Eco Architecture

Eco-Architecture
Harmonisation between
Architecture and Nature
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FIRST INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON
HARMONISATION BETWEEN ARCHITECTURE AND NATURE
ECO-ARCHITECTURE
CONFERENCE CHAIRMEN
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University of Portsmouth, UK
C. A. Brebbia
Wessex Institute of Technology, UK
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Eco-Architecture
Harmonisation between
Architecture and Nature
Editors
G. Broadbent
C. A. Brebbia
G. Broadbent
C. A. Brebbia
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Preface
This book contains the edited papers of the First International Conference on Har-
monisation between Architecture and Nature (ECO-ARCHITECTURE 2006), which
took place at the Wessex Institute of Technology Campus in the New Forest, UK.
Unlike the mechanistic buildings it replaces, Eco-Architecture is in harmony
with nature, including its immediate environs. Decisions have to be taken on eco-
logical grounds concerning locations, siting and orientation, as well as the well-
informed choice of materials.
Eco-Architecture makes every effort to minimise the use of energy at each stage
of the building’s life cycle, including that embodied in the extraction and transpor-
tation of materials, their fabrication, their assembly into the building and ultimately
the ease and value of their recycling when the building’s life is over. The design
may also take into consideration the use of energy in building maintenance and
changes in its use, not to mention its lighting, heating and cooling, particularly
where the energy consumed involves the emission of greenhouse gases.
Substantial savings can be achieved by passive energy systems, especially
natural ventilation, summer shading and winter solar heat gain. Solar energy may be
used in panel pipes for heating water and photovoltaic cells.
The development of Eco-Architecture is driven by the depletion of natural re-
sources, especially fossil fuels and the need to preserve the balance of nature. The
extensive use of steel and glass and the built-in problems of discomfort from solar
over-heating and winter heat loss, has led to the widespread use of mechanical
systems. Eco-Architecture is providing instead imaginative and expressive solu-
tions driven by a generation of highly creative designs. It has important cultural as
well as architectural impacts.
Eco-Architecture is by definition inter-disciplinary; it requires the collaboration
of engineers, planners, physicists, sociologists, economists, and other specialists,
in addition to architects. The papers contained in this book were written by different
specialists and attempt to focus on the interdisciplinary character of eco-architec-
ture.
The editors are grateful to all the authors for the quality of their papers and to
the members of the International Scientific Advisory Committee as well as other
colleagues who helped to review the papers.
The Editors,
The New Forest
2006
Contents
Section 1: Ecological and cultural sensitivity
Cultural responses to primitive needs

N. Baker ................................................................................................................3
Ecological propriety and architecture

V. A. Metallinou ..................................................................................................15
Architecture and nature at the end of the 20th century: towards a

dialogical approach for sustainable design in architecture
F. J. Soria López .................................................................................................23
The keyword is quality not ecology

A. van Hal ...........................................................................................................35
In-between architecture and landscape, from theory to practice

B. Ott ...................................................................................................................45
Ecological, modular and affordable housing

J. Quale ...............................................................................................................53
Flexi-Living: adaptable property, adaptable housing, transforming lives

I. MacBurnie .......................................................................................................63
The study of restoring an eco-habitat of the traditional Paiwan tribe

in Taiwan
C.-J. Chen ...........................................................................................................73
Urban planning and the quality of life in Putrajaya, Malaysia

D. Bt Omar ..........................................................................................................83
Section 2: Historical and philosophical aspects
Evaluating the sophistication of vernacular architecture to adjust to

the climate
E. Tsianaka..........................................................................................................93
Examining line as a heuristic device in the design ethos of Alvar Aalto

P. Harwood .......................................................................................................103
Historical influences of wind and water in selecting settlement sites

P. Kilby..............................................................................................................115
Unity, simplicity and balance: sustainable management of

cultural historic environments of mountain summer farming
G. Swensen ........................................................................................................123
A tale of two city halls: icons for sustainability in London and Seattle
D. Armpriest & B. Haglund ..............................................................................133
Poetic water images in architecture

U. Kirschner......................................................................................................143
Section 3: Design with nature
The 2005 Solar D house

M. Garrison.......................................................................................................155
Fractal geometry and architecture: some interesting connections

N. Sala ...............................................................................................................163
Symbols, metaphors, analogues: seeding, modelling and achieving

sustainable design
R. J. Koester ......................................................................................................175
A methodology for sustainable design analysis of large scale buildings

R. Richarde & R. Ibrahim .................................................................................185
Developing designs in balance with nature

A. J. Anselm.......................................................................................................195
Outdoor residential landscape design in an arid natural conservation area:

Bahía de Los Ángeles, México
R. Rojas-Caldelas, G. Bojórquez-Morales, A. Luna-León,
E. Corona-Zambrano & J. Ochoa-Corrales .....................................................205
The house by the lake
C. A. Brebbia & J. Gorst...................................................................................215
Indicators for the ecological planning of buildings

C. Seyler, C. Stoy, I. Lützelschwab & S. Kytzia ................................................227
Sustainable building design in Australia

C. McCabe ........................................................................................................237
Design and construction: changing the role

P. Rossi..............................................................................................................247
Section 4: Assessment and selection of materials
Natural materiality – the people’s choice

F. Stevenson ......................................................................................................257
Environmental impact of materials used in technical equipments:

an overview on different methods
L. Marletta, G. Evola & F. Sicurella ................................................................267
Designing for longevity

V. Straka............................................................................................................277
Natural building systems: experiments in urban ecology

K. Connors ........................................................................................................287
Promoting sustainability of earth constructed private and

public buildings in South Africa
G. Bosman .........................................................................................................297
Section 5: Natural technologies
Heteronomy and (un)sustainability of essential technical infrastructures

A. van Timmeren ...............................................................................................309
Eco-design of technological systems in buildings

L. Marletta, G. Evola & F. Sicurella ................................................................319
Section 6: Design by passive systems
Sound barriers to enable open windows and integration in landscape

G. Rosenhouse...................................................................................................331
Practicing what we preach
M. Lawton .........................................................................................................341
Guidelines for sizing roof windows

S. Robertson & M. Thompson ...........................................................................351
Section 7: Building operation and maintenance
Building defects: survey and impact over sustainability

E. Costanzo .......................................................................................................361
Cob seismic rehabilitation

G. Scudo & A. Drei ...........................................................................................369
Section 8: Water conservation
Rainwater harvesting in Brazil: investigating the viability of

rainwater harvesting for a household in Brasília
D. Sant’Ana .......................................................................................................381
Reliability of rainwater harvesting

J. W. Male & M. S. Kennedy .............................................................................391
User experiences with decentralised water systems in an

ecological residential area
A. A. E. Luising .................................................................................................401
Author index ....................................................................................................409

Section 1
Ecological and cultural
sensitivity
Eco-Architecture: Harmonisation between Architecture and Nature 3
Cultural responses to primitive needs

N. Baker
The Martin Centre for Architectural and Urban Studies,
University of Cambridge, UK
Abstract
This paper proposes that our responses to the environment are influenced in part
by our contemporary culture and in part by the genetic background of our
primitive survival. Evidence of primitive responses is cited from the fields of
thermal comfort, and visual comfort. Strong psychological influences are
identified. The need for access and reference to nature in modern life is proposed
and the possibilities of other substitutes is explored.
Keywords: adaptive, ambience, artificial nature, behaviour, comfort,
environment, genetic, primitive, nature, synthetic nature.
1 Introduction
Although we spend 95% of our time indoors, we are really outdoor animals. The
forces that have selected the genes of contemporary man are found outdoors in
the plains, forests and mountains, not in air-conditioned bedrooms and at
ergonomically designed workstations. Fifteen generations ago, a period of little
consequence in evolutionary terms, most of our ancestors would spend the
majority of their waking hours outdoors, and buildings would primarily provide
only shelter and security during the hours of darkness. Even when inside, the
relatively poor performance of the building meant that the indoor conditions
closely tracked the outdoor environment.
Furthermore, many of the activities that played a vital role in survival
demanded an intimate knowledge of the climate, the weather and the landscape.
Agriculture is an obvious example; rainfall, frosts, wind and their interaction
with the landscape – shelter, drainage, pests etc, constantly reinforced man’s link
with nature.
Robert Winston [1] points out that whilst it is commonly accepted that our
physical attributes derive from our primitive ancestors, it is less widely
WIT Transactions on The Built Environment, Vol 86, © 2006 WIT Press
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4 Eco-Architecture: Harmonisation between Architecture and Nature
recognised that our behavioural traits may also. He refers to these as instincts,
and uses the primitive model to explain our emotions in relation to families,
religion and society. By implication, he is saying that certain behavioural
responses are genetically determined and that we could expect these responses to
change only by evolutionary mechanisms with a time scale of many hundreds of
generations. In this paper we extend the argument to explain our response to our
present day built environment – which differs even more from our primitive
origins than do our contemporary social and family structures.
It is an appealing thought that there is some deep and causal relationship
between our adjustment of a thermostat and the action to take refuge from the
winter night in a cave; between the tolerance of lower colour temperature light
sources at night and the lighting of the multi purpose fire at the entrance to the
cave following sunset; between the multi-billion pound industry in cut-flowers
and houseplants, and the daily surveillance by primitive man of natural
landscape and vegetation. But is there any evidence to support this link, and if it
is proven, how will this knowledge help us to understand and improve our
modern environment?
2 Thermal comfort
Our modern indoor lifestyle is consuming massive amounts of fossil energy,
simply to isolate ourselves from the forces that moulded us. In the last 25 years
we have consumed as much fossil energy as in the history of man. Undoubtedly
our drive to engineer the environment is broadly the same urge that made
primitive hunter gatherer first improve his cave, stockpile food and fuel, then
cultivate plants, domesticate animals, form cooperative groups, trade and so on.
It seems though, that our technological momentum has caused us to over-shoot;
to deliver too much of a good thing, to interpret the life-saving instinct to
mitigate the cold by throwing another log on the fire as the need to eliminate all
thermal sensation at any cost.
To explore this question, we will first turn to the topic of thermal comfort,
since both the physiological and behavioural aspects have been well researched.
Temperature, or rather the heat balance of the body that it controls, is one of the
key environmental parameters affecting survival. We would expect it to be one
of the most vital responses hard-wired in our genes. With civilization and
development it has lost nothing in its importance, for in struggling to isolate
ourselves from the natural variations in temperature, energy for heating and
cooling buildings has become the largest single energy end use.
The most essential characteristic of the outdoor environment, is its variability.
There is variability on different time scales – daily and annual cycles as well as
the quasi-random nature of weather, and on different scales of space ranging
from human scale to global scale. The consensus view, that supports a massive
heating, ventilating and air-conditioning industry, is that the engineer’s proper
mission is to provide a stable, optimised environment, independent of the natural
world outside.
However, this is being challenged. More than twenty-five years ago, Lisa
Heschong [2], in her highly original work “Thermal Delight” decried thermal
uniformity. A decade later, this time as a result of rigorous field studies, Schiller
[3] concluded that“…people voting with extreme [thermal] sensations are not
necessarily dissatisfied”. Since then many field studies have confirmed that
thermal variation is tolerated, and in many cases enjoyed.
2.1 Thermal comfort: the two models
We have then, two schools of thought – the conventional view that thermal
comfort is best described by thermal neutrality brought about by a steady state
heat balance, and those that believe that thermal comfort can be achieved within
a range of thermal sensations, provided adaptive behaviour is possible. The
former school, based on responses of subjects in climate chambers, is epitomised
by the work of Fanger [4], whilst the latter uses evidence from subjects in real
buildings, typified by the work of Humphreys and Nicol [5]
Few would suggest that either represents bad science, yet they seem to reach
significantly different conclusions. Why is this? One explanation would come as
no surprise, that people behave differently in different contexts. It is not
surprising that the subject, who has been told how to dress, been told how to sit,
been told what task to do, in an unfamiliar climate chamber with no windows to
open or warm radiator to draw closer too, responds differently from a person
working in their study at home. The latter knows that there is a cold beer in the
fridge or a warm sweater if needed. This has been tested directly by Oseland [6],
who observed that the same group of subjects when tested in three contexts -
climate chamber, workplace and their home became progressively more tolerant
- accepting winter comfort temperatures 3ºK lower than in the climate chamber,
with an intermediate value in the workplace.
The key difference between the climate chamber and the real working or
living environment is that in the second case the subject has a range of actions
available to him or her that will mitigate the non-neutral thermal sensation. We
refer to these actions as adaptive behaviour, and the facility to carry them out as
adaptive opportunity.
2.2 Field studies
The role of adaptive behaviour in achieving thermal comfort has received

