and distribution bars.
 The steels bars for the upper reinforcements were bent to cater for the rises and
goings of the stair.
 The rise was 150mm and the going was 300mm.
 The steel bars for the landing were also arranged with the short span bars first
followed by long span bars (distribution bars).
 Binding wire was then used to bind the bars together at their points of intersection
to make sure they remain in their positions.
 Upper reinforcements were also arranged on top and tightly knotted.
 A water level was used to make sure that the reinforcement bars for the rises were
at the same vertical level.
 Similarly a spirit level was used to ensure that the goings for the staircases were
horizontal before casting.

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 Fig 4.10 Fixing reinforcement Fig 4.11 Steel reinforcement for staircase

4.3.5 STEEL REINFORCEMENT FOR THE RETAINING SHEAR

WALL:
Retaining shear wall was reinforced with steel bars to ensure it resists the horizontal

and lateral forces along its length. The shear wall thickness was 200mm.

 Steel bars for reinforcement were of size H12 and rings of size H8 were used to

hold the reinforcements together.

 Ring spacing was 150mm and consistent throughout the entire height of the wall.

 The steel bars were allowed to be continuous and protrude an extra 500-1000mm

above the level of the head room space to cater for a strong binding in case of

another floor.

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 Fig 4.12 Reinforcement for a shear retaining wall

4.4 FORMWORK/SHUTTERING:
Formwork is the temporary mould or box into which wet concrete can be poured and
compacted so that it will flow and finally set to the inner profile of the box or mould.

It resists the initial hydrostatic pressure caused by the wet concrete. It is also used in
order to give concrete the required shape.

Formwork may be either wooden or metallic and the materials commonly used as
formwork are timber and steel.

The formwork is allowed to support the concrete for a duration that is long enough for
the concrete to gain enough strength to be able to support itself and the loads applied
on it if any. This period depends on the type of cement used because different types of
cement have different setting and hardening time.

Formwork is used to support concrete in columns, beams, slabs and concrete walls. The
formwork employed was first checked to see if it could satisfy the following properties.

 Rigid enough to resist hydrostatic forces from concrete.

 Water tight to prevent any leakages.
 Alignment in an orderly way.
 Easy to dismantle and strike off once the concrete had set.

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4.4.1 COLUMN FORMWORK :

FORMWORK FOR GROUND FLOOR COLUMNS:

 After inserting the steel column base and binding rectangular steel column frame
work on to it as per structural dimensions, the steel frame work had be covered by
timber formwork to enable concrete casting for the column.
 The dimensions of the column were first established from the structural plan.
 Steel Column boxes were then erected to cover the reinforcements hence forming a
shaft for the concrete.
 Note that different column sizes had different steel column boxes.
 The column boxes were then plumbed to ensure that they were vertical.
 This was done by connecting a small block on the end of a string. It was then
suspended with the other end tied to the box at the top end.
 It was then allowed to rest and checked to see if it was vertical.
 In cases where they had to be adjusted, props were used to support the boxes from
different sides to ensure that the small block at the end of the string was vertical.

Fig 4.13 Formwork of columns

24
FORMWORK FOR UPPER FLOOR COLUMNS:

 The dimensions of the column were first established using a total station. The points
were then marked with nails.
 Holes were then drilled into the floor slab using a drilling machine.
 Short steel bars of length 200mm were inserted into the holes to help hold the
column boxes firmly on the ground.
 Steel Column boxes were then erected to cover the reinforcements hence forming a
shaft for the concrete.
 Note that different column sizes had different steel column boxes.
 The column boxes were then plumbed to ensure that they were vertical.
 This was done by connecting a small block on the end of a string. It was then
suspended with the other end tied to the box at the top end.
 It was then allowed to rest and checked to see if it was vertical.
 In cases where they had to be adjusted, props were used to support the boxes from
different sides to ensure that the small block at the end of the string was vertical.

FORMWORK FOR SLABS AND ADJOINING BEAMS:

Formwork for the slab was always done after that for the adjoining beams. This is
precisely because the slabs get support from the beams. Levels are also obtained from
the beam formwork and transferred to the slab.