considerable attention in the last few years and the importance of adaptive
opportunity (figure 1) has been identified, Heerwagen [7],Bordass [8], Baker and
Standeven [9]. This is the real and perceived freedom to make adjustments to the
local environment (open windows, deploy shades) or to one's own status (remove
clothing, move to cooler part of the room, alter posture). Work by Guedes [10]
shows that in a large sample of office workers in Portugal, occupants felt more
satisfied with the thermal conditions where there were openable windows, even
when the opportunity for opening them was not taken. This strongly suggests that
there is a psychological as well as physical aspect to adaptive behaviour. We will
return to this issue later.
Figure 1: Two office environments in Lisbon showing good (left) and poor
(right) adaptive opportunity.
Even in more extreme climates, adaptive actions are often sufficient to

achieve thermal satisfaction for wide ranges of thermal conditions. In a study in
the Sudan, Merghani [11] observed that occupants of courtyard houses utilised
the spatial and temporal range of temperatures available in the rooms and
courtyard to maximise their comfort. Figure 2 shows that the occupant is highly
selective; the temperature chosen by an occupant remaining close to the
predicted comfort temperature, throughout the day.
The migration was not solely comfort-seeking, but was also for practical and
social functions. However, habitual use of the house in this way, has a mutually
reinforcing effect on these functions, and leads to increased overall satisfaction.
This supports the notion that thermal comfort is a strongly contextual and
holistic phenomenon. It explains too, why under the closely controlled
conditions of a test chamber, subjects respond in a completely different way.
Figure 2: Chosen temperature (heavy line), i.e. the temperature at the

location of the occupant throughout the day, with the range of
temperatures existing in the building at each hour indicated by the
bar. Note the chosen temperature follows the comfort temperature
almost as closely as possible Merghani, [11].
3 Outdoor comfort
In a study in Cambridge by Nikolopoulou et al. [12], it was found that people
sitting outdoors in public places, had greatly increased tolerance of non-neutral
conditions, compared to what we would expect for indoor comfort. Typically,
satisfaction was around 85% compared with a predicted value of 35%. Note that
the predicted satisfaction, using Fanger’s heat balance model, had already taken
account of clothing level and metabolic rate, suggesting that there must be a
strong psychological factor to account for the wide difference between the
predicted and the actual satisfaction. She also observed significantly higher
satisfaction when people were free to suit themselves when to leave, than when
they were waiting to meet someone. This indicates that the element of choice
has a significant and measurable effect.
The increase in tolerance was noticeably greater than is found inside
buildings, even when they are regarded to have good adaptive opportunity.
Could this be because the subjects are in outdoor and “natural” surroundings?
Nicolopoulou also found that for subjects suffering from overheating discomfort
in a sunlit street, where there was no natural landscape and little opportunity to
seek shade, their increased tolerance was reduced.
These three examples certainly demonstrate adaptive behaviour, but they do
not prove that it is essential for the environmental variance to which the subject
responds to be “natural”, although the increased tolerance in the latter case,
certainly points in that direction.
4 The luminous environment

Our sensitivity to light is very different from our sensitivity to heat. Light in
itself is rarely life-threatening. However, in its role as a carrier of information, it
may well become critical to survival. It is not difficult to think of cases where
this is so, for both primitive and modern man. Natural light also signals the
diurnal cycle of rest and activity, preparing the human for tasks which are most
definitely critical to survival. It is well known that exposure to natural cycle of
daylight is instrumental in synchronising the body by the suppression of the
hormones melatonin and seratonin.
But do we find responses to the luminous environment that are directly
analogous to the thermal environment? A study carried out by Parpairi [13] in
Cambridge showed an unexpected result. She studied user responses to different
daylight conditions in a number of university libraries. Two cases are shown in
figure 3 below, one, in a study carrel where the illumination is of high technical
quality (glare free diffuse light without the distraction of high contrast), and
another close to the window where conditions varied strongly with the weather
conditions and in particular the presence of sunlight.
Her findings show that the preferred condition was the second. Users found
that they enjoyed the sunlit view of the River Cam, and if the glare became
unbearable, they could retreat into a shaded part of the room (seen on the left of
the picture). The building offered adaptive opportunity and in spite of strong
stimuli of a natural origin, occupants reported a high level of satisfaction. This

case does seem to be closely analogous with enhanced levels of thermal
satisfaction under similar natural stimuli. However, it is more complex because
of the far greater information carrying capacity of light. It is interesting to
speculate if the result would have been the same had the idyllic river-scene been
replaced by a car-park or rubbish dump.
Figure 3: Comparison of occupant response to different daylight

environments in two libraries.
Clearly the information carried is important, even when it does not relate to
the central task. We are dealing with ambience here, and it seems that ambience
associated with nature is highly valued.
A striking and much quoted study carried out by Ulrich [14] investigated the
impact of daylit views on patients recovering from surgery. He showed that
patients recovered more rapidly when able to view a middle distance natural
scene including trees, than when viewing a blank wall (Table 1).
Table 1: Comparison of requested analgesic doses per patient for wall view
and tree-view patients; 46 patients between 2 and 5 days after
surgery – R S Ulrich [14].
Analgesic number of doses

strength wall group tree group
Strong 2.48 0.96

Moderate 3.65 1.74
Weak 2.57 5.39
Even without view, the dynamic quality of daylight seems to have an intrinsic
value in the healing process. Keep et al. [15] reports on a comparison between
the Intensive Care Units at Plymouth and Norwich. It was found that patients
from the Norwich unit which was windowless, had a much less accurate memory
of their length of stay, were subject to greater problems of disorientation, and
recovered more slowly, although the windows at Plymouth were only translucent
providing daylight, but no external view.
The intrinsic value of daylight in schools has been recognised for more than a
century. In “School Architecture” a manual prepared to assist in the design of
urban schools following the passing of the Education Act in 1870, E R Robson
[16] says rather poetically - “It is well known that the rays of the sun have a
beneficial influence on the air in the room …. and are to a young child very what
they are to flowers”
Much more recently the value of daylight has also been quantified in the
learning environment. In a study carried out by the Heschong Mahone Group
[17] in the US, using data from government learning performance tests, it was
shown that for 8 to 10 year old children, annual progress in maths and English
was improved from 6 to 26% for day lit spaces. The effect was observed where
daylight entered via diffuse rooflights, but the largest progress was found where
daylight also entered via windows.
5 Biophilia
“I love nature” is a phrase that covers a wide range of emotions. Responses may
include a wide range of actions, from hill-walking holidays to subscriptions to
the WWF, from designing buildings that look like insects, to keeping indoor
plants in the office. But there is one thing in common with these diverse actions,
all look outside the species of homo-sapiens and its immediate self-constructed
world, for some kind of inspiration or at other times, solace. Is this just to be
dismissed as sentimentality? Is nature to be seen important only if it yields raw
materials for drugs, food and materials; is bio-diversity to be protected simply
for the utility of the gene pool, or is this engagement of deeper significance?
In developed nations, many of us live lives highly divorced from what we
chose to consider as nature. However almost wherever we look in the man-made
world we still see references to nature somewhere. The question that this paper
poses then, is should we actively promote and provide this – nature reserves,
parks, gardens, … natural materials, climatically responsive buildings … down
to indoor plants and pictures of distant mountains on the wall? Or should we
simply respond to demand? Should Eco-architecture promote or respond.
5.1 Nature and architecture
If we look at primitive architecture there is much evidence of nature incorporated

in both the form and the structure of the building. Indeed we can move back
from the human being into animal architecture itself and see wondrous forms and
intricate skills demonstrated. But it is obvious that the incorporation of a branch
or a broad palm leaf or bundle of reeds bound together to make it into a useful
element, is not some conscious gesture to represent nature. It is nature itself,
because of the lack of anything else. It is adaptive opportunity.
Vernacular buildings rarely show “references” to nature in form or element,
since, like the primitive shelter, they by necessity incorporate nature. Thus we
see the timbers of a house with the grain and knots showing – even more
impressive, the crook house, where a bent tree-trunk is sliced in two to produce a
pair of matching half portals. The thatch, the wattle and daub, the tiles and bricks
are all from the locality and would be materials that the occupant understood –
trees are felled, reeds are cut, bricks are burnt. There was no need to fashion
something to look like nature, it already was nature.
By contrast, most people looking at a modern downtown building, would not
know where the materials, both on the inside and out, came from or how they
were produced. Even modern low rise housing plays tricks on us – slates
produced from epoxy resin, autoclaved calcium silicate bricks, moulded doors
imitating wood grain, the rooms lined with laminate floor, synthetic carpet, re-
constituted stone worktops and sink etc, etc.
It is perhaps for this reason, our distancing from real nature, that architects
and designers have become so fascinated by mimicry. Unlike the classical
column this mimicry becomes symbolic by form only, not by function. Whereas
the tubular steel column has a direct equivalent in the hollow stems of plants, and
shares the same efficiency of material, many modern architectural manifestations
of nature, as illustrated below, are purely symbolic.
Figure 4: Milwaukee Art Museum, Wisconsin, USA by Calatrava. Although

seductively evocative of nature the form is symbolic rather than
functional.
6 Implications for environmental design

We have suggested that man has a need for environmental stimuli and a need to
respond to them. If this is true, what are the implications for the design of our
buildings and cities? We have also implied that these stimuli should be due to
‘natural causes’ and associated with the ‘natural’ outdoors. (But this could be
simply because the positive evidence available is only from cases where the
stimuli are of that type). And we have referred to this package of stimuli as
ambience.
This prompts the following questions: Is it essential to have natural ambience

by contact with natural environmental diversity? Or can we create artificial
ambience – where natural environmental diversity is simulated? Or even can we
create synthetic ambience – were the diversity is artificial and arbitrary?
6.1 Natural ambience
This is the conventional ‘adaptivists’ view. The architectural interpretation is the

adoption of shallow plan buildings, naturally ventilated and daylit with openable
windows. Controls would be intuitive and sympathetic to occupant participation,
and the spatial and technical design would provide variety and adaptive
opportunity. Intermediate spaces such as atria, conservatories, loggia and
verandas, free from active control, form a soft edge between the interior and
exterior. Externally the architecture continues into the garden where the
microclimate still shows a degree of moderation and the horticulture is applied
with a range of artifice, but ultimately allows nature to dominate. The landscape
design is influenced by its perception by the occupants of the building, rather
than being seen as a setting for the building when seen from outside. The
principle continues at the urban scale, with accessibility of and to wild life
considered in the provision of green corridors and wild parks.
Although indoors, the occupant is placed in the natural world and the building
is seen only as a mediator. And the contextual awareness does not stop at the site
boundary; it is reflected in a concern for the global environment – the choice of
materials and a responsible attitude to the use of energy and other resources,
messages which are implied by the design of the building.
Why then, do we have to consider the issue further?
Urban growth, the coalescing of communities, seems to be driven by a force
as inevitable as the law of gravity. Unlike gravity, it is not described by a simple
algorithm – rather it is the result of a complex of political, cultural, functional
and environmental expedients – and cannot be discussed here. The outcome
however, is relevant, since together with the resulting growth of land value, it
has led to an ever-increasing size of building and plan depth. This in itself
removes people from the natural ambience of outside.
Just as at the end of the 19th century the developing technologies acted as a
stimulus to urbanization and the enclosure of the working environment, current
technologies offer technical opportunities which creative architects find
irresistible. Recent developments in materials such as glass, polymers, stainless
steel, in computed structural analysis, and information technology, all facilitate
the increase in size and technological complexity of the modern building.
Inevitably then, the question must arise – can we do without natural ambience?
Can the environmental diversity be delivered in a different way?
6.2 Artificial and synthetic ambience
This is nothing new; in a less technological age evocation of the outdoors was
provided by painting and sculpture, spanning perceived levels of taste from fine
art to the ‘high-naff’ of plastic flowers (with perfume!) and animated pictures of
waterfalls. With current information technology it would not be difficult to offer

a rich menu of naturalistic stimuli – images of landscapes and its inhabitants,
sounds and even smells could be delivered deep into a building. This could
transport the occupant to distant idyllic environs, or simply relay the real outdoor
surroundings of the building. It could be accompanied by ‘naturalistic’
environmental stimuli such as temperature swings and modulations of luminance
and colour temperature.
Simulation and virtual reality has reached an advanced state of development –
now used for applications as diverse as, for example, training in surgery, flying,
and presenting building ‘walk-throughs’ from electronic moving images
developed straight from CAD packages. Simulation in these circumstances is
hugely successful and convincing – it is well known that airline pilots training to
cope with emergencies show signs of profound stress although they are quite
aware that the circumstances are not real. If this is so successful, would not the
evocation of the garden outside be an easy task? But there is a difference here. In
the case of the flight simulator, the illusion is the focus of interest. In contrast,
the image of distant mountains projected onto the walls of a building, will have
to be absorbed subliminally, if it is to achieve the quality of natural ambience.
We have made the case for environmental variance and diversity in order to
stimulate adaptive behaviour. But does the variance have to relate, either directly
or by artificial means, to nature. Could not the thermal, visual, and acoustic
environment be modulated in an arbitrary way, and a new set of adaptive
opportunities be created artificially? For example a temperature swing could be
delivered by the a/c system at the same time that a strong visual event was
created by the lighting system. This could then be neutralized by an action
through a graphic interface on the occupant’s workstation. Would this synthetic
ambiance be as satisfying as walking to the window and throwing it open?
7 Conclusions
It appears then that our instinctive responses to the natural world are alive and
well, and still make an important contribution to our health and comfort in the
modern environment. However, our cultural responses have to a large part,
removed us from the very nature that nurtured us. There seem to be two
directions to go – embrace ‘real nature’ – naturally ventilated, daylit buildings,
with user-controls, set in an accessible naturalized landscape into which nature
is welcomed. Or, pursue an ever more technological approach – controls with
automation and IT feedback, simulation, virtual reality – a science fiction
future of colour therapy rooms, sensory stimulation scenarios, and personal
implants programmed to give the sensation of bird-song and spring sunshine!
Indeed, this scenario has been visited by many science fiction writers, one
suspects cynically, rather than enthusiastically. If successful, it would give the
‘advantage’ of being able completely disengage from nature – there would be
no limit to the height and depth of buildings, and their occupation density.
As is customary at the end of scientific papers, we say that there is need for
more research. It is hoped that this paper will help make the case for a new
field of cross-disciplinary study, bringing physics, biology, psychology and

sociology, into the architecture and engineering of the built environment.
References
[1] Winston, R. Human Instinct. Bantom Press, 2002.
[2] Heschong, L. Thermal Delight in Architecture, The MIT Press, 1979.
[3] Schiller, G.E., A comparison between measured and predicted comfort in
office buildings.
[4] Fanger P.O. How to apply models predicting thermal sensation and
discomfort in practice in Thermal Comfort: Past, Present and Future, ed
1994.
[5] Humphreys M.A, Nicol J.F. An Adaptive Guideline for UK Office
Temperatures in Standards for Thermal Comfort – Indoor Temperature
Standards for the 21st Century, ed. By F. Nicol, Humphreys 1995.
[6] Oseland N.A.1994 A Within Groups Comparison of Predicted and
reported Thermal Sensation votes on Climate chambers, Offices and
Homes. Proceedings of Healthy Buildings 94, Budapest, 1994.
[7] Heerwagen J. Adaptation and Coping: Occupant Response to Discomfort
in Energy Efficient Buildings. Proceedings ACEEE Summer Study on
Energy Efficiency in Buildings 1992.
[8] Bordass W. User and Occupant Control in Office Buildings. Proceedings
ASHRAE conference on building design, technology and occupant well-
being, Brussels, 1993.
[9] Baker N, Standeven M. Thermal Comfort for free-running buildings.
Energy in Buildings 23, 1996.
[10] Guedes M. Thermal Comfort and Passive Cooling in Southern European
Offices. PhD Thesis, Univ Cambridge, 2000.
[11] Merghani, A. Exploring thermal comfort and spatial diversity. In
Environmental diversity in architecture. Ed. Steemers K., Steane M A,
Spon Press, 2004.
[12] Nikolopoulou M, Baker N, Steemers K. Thermal Comfort in Outdoor
Urban Spaces: the Human Parameter. Solar Energy 1999.
[13] Parpairi, K. Daylighting in Architecture – Quality and User Preference.
PhD Thesis. Univ Cambridge, 1999.
[14] Ulrich, R S. View through a Window may influence Recovery from
Surgery. Science 224. 1984.
[15] Keep P, James R, Inman M. Windows in the Intensive Therapy Unit.
Anaesthesia, 35, 1980.
[16] Robson, E R., School Architecture, Leicester University Press (1972)
1874
[17] Heschong Mahone Group. Daylighting in schools. California Board of
Energy Efficiency. 1999.
Ecological propriety and architecture

V. A. Metallinou
Hellenic Society for the Protection of the Environment and Cultural
Heritage, Thessaloniki Branch, Greece
Abstract
For centuries, building has been seen largely as a way of living apart from the
environment and dominating nature. This has turned out to be a pyrrhic
supremacy and the current ecological crisis has motivated many professionals
and academics to re-evaluate the fundamental premises of how buildings are
designed and produced.
The potential of buildings to cause global environmental damage was first
acknowledged during the 1980s and out of this realization, the concept of
“sustainability” emerged which now enjoys a central place in the discourse.
There are clear connections between the effects of globalization and
architectural practice. There is a direct link between the destruction of the
rainforests and how we build and with which materials; and the erosion of the
ozone layer has led to a reassessment of how energy is used in buildings.
The issues that bioclimatic buildings and settings address are essentially
threefold: energy, health and wellbeing and sustainability.
Yet, eco architecture is not only a matter of specific design choices that lead
(most of the time) to specific high tech building products, but the appropriate
mentality that emancipates a specific attitude of dealing with building within
nature.
In doing so, regional and national planning should surely lay emphasis on
maximizing ambient energy and at the local level, planning should strive to
increase density in urban areas to combat the increasing suburbanization, as a
means to protect surrounding nature - the raison d’ etre of the city.
To Vitruvious’ Firmitas, Utilita and Venustas (strength, functionality and
beauty) a further criterion has to be added - restitutes (restitution) in which the
act of building enhances the environment in an ecologically responsible manner.
Keywords: globalization and architectural practice, building and energy,
building within nature, eco-architecture, energy, health and wellbeing and
sustainability.
doi:10.2495/ARC060021
1 Introduction
For centuries, building has been seen largely as a way of living apart from the
environment and dominating nature. This has turned out to be a pyrrhic
supremacy and the current ecological crisis has motivated many professionals
and academics to re-evaluate the fundamental premises of how buildings are
designed and produced. Underscoring technical efforts to reconstitute the built
environment is the elusive but critically important concept of sustainable
development.
Across a wide range of disciplines including architecture, a new attitude,
conjecturing a built environment that mimics and complements rather than
conflicts with nature, is emerging, as a vital goal of current theory and practice.
Notions of sustainability are not a preoccupation of recent history. The medieval
monasteries of Europe and in the Balkans, led their unique ecological paradigm
centuries ago. They produced their own food, created buildings from local
materials, captured and recycled water and developed renewable energy
technologies such as water and windmills. These highly structured societies, took
care of the sick and elderly, cultivated land according to ecological principles
and had a humane approach to animal husbandry.
Such practices still obtain in rural communities in Latin America, Africa and
Asia and often appropriate selectively aspects of contemporary technology.
For instance, in the desert regions of North Africa, doctors still travel by camel to
visit remote villages. It’s a tableau unchanged for generations, but nowadays the
camel is equipped with a GPS antenna on its head to signal its geographical
position, and a photovoltaic panel on its back that provides energy to run a fridge
containing medicines to treat the sick.
This instinctive, almost poetic synthesis of tradition and technology could
have wider implications for the sclerotic First World, as “sustainable
development” is not a term one hears in such settlements, but in reality, these are
places from which the rest of humanity could usefully draw lessons rather than
seeking to “improve” them. There is a danger of a nostalgic glorification of some
isolated, eco – responsive aboriginal society, totally removed from our
debauched, technologically sophisticated milieu. On the other hand, the lessons
of these civilizations and their cosmology reveal a wealth of insights into the
evolution of the human habitat that cannot be ignored. They provide instructive
examples of how to deal with climate and demonstrate ideas, attitudes and low-
tech solutions that can be usefully incorporated into contemporary shelter.
Equally importantly, these cultures offer the basis for rethinking humankind’s
relationship with the planet.
2 The line of history