 The scaffolds were erected first making sure that they were well connected and
strong enough to carry the weight of the concrete to be casted.
 4*2 timber pieces were arranged horizontally on top of the transoms of the standards
 They were firmly fixed with nails into the transoms
 At points where there was a beam, spaces of thicknesses of 200mm were left.
 These beams had lengths of 600mm. hence dropdown thicknesses of 400mm were
left.
 Soffit boards of this length were cut using a power saw, nailed into the timber boards
forming the decking and side supported with props and timber struts.

25
 Fig 4.14 Squaring timber Fig 4.15 Cutting timber Fig 4.16 Shuttering work

4.4.2 FORMWORK FOR STAIRCASE:

The formwork for the stairs was erected together with that of the supporting side beams
and the landing.

 Scaffolds for supporting the formwork were erected first ensuring that they were
strong enough.
 The transoms on top of the standards were adjusted to cater for the slope of the stairs
which was 1 in 2. (Rise of 150mm and going of 300mm).
 Standards for the landing were at the same height.
 Timber pieces (yellow timber) for supporting the soffit boards were then nailed into
the transoms with nails.
 Soffit boards were then placed next and using a hammer and nails, they were nailed
into the timber pieces below.
 Using a power saw, the boards were proportioned to the lengths of the rises and the
goings of the staircase.
 A spirit level was used to ensure that the boards for the going were horizontal by
placing it on top of the boards.
 A water level was also used to ensure that the boards for the rises were at the same
vertical heights from either side.

26
 Fig 4.17 Shuttering for stairs

4.4.3 FORMWORK FOR RETAINING SHEAR WALL:

Tools and Materials used:

 Tape measure, for measuring lengths of the timber pieces used.

 Bow saw, for cutting the timber pieces.
 Claw hammer, for driving nails into the timber.
 4*2inch timber pieces
 A plumb bob for checking verticality of the column

PROCEDURE FOR THE FORMWORK:

 After the reinforcements were put, the correct thickness of the shear wall had to
be known before any formwork commenced.
 The correct position of the corners of the retaining shear wall were then
established using a total station.
 They were then marked with nails.
 Holes were drilled into the concrete slab (floor slab) and short steel bars to act as
kickers were inserted into the drilled holes to help offer support to the boards
near the ground.
 Timber boards were erected vertically from the kickers and maintained vertical
by the help of side supports.
 Long timber pieces of 4*2inches were nailed to the boards and then supported
with metallic props.
 Timber boards and timber pieces were cut to wanted sizes using a saw

27
 The formwork was then plumbed to ensure that it was vertical and parallel to the
reinforcements.

Fig 4.18 Props for retaining wall

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 CHAPTER-5
CONCRETE WORK
Concrete works were the major works on site. This involved a number of activities such
as,

 Concrete testing
 Concrete casting
 Compaction of the concrete by vibration
 Curing of the concrete.
 Removal of formwork/de-shuttering

5.1 CONCRETE TESTING:

Different classes of concrete were produced depending on what it was going to be used
for such as concrete blinding, for column bases, casting of the slabs, beams, columns
and other purposes.

The different tests done on the concrete were to test for its workability and compressive
strength. These included;

 Slump test for workability of concrete

 Compressive strength test for shear strength

5.1.1 SLUMP TEST:

 The test was carried out with reference to BS 1881: part 102: 1983.
 This test was used to determine the wetness/fluidity and ability of wet concrete to
flow.
 The fresh concrete was compacted into a mould in the shape of a frustum
of a cone. When the cone was withdrawn upwards, the distance the concrete had
slumped provided a measure of the consistency of the concrete .

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PROCEDURE:

 The mould was first dampened with water and cleaned to avoid the
concrete from stinking on the walls of the mould.
 The mould was then filled in two layers each approximately half the height
of the mould.
 A tamping rod was used to compact the concrete by stroking it around
25times at each half filling.
 Once the top surface had been compacted, the spilled concrete was
removed by striking it off by means of a sawing and rolling motion of the
compacting rod
 The mould was removed from the concrete by lifting it up vertically in
about 5s.
 After removal of the mould, a tape measure was immediately used to
measure the distance between the top of the frustum and the top of the
slumped concrete.
 The distance gave the slump height.
 This height was expected to be 74-100mm. In case the height was smaller
than this, water was added to the concrete and if it was higher, then the
concrete was heated to reduce on the water content.