In the Pioneers of Modern Design, Nikolaus Pevsner identified the Arts and
Crafts Movement flourish in Britain in the decades either side of 1900s, as one of
the major influences upon the emergence of the Modern Movement.
In the ideas of William Morris and their translation into architectural form
and language is possible to recognize antecedents of Modernist Architectural
theory and practice. Morris’ theories established the principles of fitness for
purpose and the integrity of materials as a fundamental importance in the design
of all articles of use. To these, architects of the Arts and Crafts Movement added
a sense of response to place in applying Morris’ ideas to the design of buildings.
In their specific interpretation and application of principle, they placed particular
emphasis upon the question of orientation in determining the placement of
buildings and particularly houses upon their sites and the position of the principal
rooms. More over, with the use of the bay window, they concentrated the main
areas of glazing towards the sun.
The environmental credentials of this architecture extend beyond observance
of orientation, into a complex and subtle setting for domestic inhabitation.
Spaces may be closed-off or opened-up in response to environmental and social
requirements and the garden is consistently conceived as an essential
complement to the interior spaces and not as an added-on afterthought.
In more modern terminology, what we find here is an environment which is
climate-responsive, spatially and temporally diverse, user-controlled, adaptable
and sustainable. We also perceive a conception of nature of architecture that
predates the reductive processes of 20th century, in which questions of
environment are comprehended within an all-embracing synthesis of the cultural,
social, technological and aesthetic.
By the late 1920s, the events traced by Pevsner in the Pioneers, had led to the
transformation of the language of architecture from a traditionally grounded
synthesis to a new analytical clarity - the Modern Movement.
The methods of architectural science in the application of quantified standards in
the functional needs of buildings and their users attract particular interest in the
relationship between design and the environmental principles, where
quantification is placed in the context of a particular vision of the wholeness of
architectural enterprise.
As the idea of research mainly took roots in schools of architecture, so
environmental studies started gaining importance among the academia as well as
in policy making bodies. The continuity of the field in which we all work, is
expressed clearly in the discipline of the philosophy of science of the era.
Thinkers such as Karl Popper and Thomas Kuhn describe the way in which
science proceeds systematically within the discipline of prevailing paradigms,
using rigorous procedures and accumulating a body of knowledge, which serves
the solution of new emerging problems. The hypothesis of research programmes,
introduced by Imre Lakatos was used as the core theory for proposing in the
1980s the Architectural Research Programmes as the way to understand the
development of our discipline—Stanford Anderson - Vivianna Metallinou -
Libero Andreotti, MIT, 1982. The whole enterprise made possible to bring into
focus all of the variables and processes which occur in the environmental system
of a building along with the central role of the occupant and the contextual
studies of the special relation between site and building, prepared the way of
architecture to take advantage of theory and practice in the environmental

research (Regionalism and so).
3 Sustainability and architecture
With the energy crisis of the 1970s, the issue brought into focus was the
relationship of environmental design to the energy demand of building. From
this, a new parameter entered the equation of architecture: the concern to explore
the relationship between the form and materiality of buildings and their energy
consumption. Physical, mathematical and computer modeling of building
environment in the architecture schools, proposed either quite simple graphical
representations or experimental structures for use by designers.
Terms such as “low-energy architecture”, “passive solar design” and
“bioclimatic architecture”, entered the lexicon and importantly, redefined the
agenda of both research and practice.
The potential of buildings to cause global environmental damage was first
acknowledged during the 1980s and out of this realization, emerged the concept
of “sustainability” which now enjoys a central place in the discourse. There are
clear connections between the effects of globalization and architectural practice.
There is a direct link between the destruction of the rainforests and how we build
and with which materials; and the erosion of the ozone layer has led to a
reassessment of how energy is used in buildings.
Architects, however, are dependent on other bodies for the gathering and
assessment of data, for the analysis of causes of degradation and for proposals
for its reversal. These bodies come in various forms: international agencies (the
Club of Rome) national ministries, research institutes, non-government
organizations NGO, independent consultancies and individuals. It is left to the
architects to make sense of it all, in the context of a building where energy and
environment may be seen as important issues, but where there are other equally
important requirements (from the client) and where at the end of the day the
building must be a complete architectural statement.
It has been said that architecture is the mother of the arts, thereby claiming for
it both maternal and aesthetic ascendancy. If this is so, the matriarch in
architecture holds in balance the well-being of another mother figure: Mother-
Earth, while the art in architecture, uniquely has to meet the complex demands of
use as well as transporting the senses. It is on the relationship of these two roles -
architecture as an art of function and architecture as environmental custodian,
that the whole discussion is focused.
Bioclimatic architecture is seen as a reaction to the predicament of
environmental depredation in the same way organic farming is a reaction to the
dominance of intensive, chemically based agriculture. And worthy but dull
enough it is positioned at the fringe of the main production. The attitude to attain
yet the form of another movement leads it to another categorization that
separates and marginalizes it again.
4 The proposal
… “In doing a memorial I started with a room and a garden. That was all I had.
Why did I choose a room and a garden as a point of departure? Because the
garden is a personal gathering of nature and the room is the beginning of
architecture” starts Luis Kahn in his “Between Silence and Light”.
The dialogue between architecture and nature is as old as architecture itself.
It is only in recent history that this happy interaction has been extinguished. Until
then, both aesthetic and functional attributes of architecture were inextricably
linked to nature. Seen as such, bioclimatic architecture represents an overdue
return to and a broadening of the innate and continuing exchange. It lies squarely
in the mainstream of architecture and is neither expedient reparation nor arcane
cult. Architecture is depended on a satisfactory reconciliation of the intuitive
with the rational. A building has to be both a poem and a machine. Yet, few
buildings achieve such a status. There are those that are sensually stimulating but
lack sound construction and those that answer successfully practical needs but
fail to generate an emotional charge.
Figure 1.
Axiomatic to arriving at an inspirational balance between sense and

sensibility are two relationships: that of building to site and both of these to
nature itself. The capture of the genius loci is the content that makes a chosen
site special and distinctive. The relationship of building and site to the wider
natural environment is again subject to the intuitive and the rational. The art of
architecture therefore, has to embrace both the inspirational and the analytical
and architectural response to our environmental predicament will also reflect this
dichotomy.
Figure 2.
…“First we had nature. And then came the Environment. Environment is the
smoke, humanity has put on nature: the people who used Latin had no word for
environment- they only knew natura” [1].
It is more than obvious that we have to agree on what we mean by the newly
defined terms of our discussion. Both environment and sustainability mean
numerous and different things. What we refer to as bioclimatic is an approach to
design that is inspired by nature and which applies a sustained logic to every
aspect of the project, focused on minimizing environmental depredation and
encouraging a sense of well-being.
The issues that bioclimatic buildings and settings address are essentially
threefold: energy, health and wellbeing and sustainability. A key aspect in
designing a bioclimatic building is determining its comfort criteria, as perception
of comfort varies considerably from individual to individual and between ethnic
groups who become more habituated to local climatic conditions. It also varies
between countries and continents according to the level of development each of
them is having.
The extraction of potent architectural expression from underlying social

theory and technical innovation is the stuff of architecture and as noted, a
characteristic of mature bioclimatic architecture.
5 New partners on design

Architecture as a discipline to itself is only one facet of the issue. In the 2002
UIA World Congress in Berlin, the main theme elaborated by the organizers was
that architecture is subjected to take into direct consideration the growing
importance of new technology in building methods as well as the new materials
available in the market. As a result of that, even from the time of the idea
elaboration, architecture is the outcome of a team - work between architect and
the building contractor (or company) and the scheme has come over to embrace
the whole design process. We still enjoy architecture in the Bazaars of
Architecture – the cities as the theme of the last UIA 2005 World Congress in
Istanbul presented, with the unrivaled star system architecture to claim one
aspect of the production and the Euphoria Manifestoes on the other hand to
return the discussion on the sustainable aspect (Richard Senett).
The growing sensitivity and public interest, to the appreciation of cultural
heritage that is being extended to include and embrace all interesting manmade
structures since the last decade, is shaping another strong aspect on the issue of
sustainability on architecture. Networking in the field of heritage is a practice
that strengthens attitudes towards the appreciation and use of culture as a driving
force for shaping the present. Fighting for the preservation of the cultural
heritage of one’s millieu, helps shaping the appropriate mentality for an eco
attitude at first, which will be followed by eco-architecture, eco-mechanics, eco-
agriculture perhaps.
Sustainability considered from this point of view, functions as a means of
cultural consistency. Design gains a meaning as a chain of cultural continuity
and linked to the social development policy. Within these qualities, the
• As a means of integration between society and the profession

sustainability can be interpreted:
• As a means of surviving the cultural values and tradition

• To make the user an effective part of the design process
• To improve the communication among different disciplines and
scientific fields
The important point is to bring together the civilian contribution with the idea
of ecology and to initiate the participation and support processes on the issue.
When developed with a method that can be used as a platform to raise the voice
of the free thought, this initiative will become a contribution for the culture of
democracy and will propose a reform process in the field of interaction. The
sustainability approach is before all a reform process in thought. Like any other
processes it necessitates a political choice or stance. The most significant
determiner is the logic of the process and therefore it is inevitable for the
economic and political powers to exist in this transformation and reproduction
process determinedly and take the necessary responsibility.
Against the multidimensional erosion emerged with globalization and spread

to several fields, the attitude of the architect and designer gradually gains
significance and their political choices can become a determining factor for the
process.
Eco architecture is not only a matter of specific design choices that lead (most
of the times) to specific high tech building products, but the appropriate
mentality that emancipates a specific attitude of dealing with building within
nature.
Coming from a country known for the specific quality of place, I believe that
eco architecture has above all to submit seriously to the attitude of the protection
of everything that lays there, in order to keep trace of a development that need
not research booths to come up with the proper and right. In doing so regional
and national planning should surely lay emphasis on maximizing ambient energy
while at local level, planning should strive to increase density in urban areas to
combat the increasing suburbanization. Architects must provide geometries of
living that offer density with the advantages of suburban life.
A thorough understanding of the principles of passive and active energy
conservation should be expected and we should add to Vitruvious Firmitas,
Utilita and Venustas (strength, functionality and beauty) a further criterion for
judgement of architecture – restitutes (restitution), in which the act of building
enhances the environment in ecologically responsible manner.
The line I am drawing here is a paradigm from the holistic traditional
procedures, indicating the uninterrupted continuity of the field in which we work
and demonstrating the prevailing belief that the problem can be dealt on. By
exploring notions of appropriate rather than high technology and create buildings
that are not only harmoniously integrated with the landscape but also climatically
responsive, embodying the soul and substance of an emerging ecological
propriety that gives great hope for the future in a humane, inventive, radical and
passionate architecture that acknowledges the world beyond the glossy magazine
pages. We, architects, cannot transform society, but we can certainly transform
architecture. And by doing so, we will change other forms of production too.
References:
[1] Metzger Gustav, Symposium on Sustainability, The Architectural
Association, London, UK. 1996.
[2] Dr. Incedayi Deniz, Sustainability as a form of conduct in the context of
environmental sensibility, proc. of the 1st international conf. of architects
“Architecture and sustainable development on the Balkans”, Sofia, pp 1-
9, 2004.
[3] Dr. Slaev Alexander, Balkan architecture and architects – working
towards sustainable development of southeastern Europe, proc. of the 1st
international conf. of architects “architecture and sustainable
development on the Balkans”, Sofia, pp 19-26, 2004.
[4] Davey Peter, Designing our future, The Architectural Review124, pp 26-
27, January 2001.
Architecture and nature at the end of the