Fig 5.1 Measurement of slump in concrete testing

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5.1.2 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST:

 The test was carried out with reference to BS 1881: Part 116: 1983
 This was used to determine the maximum load that the concrete could handle
per unit area.
 Concrete cubes were made, cured in a pool of water and stored in accordance
with BS 1881. The test was carried out to check whether the design strength
was being achieved on site.

PROCEDURE:

 Concrete cubes were casted immediately after production. A little grease was
rubbed in the walls of the cubic moulds to prevent the concrete from stinking
on their walls.
 These cubes were of size 150*150*150mm .they were immediately cured in a
pool of water.
 The moulds are then allowed to dry.
 After 24 hours, the cubes were removed from the mould by the help of a
compressor machine. The cubes are then placed in the curing tank, such that
they were fully submerged, to begin the curing process.
 Curing is the protection of concrete from moisture loss from as soon after
placing as possible, and for the first few days of hardening
 Three of the cubes were tested after casting them at 7days and the next three
at 28 days to determine the compressive strength.
 The cubes were weighed on an electronic weighing balance to determine their
weight.
 They were then placed in a compressive testing machine and crushed.
 The crushing load was noted in kN and with the surface area of the blocks, the
compressive strength was obtained at 7days and after 28days.

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 After 7 days, the cubes were expected to have gained 70% of the total
compressive strength obtained at 28 days.

Fig 5.2 Casting of concrete cubes

5.2 CONCRETE CASTING:

Once the different tests had been conducted and the concrete was found to be
suitable for use, casting commenced.For high levels of the building, a pulley
system was used to transport the concrete from the mixer trucks to the required
place.In cases where the use of the pulley system to carry the concrete was
unsuitable, a concrete pump was used.

5.2.1 THE CASTING OF CONCRETE FOR BINDING LAYER:

The concrete was batched by volume. The concrete that was cast for the blinding
1
layer was mixed by hand at the site in the ratio of 1:1 :2 and was transferred to
2

each of the foundation a wheel burrow. It was then compacted by a vibrator to

avoid voids in t the layer. A gauge was used to check the thickness of the blinding
layer.The strength and durability of concrete depends also on the amount of water
mixed with it. Too much or too little Water can adversely affect the strength of
concrete. Concrete is cast, water is used to cure it so that the temperature is
controlled and concrete matures slowly. It is very important to use clean, potable

32
water in quality concrete production. Brackish or salty water must never be used.
Contaminated water will produce concrete mortars with lower durability, erratic
set characteristics and inconsistent color.

Fig 5.3 Binding layer

5.2.2 CASTING OF CONCRETE RAMP, SLAB AND BEAMS:

The slab and the adjacent side beams were always casted monolithically to enable
a homogeneous bonding of the concrete.

 After the formwork had been well struck and arranged, it was critically
checked to ensure no leakages and open spaces through which concrete would
flow
 An air pump was used to remove any dust particles and other rubbish to ensure
that the formwork was clean.
 Gauge levels were placed on the formwork horizontally to help provide the
level of the concrete to be casted.
 The concrete was then transferred from mixer by a pulley and transferred by
wheel burrows to desired part
 The beam were cast first and workability of concrete for beam is desired to be
low with less water.

33
 Using a hoe or spade or trowel, the concrete was spread uniformly to try to
reach the level of the gauges and also reach other parts of the slab and side
beams.
 The concrete was then vibrated to remove the air spaces and voids that would
cause weakness points.
 Finally a bow line timber was to cut the concrete to make it level following
the concrete cover thickness.
 Care was taken to avoid any disturbances of the steel chairs that supported the
upper reinforcements in the ramp and slab.
 The concrete was spread first to the side beams to fill the drop down
thicknesses(400mm)
 Concrete cover was enabled by the help of the spacer blocks already put in
place during steel fixing.

Fig 5.4 Concrete mixer Fig 5.5 Levelling with binding layer

5.2.3 CONCRETE CASTING OF VERTICAL MEMBERS (THE

COLUMNS AND RETAINING SHEAR WALL):

 The formwork was closely checked to ensure there were no openings and
leakages.

34
 Any dust particles and unnecessary material was blown out of the formwork
by use of an air pump.
 The formwork was plumbed to ensure its verticality. This was done by tying
a plumb bob at a suitable height on the formwork and ensured that it remains
vertical. In cases where these members were not vertical, side supports were
adjusted accordingly
 Concrete pump was used to pump the concrete up into the moulds. Since these
were 3.4m high, the moulds were quarterly filled and then compacted
thoroughly by use of a poker vibrator.
 At greater heights of the column, scaffolds were used to ensure that the
working crew pouring the concrete and vibrating it were able to see the inside
of the metallic boxes and formwork.

Fig 5.6 Propped column ready for casting Fig 5.7 Finished cast column

5.2.4 CONCRETE CASTING OF THE STAIRCASES:

 The formwork was checked to ensure that it was strong enough to resist the
hydrostatic pressures from the fresh concrete.

35
 The strong timber boards placed to support the rise were checked to ensure
they were vertical and the ends were at the same horizontal level. This was
done by use of the water level and spirit level.
 Dust particles were removed by use of an air pump.
 The staircase mould was therefore filled with concrete ensuring that the levels
of the rise and going were maintained as before.

5.3 CONCRETE COMPACTION BY VIBRATION:

Compaction of the concrete is the process to get rid of the entrapped air and voids,
elimination of segregation occurred and to form a homogeneous dense
mass.Compaction was achieved by imparting external work over the concrete to
overcome the internal friction between the particles forming the concrete,
between concrete and reinforcement and between concrete and forms and by
reducing the air voids to a minimum.Furthermore compaction helped to avoid
honey combing of the concrete.Compaction by vibration was suitable since large
masses of concrete were being handled.

5.3.1 PROCESS OF COMPACTION BY VIBRATION:

 The vibrator was immersed at certain points for about 10-30seconds.
 The location of the vibrator was staggered to ensure that every bit of the
concrete was compacted.
 The vibrator was also made to penetrate the concrete vertically (inclination of
around 10 degrees).
 In places where the reinforcements were congested, the vibrator was inclined
to ensure that such areas were compacted.
 This was done for the whole concrete mass casted.
 Care was taken to avoid over vibrating of the concrete as this would cause
discontinuity in the mix with the aggregates moving to the bottom and the
slurry to the top.

36
 In the case of slabs, beams, ramp and staircase, after compaction by vibration,
a timber float was used to tamp the surface of the concrete before it could set
so as to enable a smooth surface finish on top. Steel floats and rollers were
also used to level the concrete.
 For the retaining shear wall and column, the concrete was vibrated at every
half a meter.

Fig 5.8 Spreading concrete for vibration

Fig 5.9 Vibrating the Wafffles

37
5.4 CURING OF THE CONCRETE:
Curing is the protection of concrete from moisture loss from as soon after placing
as possible, and for the first few days of hardening

After casting of the concrete, it was allowed to first initially set so that it could be
cured.

This process of curing was performed to keep the concrete moist so that the
chemical reactions occurring due to presence of cement could go on well
undisturbed so that the concrete would gain maximum strength after 28 days.

 First and foremost, a thin layer of sand was covered on top of the concrete to
enable retain the water and therefore help to avoid moisture loss.
 Gunny bags were used to cover the vertical sides of the beams and columns
since it was difficult to apply the sand cover.
 Water was then sprinkled on top of the concrete at regular intervals (preferably
in the morning and evening) for 2-3days using a water pump.

Fig 5.10 Well cured Floor slab

5.5 REMOVAL OF FORMWORK / DE-SHUTTERING:

De-shuttering refers to the removal of formwork after the concrete has gained
enough strength to support its own weight and any small applied loads.

38
This was done after a few days or weeks depending on the structural member in
question.

 The process started with the removal of side supports holding the vertical
shutters.
 The scaffolds and timber (yellow timber) holding the decking unit were later
removed with the use of a hammer and a mallet.
 The soffit boards were then struck off taking care such that the concrete
surfaces were not damaged. Note that the shuttering forming soffit of slabs
was removed first followed by the shuttering forming soffit of beams.
 In case of columns, the metallic boxes were unscrewed.
 For staircases, the timber pieces forming the rises were left attached and
removed at a later time due to the high traffic using the staircases even during
the construction.
 The removal of props was done last with those of the slab taking close to at
least 7days and those of the beam being removed after 15days.