20th century: towards a dialogical approach
for sustainable design in architecture
F. J. Soria López
Metropolitan Autonomous University, México City, México
Abstract
This essay approaches architecture from a humanist point of view, analyzing
social dialogue in relation to design processes and architectural production,
which search for a balanced interaction between the built environment and its
natural and cultural settings. In a first approach architecture is considered as a
‘second nature’, one that is fit to meet man’s needs, which goes beyond
functional and pragmatic issues, and include in a fundamental way the spiritual
aspects, those which ultimately define our human nature. In a second phase a
historical-interpretative analysis is developed for a better understanding of the
main practices in sustainable architecture over the last two decades of the 20th
century. The concepts of dialogism and the hermeneutic trilogy (pre-figuration,
con-figuration and re-figuration) developed by M. Bajtin and Paul Ricoeur,
respectively, are explored as a methodological structure to analyze and interpret
a sustainable architecture. The idea is to bind dialogism and sustainability as one
concept, in order to approach architecture in an integral and holistic way, and to
try to visualize it as a multidimensional cultural phenomenon. Here, the main
hypothesis is explained, one which establishes that both, biophysical and
tangible factors, as well as social and intangible ones, are indispensable cultural
parameters to consider when designing a truly sustainable architecture.
Keywords: dialogical sustainability, sustainable architecture assessment,
second nature, dialogical architecture, sustainable architecture, qualitative
interpretation of space.
1 Introduction
During the 20th century contemporary society experimented diverse and
profound transformations in the way its individuals communicate and relate with
doi:10.2495/ARC060031
one another and with their surrounding environment, like never before in human
history. Particularly in the last few decades the relation between man and nature
has acquired great importance in our social conscience as we become aware how
human action and production are progressively devastating the natural
environment. In an intent to stop this environmental impact that affects the world
as a whole, a great number of countries have adopted since the end of the 80’s
(Brundtland Report 1987) and the beginning of the 1990’s (Earth Summit 1992)
the concept of sustainable development defined as that social, politic and
economic development that meets the needs of the present without compromising
the ability of future generations to meet their own needs, as a way to reach a
better quality of life for all societies and simultaneously preserve the natural
environment.
Aware of this emerging problem, architectural practice has “reacted” strongly,
and in the last few years we have seen many possible solutions: ecological
architecture, green architecture, bioclimatic architecture, energy efficient
architecture or simply sustainable architecture. This last term tries to gather all
the previous design processes which incorporate strategies to evaluate, control
and minimize the physical impact of the building on its surrounding
environment. After making a critical analysis of the leading stances, it seems
evident that these “sustainable” practices are dominated by a sort of scientific or
environmentalist posture, that understands architectural design as subordinated
or dominated mainly by external relations: that is, physical, tangible and
quantifiable conditions, adopting certain pre-established parameters such as
form, maximum contamination rates, energy standards, etc. This posture seems
to lead to an “ecological determinism”, when designing cultural objects with
much more complex characteristics.
2 Sustainable architecture or environmental engineering?

In the past few decades the main environmental design processes in architecture
and most of the normative regulations applied focus on diminishing the
ecological footprint (not interrupting, modifying or destroying natural
ecosystems) and are sustainable as long as they use, within certain limits, the
natural resources (renewable energy, biodegradable materials, residue treatment)
intended basically to reduce its physical impact on nature, at both local and
global levels.
On the other hand much of the literature, as well as many educational
programs about green, sustainable, environmental or ecological architecture talk
about the urgent need to “establish a new relationship with the natural
environment” [3] as part of the responsibility of the architect that must not be
delayed; nevertheless, they concentrate their analysis, precisely on this
biophysical impact I have mentioned
In this context many doubts and controversies appear in the architect’s work
and his duty to the natural environment. At the same time, it is necessary to ask
what ethical implications the architectural project has with man himself and the
community of which he is part, and, ultimately, to whom architecture gives
shelter. What exactly does sustainability mean in the architectural arena? What
duties or obligations do the architect and his project have to the nature and
culture of the place where the project is set? Is it because of the great
deterioration of natural conditions as a whole that these issues should
pre-determine the architectural object? Is it correct to speak of a sustainable
architecture when biophysical and ecological aspects are first in line, over its
social and cultural characteristics?
This gives way to an important paradox. Those who strongly support
sustainable practices from the dominating biophysical standpoint criticize the
cultural stances for being anthropocentric. These stances put human needs
(intangible, spiritual, symbolic) above the natural laws that govern logically all
ecosystems, of which man is one of many parts. However, the idea of
considering nature before human needs is, in itself, much more anthropocentric
than it seems at first sight, given that what is at stake is the survival of all natural
ecosystems, including mankind. Even those apparently extreme stances - on one
side the “naturalistic” point of view, and, on the other, the “scientific” posture,
which both defend the radical conservation of nature- represent a materialistic
approach. What happens to the human part, the part that distinguishes human
nature, that gives meaning to life, that goes beyond our need for solely biological
survival, and values nature for what it represents, creates, inspires or motivates.
Is not this part of human “survival” also one of the basic needs that architecture
has to satisfy?
Why should we conserve nature? Is it because, in doing so, we contaminate
less and guarantee human survival, or is it simply because we find immense
beauty, aesthetic delight, or profound peace in nature that is worth experiencing?
Looked at in this way, the biophysical stance, a materialistic approach, seems
much more anthropocentric in terms of searching for a concrete and tangible
benefit for mankind. The cultural stances, on the other hand, might be more
romantic and idealistic, but much more respectful of nature, in considering its
existence in its own right.
The mentioning of all this leads us to question the specialization in
architecture where a sort of environmental engineering is being applied. This
specialization promotes the use, organization, management and reproduction of
the natural environment in a more technical and efficient way. However,
architecture that creates places for human dwelling that, as Le Corbusier
believed, must provoke emotion and not just be functional, also relates man with
nature in much more profound ways because of its beauty, its texture, its history,
its meaning, its color, its smell - all of these possible thanks to man’s ability of
conscious perception.
What I am trying to emphasize is that sustainable architecture should depart
from man, from his needs, his experience, his perception, memory, beliefs as an
individual and as a society and, at the same time, from the knowledge and
valuation of the ecosystems, the biophysical features of nature and landscapes
that we use and, especially, from the relationship between them. This does not
imply an anthropocentric vision. On the contrary it may be the way to achieve
real possibilities for the conservation of nature through a more conscious and
informed experience of its presence. I believe, as a hypothesis for the moment,

that sustainability in its present terms will contribute to separate man and nature
by dominating and exploiting nature in a more rational way. Even if we are able
to reproduce all natural systems some day and are able to guarantee human
survival, then nature will have ceased to exist and only man, that is artifice, will
prevail.
3 Towards a dialogical sustainability in architecture

This essay focuses on the always polemic encounter between the built and
natural environments, seeking to establish that architecture’s role is to relate
physically, but mainly in a cultural way, man and his natural settings. The idea is
that man’s intangible perception of and experience with nature, be it poetic,
symbolic or abstract, are as important as preserving all its biophysical potential.
So, if we consider that the main practices in sustainable architecture in recent
years are dominated by ecological parameters as well as the technological
paradigm, the central thesis that this investigation explores is that a dialogical
design process relates natural conditions (physical and tangible) with human
factors (subjective and intangible) on a mutual and equal basis by considering
them as indispensable socio-cultural needs for a sustainable architecture in the
present and in the future.
A dialogical vision of architecture, of sustainable development itself, takes a
main role when proposing to transfer the Bajtinian concept of dialogue,
understood as the most important way in which individuals of a specific society
communicate with each other - that every individual expression is the result of an
intense interaction and synthesis of various ‘voices’ from our past and present -
as a model to analyze architecture and to try to build a bridge between man and
nature and, in this way, through the recognition and evaluation of the ethical,
logical and aesthetic dimensions of an architectural whole, seek to understand its
role as the dwelling space of man and to try, in Bajtin’s words, ‘to discover the
interior unity of meaning’ that sustains a building in a specific place and culture:
The dialogical analysis of architecture discovers it as a bridge between

social sciences and physical sciences, or social history (history) and the
history of earth (cosmology). This bridge cannot be insensible to human
need and to human survival(…) it should include social needs for
survival: peace, beauty, life, health etc. Physical dialogue is insufficient,
we also need social dialogue [4].
How does architecture respond to this ‘dialogical’ world and not as a mere
‘thing’, to put it in Bajtinian terms? The main argument to defend this approach
in architecture is to take the original dualistic start point between the natural and
the artificial: real space, cosmic time get to “be” because there is, in the first
place, a consciousness of its existence (subjective), and, after that, a
communication of that existence (inter-subjective); simultaneously, there is a
positioning of ‘myself’ in relation to ‘us’ and to an ‘other’ inside this objectified
world. In this way, a represented world is added to the real world, and to
cosmological time, a historical time appears. These are categories that define
human culture, thanks to our double ability of consciousness and
communication, of interpreting and dialoging, beginning an always unfinished
chain of listening- understanding-responding process.
Using this conceptual framework, the main objective is to try to build into the
dominant trend of environmental sustainability in architecture a dialogic
approach. In this approach subjective perception and experience and the
collective and inter-subjective valuation of nature as a physical and tangible
existence as well as metaphysical and intangible presence are considered as
indispensable parameters for sustainable design. Nature is still the main actor,
architecture the means to speak with and about her, not only as something given
of immutable laws, geological time or ecological processes, but also as a being in
and of itself of changing values, as container of experience through collective
memories, of creative inspiration, in other words, as a unity of materiality and
meaning.
S. Kellert [5] establishes quite clearly that sustainable, green or, in general,
ecological building processes “will not achieve its full promise and potential
until it more positively motivates individuals, developers and planners by
capturing in the built environment the widest range of physical, emotional, and
intellectual values of nature”.
This integral concept has also been proposed in similar terms by different
authors, agreeing in the first place that architecture is a complex mix of aesthetic,
ethical and logical factors. Thompson [6] proposes a system of ethical and
aesthetical values for landscape architecture, and names them as a trilogy among
the aesthetic, the social and ecology. With this in mind he establishes that there
is univalent design (what we’ve called monological design as opposed to a
dialogical one), those who work around one of the three components; bivalent,
that includes two of the possible architectural dimensions; and, of course,
trivalent design, that includes all three.
A closer idea to the concept of dialogue is explained by Benet et al. [7],
establishing that there is no one style or kind of design that can be described as
truly ‘sustainable’, nor is there a process or method that can guarantee an optimal
design because architecture, being a cultural product, must be judged and
assessed as an integral unity that has multiple objectives and origins. Trying to
overcome these difficulties in this sustainable framework, they consider
sustainable architecture as a responsive cohesion: an answer to different
participants or stakeholders (user, nature, future generations, program etc.);
cohesive because it includes, balances and orders in the architectural object all
these answers. But one thing that they do believe is important is the order these
dimensions should have, giving ecological processes first place, then the social.
This, I believe, is contradictory to a responsive attitude, where the dialogue itself
between stakeholders, participants or general conditions of place, is what
establishes, in each specific situation, the best possible answer and order. They
conclude the following idea:
So after all there is nothing unique about how we should approach the
making and identification of sustainable architecture; this is the way good
design should be (…) it is [sustainability] a reconceptualization of
architecture in response to a myriad of contemporary concerns about the
effects of human activity [7].
Thwaites [8], on the other hand, uses the expressivist theory as a conceptual
framework in order to evaluate the relationship between architecture and natural
environment, not only as a physical product, but also as a way through which
man expresses creative desires and aspirations. Again, we can see this
fundamental idea of a human communication process: “In this context, design is
a means of conceiving and communicating ideas: a dialogue rather than simply a
method for solving specialized site-based problems, or specifically for
prescribing style”.
So, if these ideas, are apparently quite clear in accepting the multiple
characteristic of all context with cultural and biophysical components, why speak
of this urgent need to change towards a sustainable architecture?
Sustainable architecture should not tend, in my opinion, towards an
environmental engineering or management methodology, what Thompson
describes as univalent design (monoligic); instead it should defend and improve
its integrative process, trivalent design, topogenetic dimensions, dialogical
approach; in other words, it should be sustainable in relation to the individual
who dwells, to society that produces, and to the natural setting that allocates
architecture.
The main idea is not to describe how architecture is incorporated into nature,
but rather how man relates to nature through his architecture.
Dialogic architecture recognizes the singularity of each project and of
each built place, not as an experience or object isolated from history or
social life, on the contrary, as dimensioned and materialization of
aesthetic, scientific and political values of a same and specific social
dialogue, and because of this universal and permanent [9].
We can understand, then, this “integral sustainability” as the satisfaction of
bio-physical and socio-psychological human needs that allow the preservation,
use and experience of nature through architecture, focused on improving man’s
quality of life without reducing future generations’ possibilities to live with these
same conditions and enjoy a rich, beautiful, creative, interesting, clean, healthy
and balanced environment
In short, architecture, in order to be sustainable, that is, really sustainable and
simply good, must satisfy simultaneously all architectural dimensions: logical
(science, technical, functional) ethical (security, low impact, protection, good
use) and aesthetic (beauty, meaning, emotion) dimensions.
3.1 Dialogical assessment
In the last few years sustainable architecture assessment systems have achieved
great importance, not only aimed to measure the environmental impacts of the
building, but also as tools that help establish strategies and make better decisions
in the design process.
Nevertheless, it is very important to point out that most of these methods
concentrate on the physical impacts on the natural environment. In a relatively
recent investigation many of these assessment programs applied in the UK, USA,
Norway, Sweden and France were reviewed, concluding as one of their main
problems, the following:
However, none of the systems reviewed [BREAM, LEED, ESCALE,
Ecoprofile, Ecoeffect] in this paper includes social and economic
indicators of sustainability; all concentrate on physical and environmental
aspects of sustainability [10].
Most of these tools are essentially quantitatively orientated, assigning grades or
points, usually with a numerical scale, sometimes of appreciation (bad, regular,
good, very good, excellent) to determine the building’s environmental
performance.
We are back to the main thesis I am trying to defend: sustainability is a way, a
means to achieve a better life quality for society as a whole, not a goal in itself.
Architecture must take into account its responsibility to the ‘direct’ users of the
building, to those who live and use it, to those who perceive it as part of the city
on a daily basis, in other words, as part of their daily environment. What kind of
impact does the building have on the inhabitants? In which ways does
architecture relate the users with the natural surroundings in tangible and
intangible ways?
The difficulty is evident. There are no recipes or methodology that guarantees
a predetermined result. Even if we could have a ‘total’ assessment system that
takes into account all the variables, all items, it could become a way to guide,
control and determine the results. Probably the best idea is to maintain diverse
and different possibilities of evaluation and interpretation - some orientated to
the tangible values, others aimed at explaining the meaning or the subjective
perceptions of a place- in order to keep the many points of view that contribute
to understanding our polycentric reality. Complementary assessment methods
focused on the human dimension of sustainable architecture in order to
understand and interpret intentions, values, experience, perceptions of nature
through our built environment, seem necessary. Cole [11] points out this issue
quite clearly: “Environmental assessment methods must accommodate both
quantifiable performance criteria (such as annual energy use, water use, or
greenhouse gas emissions) and more qualitative criteria such as the ecological
significance of the site (…) the qualitative criteria can typically only practically
be evaluated on a ‘feature specific’ basis…”.
With this in mind, the proposal of this investigation is to outline a dialogical
assessment method for sustainable architecture. This method can be a tool to
help in the understanding of place by interpreting the communicative process
that architecture, as material space, and people, through social use of
architecture, establish with the natural environment. The idea is that a dialogical
architecture must engage in this communicative process, and RESPOND to the
“voices” of the natural and cultural context, demonstrating a listening-
understanding-answering process that adds a new portion to the dialogue, always

unfinished, that human development implies.
In first place, dialogue with the natural settings can be registered through the
interpretation and valuation of the experience and perception that the inhabitants
have through the use of an architectural space. It is in the dialogue between
object and subject, thanks to the dialogical significance that society imbues to
nature and architecture, that we value, understand, use or visualize them.
On a second level, a dialogical architecture can be defined by relating and
comparing the initial intentions that the architect incorporates into the project (by
listening-understanding-responding to the ‘voices of the natural and cultural
context’) with the experience of the users of the real place. The main objective is
to detect the inter-subjective dialogue (architect and user) that architecture makes
possible, focusing on the natural settings of the environment.
With these parameters, a good architecture, an integral sustainable architecture,
allows an intense, interesting and satisfactory experience of the natural factors of
the place, an intentional situation that is anticipated by the project, not as
imposition, but rather as possibility.
DESCRIPTIVE PROCESS
1ST LEVEL
FORM
Social-physical context
(Natural and cultural environement)
object
architectural
INTERPRETATION
CREATIVE PROCESS
(VARIABLE OVER TIME)

LEVEL
USE
Prefiguration Configuration Refiguration

ND
initial subjective shared

2
intentions perception experience
VALUATION PROCESS
LEVEL
USE+FORM
Social value
of the architectural object
RD
(humanist and materialistic)

3
Figure 1: Dialogical assessment model for sustainable architecture.
Figure 1 explains the interpretative process that is proposed: a first level that
has to do with the description of the place, the architecture, the settings -basically
the form and material characteristics; in second place, the evaluation of the
whole creative process, that is, the architectural project that contains the initial
intentions of the designing team and or participants (prefiguration of place), the
experience of the built place on a subjective, that is, individual scale (configured
place), and finally, the inter-subjective experience of the place verified by social
use and communication (refiguration of place); in third place, the valuation of
the former two experiences that conclude in a general interpretation of the human
dimensions of architecture, an interpretation that is constantly changing over
time.
3.2 Dialogical architecture

In modern architectural practice there are many examples of this capability of
reading, listening and responding in an integral manner, based on an architectural
tradition that knows how to listen, understand, interpret and, of course, answer
the best way possible in that specific moment. Just by naming Gaudí, Aalto,
Wright or Barragan we can exemplify this practice. But even today, we may see
extraordinary examples in this sense. Analyzed with this dialogical approach,
environmentally responsible architecture designed by architects Zumthor,
Miralles and Pinòs, Schjetnan and Latz, are understood and enjoyed in all their
architectural quality. Far from finding how they are similar in their relation to the
place, the immense and rich differences that characterize each one emerge as
possibilities of experience, never as predetermined experiences between man and
nature.
With this dialogical approach it is possible to sense how Zumthor’s thermal
baths in Vals is more aesthetically strong, where nature is experienced in a kind
of phenomenological poetry, taking direct advantage of the extraordinary
features of the natural landscape.
Miralles and Pinos Igualada Cemetery recreates nature through an
architecture that delivers a more metaphysical and introspective perception,
firmly anchored on archaic beliefs of life and death.
In Duisburg, the factory’s structure of an old industrial ensemble, clearly
identified as the destroyer of the environment, proposes new ways for the
machine and nature to relate, without destroying one another, a sort of ethical
compromise that P. Latz and his design team clearly assume.
In Xochimilco ecological park, on the other hand, the structure is the
underlying nostalgic replenishment (nostalgic in the Barragan’s sense, that is, the
consciousness of the past, but elevated to the power of poetics) restoring an
ancient interaction between society and natural settings, deeply rooted in
collective memory.
Figure 2: From left to right: Vals Termal Baths, Igualada Cemetery and
Xochimilco Ecological Park.
Each one is specific, all contribute to conserve the physical environment (the
materialistic evaluation was quite constant in all four projects), there is richness
in that there was concentration on the the less tangible relations that these
architectures provoke between man and nature. It is this dialogical approach the
means that help interpret and value the physical and intangible relationships with
nature of a specific site.
Figure 3: Duisburg Landscape Park.
In this perspective, the responsibility of the architect should be, in any case,
inclusive, open to dialogue, open to as many possibilities, including, of course,
the environmental degradation that worries modern society so much. In short,
architects should incorporate the natural in a fundamental manner into their
project in order to affect mind and body as a way to improve and intensify our
relationship with nature, through architecture - an experience that might be an
important way to increase society’s awareness of the urgent need to preserve and
respect nature.
References
[1] Bajtin, M.M.; The Dialogic Imagination; University of Texas Press;
Austin, 1998
[2] Ricoer, Paul; Arquitectura y Narratividad; In Arquitectonics. Mind Land
and Society. No. 4 Arquitectura y Hermenéutica; Edicions UPC,
Barcelona, 2003
[3] Luxán García de Diego, Margarita; Arquitectura de vanguardia y ecología
; In: Ciudades para un futuro más sostenible Boletín CF+S. Número 5.
Abril 1998.Madrid. http://habitat.aq.upm.es/boletin/n5/amlux.html
[4] Muntañola, Josep; Arquitectura, modernidad y conocimiento;
Arquitectonics; Edicions UPC; Barcelona; pp.143, 2002.
[5] Kellert, Stephen R. Ecological challenge, human values of nature, and
sustainability in the built environment; In: Kibert, Charles; Reshaping the
built environment. Ecology, ethics and economics.; Island Press;
Washington D.C.; pp. 40, 1999
[6] Thompson, Ian; Ecology, community and delight. Sources of values in

landscape architecture. E & FN SPON; London. pp 178-179, 2000.
[7] Benet, Helen; Radford, Antony and Williamson, Terry; Understanding
sustainable architecture; SPON Press; London; pp.126, 2003.
[8] Thwaites, Kevin; Expressivist Landscape architecture: The development
of a new conceptual framework for landscape architecture; En revista
Landscape Journal; Vol. 19, No. 1-2 2000, University of Wisconsin Press,
Madison; pp. 207, 2000.
[9] Pol, Enric et. al.; La evaluación post-ocupacional (POE) de edificios, una
reflexión crítica de su uso: nuevos criterios de sostenibilidad; En Ciudad
y Medio ambiente desde la experiencia humana.V Congreso de Psicología
Ambiental; Universitat de Barcelona; Barcelona, pp. 240,1996
[10] Crawley, Drury et. al.; Comparative assessment of environmental
performance tools and the role of the Green Building Challenge; Building
Research & Information; Special Edition, Vol. 29, No. 5; pp 340,
Sept-Oct 2001;
[11] Cole, Raymond; Environmental Performance of buildings: setting goals,
offering guidance and assessing progress; In Reshaping the built
environment. Ecology, ethics and economics. Island Press; Washington
D.C.; pp. 286, 1999.
The keyword is quality not ecology