39
 CHAPTER-6

BLOCKWORK AND MASONRY

Blocks are walling units that form the vertical elements of the building
meant to enclose and partition the building. They are bound together by mortar
and also help to transfer structural loads to the foundation and ground.

6.1 BLOCK WORK FOR FOUNDATION PLINTH WALLS:

Blocks and mortar were thus used to create these walls. These walls are loading
bearing and therefore carry weight besides their own weight. Solid blocks of
dimensions 400*200*200mm were used for the foundation plinth walls.Cement
mortar was used for bonding of blocks. Its primary purpose being to bind together
the individual block units, thereby allowing the transfer of compression, shear
and tensile stresses between adjacent units, as well as provide an effective seal
between masonry units against rain penetration.

Fig 6.1 Header bond for foundation Fig 6.2 Cement mortar for bond

40
6.2 BLOCK WORK FOR FOUNDATION UPPER WALLING
AND PARTITIONING WALLS:

Once the structural frame had been erected, there was need to wall and
partition the structure to create different rooms, office space, restrooms, theatres
and wards.Blocks and mortar were thus used to create these walls. These walls
were non-loading bearing and therefore it all about containing their own
weight.Different types of blocks were used on site. These included the solid
blocks and frogged blocks. The solid blocks were of dimensions
400*200*200mm.Cement mortar was used for bonding of blocks. Its primary
purpose being to bind together the individual block units, thereby allowing the
transfer of compression, shear and tensile stresses between adjacent units, as well
as provide an effective seal between masonry units against rain penetration.The
mortar thickness was ranging between 20-30mm.Since the block thickness was
big enough, a stretcher bond was used.

6.3 LAYING OF BLOCKS:

EQUIPMENT USED:

 Trowel.
 Plumb line.
 Spirit level.
 Water level.
 String.
 Spade.

6.3.1 PROCEDURE OF LAYING THE BLOCKS:

 A string was tied at one point and the direction of the wall established on
the floor space.

41
 A layer of mortar was laid on the floor surface to bond the blocks and the
concrete floor.
 The blocks were arranged on top of the mortar making sure that they were
in line with the string.
 Using a plumb line, the blocks were plumbed to ensure that they were
vertically placed on top of one another.
 More mortar was placed in between the blocks to bond them together with
the use of a trowel and a wooden float to avoid the mortar from falling.
 Stretcher bond was used. Blocks were arranged one over another making
sure they overlapped by almost half a blocks length hence providing a
simple and strong bond.
 Half blocks were also used in cases where a full brick could not fit.
 Hoop iron was placed at every after three courses to ensure that no cracks
remain continuous in the wall in case of any stress release due to
compression and tension forces
 Similarly to avoid cracks between the concrete columns and the wall, steel
bars were placed in the concrete columns at every three courses to enable
bonding and avoid cracks.
 Mortar mix ratio was 1:3 with cement of class 32.5.

42
 CHAPTER-7
OBSERVATIONS

 I observed that the use of waffled slab makes the construction faster because

less work is done on shutters as no soffits are required, cheaper because it

reduces on concrete and reinforcement use and its easy and straight forward.

 I observed that there was inadequate propping for the waffles shutters and

this is risky because it can lead to collapse of slab during casting.

 I observed the stairs were too steep and this might be a disservice to the users

especially pregnant women, elderly and children.

 I also observed that welfare of the workers was so poor at site as they could

buy their own food, water, poor security for their property and inadequate

toilet facilities. This was likely to cause demotivation at the site.

 Another observation was that the safety of workers at site was compromised

as most would work without gumboots, gloves and helmets and this was to

put them at risk to injuries.

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 CHAPTER-8

CONCLUSION

Industrial training is very vital for every Engineering student. Therefore

every student should try as much as possible to ensure that they grasp the material

and information given to them so that they can use it to expand on their career

and level of experience. This can help them in future while applying for jobs.

Internship has boosted my career especially in structures department. It has also

given me confidence to face future employment opportunities. With this

experience and exposure to various disciplines in the field, including site

management and organization, I hope to be an effective, efficient and professional

engineer in the near future. All in all I am grateful to the Almighty God for having

protected me throughout my training.

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