A. van Hal
Delft University of Technology, the Netherlands
Abstract
The Netherlands has a good reputation abroad as a country of architecture. Many
people admire the architecture of famous Dutch architects such as Rem
Koolhaas, MVRDV, Neutelings Riedijk and Meijer and Van Schooten. In some
recent designs by members of this conceptual-oriented school of architects,
several efforts have been made to become more in harmony with nature, e.g. by
minimising the use of energy. Alongside this school another trend has developed
over the last few years. Customer requirements have become more dominant,
driven by the recent economic recession, and in many cases this has led to a
more pragmatic type of architecture. This pragmatic approach, in combination
with the objective for quality, has led to a new school within the Dutch
architectural community. In some recent renowned designs of members of this
more pragmatic school the aspect of environmental awareness is incorporated
too. The architects from both schools who proved to be capable of designing
so-called ‘eco-architecture’ could become true opinion leaders and role models
and be a source of inspiration for architects who have not taken environmental
awareness seriously yet. However, most architects do not want their work to be
associated with green terminology such as ‘eco-architecture’ or ‘sustainable
architecture’. They would rather use language like ‘smart architecture’ or ‘vital
architecture’. Their key thrust is ‘integral quality’ rather than ecology.
Respecting this source of motivation has shown to be critical for these
frontrunners to actively contribute to increasing the ecological awareness of their
architect colleagues and be opinion leaders.
Dragging them into the ‘green camp’ would have a contrary effect.
Keywords: environmental awareness, architects, opinion leaders, integral
quality, smart architecture, vital architecture, cultural creatives, styles of
architecture.
doi:10.2495/ARC060041
1 Introduction
How can opinion leaders increase the ecological awareness of architects? That is
the central question of this paper which is focussed on the Dutch situation.
Rogers [1] states that opinion leaders are individuals who lead in influencing
others’ opinions about innovations. He also states that the behaviour of opinion
leaders is important in determining the rate of adoption of an innovation in a
system. In the case of the adoption of ecological innovations in architecture the
opinion leaders will be architects. Therefore, before we can determine how they
can increase the ecological awareness of architects, we must find out which
architects can be considered as opinion leaders in this field. Do these architects
have specific characteristics? Or do they represent a specific style?
2 Which architects can be opinion leaders in the field of

eco-architecture?
2.1 Characteristics
For only a very small group of people care for the environment is leading in their
decisions. According to Hoijtink [2] between 1 and 4% of the Dutch people
belong to this group. A much bigger group is formed by the so called cultural
creatives. Cultural creatives are members of a subculture described for the first
time by Ray [3]. This group of people longs for better health, lower consumption
and more spirituality and has more respect for the earth and the diversity of life
than other people. According to Ray almost 25% of the Americans is part of this
growing group. Research of MarketResponse [4] shows that in the Netherlands
this percentage is 15% and the number is growing too. It can be assumed that
these percentages are similar for architects. This assumption is based on the fact
that the group of architects for which care for the environment is leading in their
work is also very small. Roughly estimated on my experiences this group of so-
named eco-architects represents between 1 and 3% of the architects. The
percentage of cultural creatives amongst architects may be larger than 15%
because architects are known to be more creative than most people and being
creative is also one of the characteristics of cultural creatives. According to
Rogers [1] opinion leaders reflect the norm of the social system. For that reason
eco-architects cannot perform as opinion leaders for social creatives and other
groups among architects. Based on my personal impression and the above the
conclusion can be drawn that of the group of opinion leaders in Dutch
architecture the ones interested in ecological innovations are quite often cultural
creatives. So the forecast of Ray and MarketResponse, about the growth of the
group of cultural creatives, is promising for the adoption of ecological
innovations.
2.2 Styles of architecture
The Netherlands has a good reputation abroad as a country of architecture. Many

people admire the architecture of famous Dutch architects such as Rem
Koolhaas, MVRDV, Neutelings Riedijk and Meijer and Van Schooten. The
views held by this generation of conceptual oriented architects have led to
numerous typical constructional innovations, such as overhangs of ten metres
and folding floors. Alongside this conceptual oriented style another style, the
pragmatic style, is typical for the Dutch situation and also very renowned. The
economic recession has had repercussions on the architecture business. While
architects in the Netherlands already have fewer final responsibilities than their
counterparts abroad, most of them cannot allow their views to dominate their
work. Clients have become more important now and in many cases this has led
to a more pragmatic approach imbedded in an overall strive for high quality [5].
Paul de Ruiter and Hubert-Jan Henket are two internationally celebrated
architects representing this pragmatic style.
Are opinion leaders in the field of eco-architecture only found within one of
these two specific styles? After studying different renowned projects with
integrated environmental innovations the answer to this question has to be: no.
As can be seen in the different examples, described hereunder, there have been
famous architects with a conceptual oriented style and architects with a more
pragmatic approach that have been integrating environmental innovations in their
work.
2.2.1 Minnaert Building, Utrecht, Neutelings Riedijk Architects

The Minnaert building houses facilities for Utrecht University’s geophysics
department. Half of the central hall is taken by a shallow pond. The pool plays a
key part in the building’s ingenious environmental control strategy. The constant
accumulation of heat from computers, lights and occupants means that the
building does not need heating, only the removal of heat. This is achieved by
collecting rainwater and pumping it through a system of pipes into spaces that
require cooling, such as laboratories.
Heated water is discharged back onto the roof, where it cools, drips back into
a collection vessel and the cycle is repeated [7].
Figure 1: Minnaert Building [6].
2.2.2 Posbank, Rheden, Bjarne Mastenbroek

The tea-pavilion Posbank is designed by architect Bjarne Mastenbroek and
located in the national park Velume Zoom near Rheden. Nature inspired the
architect. The façades are as transparent as possible. The construction is made of
beams and almost invisible bars of steel while the grass roof is part of the route
through the building. The insulation is made of sheep wool and the toilets are
flushed with rainwater.
Figure 2: Posbank [8].
2.2.3 ING-head office, Amsterdam, Meyer en van Schooten architects

The building is located on the city’s southern outskirts, near the A10 motorway.
Key features of the building include transparency, innovation and a deep-seated
respect for the environment. The transparency of the outer wall hides a second
layer of glass permitting natural ventilation: not only does this protect against
noise from the motorway, but it allows windows to be opened without affecting
the temperature inside the building. Climate control takes advantage of the cool
temperature of the ground under the building, through procedures aimed at
reducing operating costs and preferring naturally cooled ventilating air. In winter
the outer façade becomes a true solar panel, preserving heat within the space
between the walls so that it will flow into the building when the windows are
opened, while the inner façade protects against the sun’s rays [10].
Figure 3: ING-head office [9].
2.2.4 Governmental office Ceramique, Maastricht, Hubert-Jan Henket

architects
The separate blocks that make up the building are separated from each other by
four glass solar chimneys that give the building its unique appearance. Combined
with specially designed ceiling plenums, they provide natural ventilation in the
offices. Outside air is extracted via self-regulating louvres above the windows,
and enters the rooms under a specially designed ceiling element. As the sun heats
the glass chimneybreast, air is extracted upwards and out. The office floors have
a flexible layout. The atrium is part of the natural ventilation system [12].
Figure 4: Governmental office Ceramique [11].
2.2.5 GWL-terrain, Amsterdam, diverse architects

An environmentally friendly and car-free residential area has been realized on
the former site of the municipal drinking-water company (GWL) in Amsterdam.
Well-known Dutch architects as Meyer and Van Schooten, Kees Christiaansen,
Liesbeth v.d. Pol, Willem-Jan Neutelings and DKV demonstrated how care for
the environment could be integrated in high architectural quality. Topics were
energy and water efficiency, material- and waste reduction, nature and reuse of
the existing buildings.
Figure 5: GWL-terrain [13].
2.2.6 Villa Deys, Rhenen, Paul de Ruiter

The clients wanted a practical villa in which they could live until it was
impossible to live independently. They had a special wish to integrate the living
program with nature. Letting the roof and side façades be clothed with plants, it
looks like the three volumes were pushed out of the landscape. The lamella
façade modules are no simple barn façades but high-tech sunscreens. The water
of the swimming pool is connected to a low temperature heating system, which,
combined with a heating pump, makes the system energy saving. The roof of the
swimming pool is fitted with sky-lights which in combination with the reflecting
quality of water makes sure that in the middle of the building a lot of daylight
comes in [15].
Figure 6: Villa Deys [14].
2.3 Conclusion
The central question in this chapter is: Which architects may be opinion leaders
in the field of eco-architecture? It can be concluded that the answer is not simply
found in the architectural style of their work. Their personal characteristics are of
more importance. Members of the subculture cultural creatives are more likely to
become opinion leaders in this field than others. Their characteristics are a
longing for better health, lower consumption and more spirituality. They also
have more respect for the earth and the diversity of life than most people.
Architects who have given care for the environment priority in their work, so
called eco-architects, also have these characteristics but they represent only a
small group of architects. For that reason it’s not likely that they will be an
influential source of inspiration for a large group of architects who have not
taken environmental awareness seriously yet.
3 How can opinion leaders increase the ecological awareness

of architects?
Because of the fact that care for the environment is not the main factor in their
work, most well-known architects who have integrated environmental
innovations in their projects, do not want their work to be associated with green
terminology such as ‘eco-architecture’ or ‘sustainable building’. For them care
for the environment is only one of the aspects leading to the overall goal of
quality, together with comfort, aesthetics and cost-effectiveness for example.
Fear for being dragged into the ‘green camp’ explains the fact that in public
presentations the eco-aspect of their work is often neglected. As a result their
work is not as effective in increasing the ecological awareness of architects as it

could be.
To surmount this impasse the Royal Institute for Dutch architects (BNA)
devised a new strategy and a new name for sustainable building or
eco-architecture; vital architecture [16]. Similarly the Foundation for Smart
Architecture presented a new approach; smart architecture [17]. Both strategies
try to tackle the same problem. Will an analysis of their approaches lead to an
answer on the main question of this paper?
3.1 Vital architecture
Vital architecture is a strategy intended to inject new élan into thinking about
sustainable building, with recommendations on how to make this possible. Care
for the environment is regarded as an inherent architectural quality.
The recommendations call on architects, clients, consultants and government
to change the building process, to change design and to change the climate in
which buildings are produced. In the context of vital architecture, the
architecture must not only be environmentally sound, but resilient, dynamic and
flexible in its relation between form, function and construction, at all scales and
through time. Three slogans underline this aim:
Space in Time: The essence of sustainable building is thinking ahead
Meaning:
- Use the present building instead of building a new one
- Use a building temporarily
- Use a temporary building
- Give the building a user manual
Time in Space: The sustainably built environment adapts cleverly
Meaning:
- Ensure flexibility
- Make buildings oversized
- Make demountability possible at system and component level
- Promote prefabrication
Time and Space: Sustainable building – an interdisciplinary task
Meaning:
- Design using integrated methods
- Stimulate innovation
- Learn systematically
According to the BNA the compartmentalized legislation for sustainable
building takes insufficient account of other regulations and policy. The resulting
contradictions are frustrating so a new élan is required on the part of
government. The existing regulations should be reconsidered.
Regarding a new élan among architects the BNA states that architects must
develop a more acute feel for sustainability. They are presently good at
estimating the structural and physical properties of their designs, and this skill
gives them the insight they need to overstep conventional limits. In vital
architecture architects must similarly develop a sensitivity towards sustainability.
A vital design is more than the sum of its parts; it challenges the architect to
selectively integrate and compose all the elements while respecting the
constraints of a sustainable context. Starting right from their first design
assignments, student architects must strive to cultivate this extra dimension, in
which the design and the eventual built product transcends the function for
which it is intended. Architects must discover the stimulus inherent in the
integration of sustainability into architecture and urban planning. They must rise
to the challenge of seeking new concepts that not only work well now, but are
valid for the future because they are flexible, dynamic and resilient.
In their statement the BNA does not refer to the inspiring role of opinion
leaders and their possibilities to stimulate this kind of architecture. But it’s
certain that architects will sooner discover the stimulus inherent in the
integration of sustainability if architects they admire show the inspiration they
get out of solving environmental problems. Designing vital architecture and
propagating the inspiring challenge that goes with it can be an effective way for
opinion leaders to increase the ecological awareness of architects.
3.2 Smart architecture
The Foundation for Smart Architecture declares smart architecture as a reaction

against the pessimism that has marked ‘traditional’ ecological architecture ever
since its emergence in the 1960’s. It states: ‘The traditional ecological
architecture grew out of a doom-scenario of global disaster as a defensive,
conservative architecture with a deep distrust of technological innovation.’
Smart architecture is the opposite; an architecture that despite all the major
problems brought by human dealings with the environment is still optimistic.
Smart is always good and never pessimistic. Smart is airy and graceful and as a
concept it is broader than just sustainability or ecology. Smart architecture is an
architecture that takes up the ‘green challenge’ as the basis for innovation. Smart
architecture is environmentally aware, not just in terms of protecting the
environment but because energy and material efficiency is always smart. Smart
architecture is also interactive; a smart building presents itself as an interface
between its users and the surroundings. It mediates between the demands and
desires of users and environment. Smart architecture is efficient, it does more
with less. Smart architecture is always time based, it reacts in differing time
cycles to changing user exigencies, climatological conditions, changes of
function and social development. Smart architecture is ‘natural’, it speaks for
itself, learns from nature, uses it when necessary. Smart architecture sees
technology not as an enemy of nature but as a natural ally. Underneath the vision
of the Foundation of Smart Architecture lies the supposition that environmental
issues will radically change architecture.
Recent research [18] shows that taking up the ‘green challenge’ as the basis
for innovation is a good way to increase the ecological awareness of architects.
In that respect the work of the Foundation of Smart Architecture is very
promising. Furthermore, the basis for the work of the Foundation of Smart
Architecture is promoting the role of opinion leaders by describing inspiring
projects and thoughts. The website and book of the foundation are filled with
many ideas, projects and concepts, all intended as eye-openers and as sources of
inspiration.
3.3 Conclusions
Two new strategies try to overcome the impasse in eco-architecture in the

Netherlands and to increase the ecological awareness of architects. Both want to
improve the image by avoiding worn-out terminology as eco and sustainable and
trying to bring in new élan. The lack of ecological awareness and enthusiasm for
eco-architecture among architects has a lot to do with compartmentalized
frustrating legislation for sustainable building and the pessimism that marked
‘traditional’ ecological architecture. Opinion leaders cannot change the
legislation (a task for the government) but they can introduce an optimistic
approach. By declaring care for the environment as an inherent architectural
quality and taking the ‘green challenge’ as basis for innovation in their projects,
opinion leaders can stimulate other architects to integrate sustainability into
architecture. ‘Be smart’ should be the message instead of ‘be green’. And being
smart is: thinking ahead, building an environment that adapts cleverly and
working interdisciplinary. The keyword is quality, not ecology.
4 Conclusions/summary
How can opinion leaders increase the ecological awareness of architects? That
was the central question of this paper which is focussed on the Dutch situation.
But before we could determine how they can increase the ecological awareness
of architects, we had to find out which architects can be considered as opinion
leaders in this field. Do these architects have specific characteristics? Or do they
represent a specific style?
It is concluded that the answer on the second question is not simply found in
the architectural style of the work of opinion leaders who integrated
environmental innovations in their work. Their personal characteristics are of
more importance. Members of the subculture cultural creatives are more likely to
become opinion leaders in this field than others. Their characteristics are a
longing for better health, lower consumption and more spirituality. They also
have more respect for the earth and the diversity of life than most people.
Architects who have care for the environment given priority in their work, so
called eco-architects, also have these characteristics but they represent only a
small group of architects. For that reason it’s not likely that they will be an
influential source of inspiration for a large group of architects who have not
taken environmental awareness seriously yet.
How can opinion leaders increase the ecological awareness of architects? The
lack of ecological awareness and enthusiasm for eco-architecture among
architects has a lot to do with compartmentalized frustrating legislation for
sustainable building and the pessimism that marked ‘traditional’ ecological
architecture. Opinion leaders cannot change the legislation (a task for the
government) but they can introduce an optimistic approach. By declaring care for
the environment as an inherent architectural quality, avoiding worn-out

terminology as eco and sustainable and taking the ‘green challenge’ as basis for
innovation in their projects, opinion leaders can stimulate other architects to
integrate sustainability into architecture. ‘Be smart’ should be the message
instead of ‘be green’. And being smart is: thinking ahead, building an
environment that adapts cleverly and working interdisciplinary. The keyword is
quality, not ecology.
References
[1] Rogers, Everett M., Diffusion of innovations, The Free Press, pp. 27, 28,
281, 1995
[2] author of Van geitenwollen sokken naar design jeans, over duurzaamheid
en marketing, Kluwer, Amsterdam, 2004, interview by telephone, februari
8th, 2006
[3] Ray, Paul H. PhD, Sherry R. Anderson, The cultural creatives, How 50
million people are changing the world, Free River Press, 2000
[4] Marketresponse, www.marketresponse.nl
[5] Hal, A. van, Creativity and technology in the Netherlands, architecture,
NOST network, ministry of Economic Affaires, 2005
[6] Credits figure 1: Anke van Hal, Maartensdijk
[7] Cleef, C. van, Earth Science-Utrecht University Minnaert Building, the
Architectural Review, March 1999
[8] Credits figure 2: G.J. den Boon, Arnhem
[9] Credits figure 3: Joost Brouwers, Rotterdam
[10] http://www.floornature.com/worldaround/articolo.php/art78/3/en
[11] Credits figure 4: Climatic Design Consult, Nijmegen
[12] Hubert-Jan Henket architects, www.henket.nl
[13] Credits figure 5: Joost Brouwers, Rotterdam
[14] Credits figure 7: Anke van Hal, Maartensdijk
[15] www.dutcharchitects.com
[16] BNA, www.bna.nl
[17] Hinte, Ed van, Marc Neele, Jacques Vink, Piet Vollaard, Smart
architecture, 010-publishers, Rotterdam 2003,
www.smartarchitecture.org.
[18] Hal, A. van, Praktische Prikkels, Aanbevelingen ter vergroting van de
rentabiliteit van duurzaam bouwen, SenterNovem, januari 2006
In-between architecture and landscape,

from theory to practice
B. Ott
Department of Architecture,
State University of New York at Buffalo, USA
Abstract
As both a theoretical and a practical construct, the domain that is neither
architecture nor landscape, but of both, is a fertile ground for reflection. The
theoretical is addressed by referencing an article by Rosalind Krauss which
graphically relates sculpture, architecture and the landscape, including the
domains in which they merge. However, the focus here is on the practical: in
practice. The last forty years has seen an ideological shift born in the nascent
environmental movement of the 1960s. The urge to connect a building to its
context, to the landscape, to nature, has become common as we explore new
technologies and materials, and mindfully engage siting options in order to
produce more sustainable buildings. Presented and elaborated upon are three
strategies, with examples, by which to approach this impulse: the metaphysical
(by means of the analogy and metaphor), the spatial (as both relational and
referential), and the physical, which includes all things material and
technological. I conclude with a project in my practice which is driven by the
idea that a building can sit in-between architecture and landscape.
Keywords: architecture and landscape, environmental architecture, buildings
and nature.
1 Theoretically speaking
As a theoretical construct, the domain that is neither architecture nor landscape,
but of both, is a fertile ground for reflection. From Rosalind Krauss’ articles of
the mid-1970s to Virgil’s dictum that all architecture is an act of violence, we
have pondered the encounter of the built with its physical context. Every act of
intervention we make into the world is an interruption, an intrusion, in Virgil’s
doi:10.2495/ARC060051
sense, not an act of beneficence. Small wonder this relationship of opposites is

difficult to reconcile, except through a simple dialectic.
To elaborate on a particular work of Krauss: in her article, “Sculpture in the
Expanded Field,” Krauss pursues a “strategy for reducing anything foreign in
either time or space, to what we already know and are” [1] by conjuring a
theoretical framework for a set of relations between sculpture, architecture and
landscape. She employs an evolving geometric form in which sculpture,
architecture and landscape are related, in part by their negatives. In the ultimate
version, the inherent complexities in these relationships are filled out with
sculpture opposed to site construction, not-architecture to both landscape and
architecture, and not-landscape to both architecture and landscape. Her diagram,
fig. 1, reveals other relationships which, altogether, wrap the essential dichotomy
in a compelling abstract unity.
2 Practically speaking
It is always difficult to translate theory into practice, nowhere more so than when
trying to bridge the dichotomy between architecture and landscape. As a
practical construct, a building, along with the teaspoon, is the epitome of the
designed artifact: the antithesis of nature. Every bit of a building’s construction
is about control, about human ordering systems, systems to which the natural
world and its behaviors are totally indifferent. In current practice, the desire to
connect an artifact with its opposite is a relatively new obsession, spurred by an
ideological shift that was born in the nascent environmental movement of the
1960s. At this point in time, rare are the projects subscribing to the modernist
canon and its relative disregard for context and environmentally sensitive
orientation and material use. One of the primary tenants of the modern
movement was to employ the landscape – or any context for that matter – as
background to the artifact of desire. The last thirty-five years has seen a gradual
erasing of that canon, replacing it with the themes of this conference.
Figure 1: Krauss’ diagram.
The urge to connect a building, in some way, to the ecology in which it exists
has met with all manner of strategies, from the metaphysical to the spatial to the
physical. Following is a brief elaboration of these strategies, concluding with a
project in my practice which engages two of the strategies.
2.1 The metaphysical
In the metaphysical realm, the analogue and the metaphor have been in use since
the rising sun was equated with a new beginning and a mountain top construed
as access to the celestial theater. Analogically, the recent project by Foreign
Office Architects for the International Passenger Terminal located on the river’s
edge in Yokohama, Japan is analogous to a wave; while is not a wave, it is like a
wave, made of ten low-slung flowing ramps which at once enfold the outside and
weave over and under the main passenger ship terminal, fig. 2.
Figure 2: Yokohama Terminal. Figure 3: Growth House.
The building as metaphor – in which something actually acts as something

else – to me is both more interesting, and more difficult to accomplish, than the
increasingly literal and plastic analogous forms used to represent aspects of the
non-built environment. Charles Simmonds’ Growth House, a 1975 project
installed at Art Park in upstate New York, is a kitchen garden. Circular walls
constructed out of carefully sequenced burlap bags of seeds begin to sprout in the
rainy spring. First the crocuses emerge, then the spinach, herbs, peppers, and
tomatoes; on to fruit, squashes and so forth as the growing season ends and the
walls have literally been eaten by visitors to the park [2], fig. 3.
Also metaphoric is my selected entry to the ChiChi Earthquake Memorial
competition of 2003. The site is a park in the midst of the region just south of
Taipei, Taiwan, hardest hit by the earthquake of 1998. My team proposed the
construction of a fault crack dug into the earth as a memorial path through the
park. Its interior walls, left rough in excavation, are reinforced with foundations,
and anchored into the earthen walls with a steel space frame; an open metal mesh
is all that separates the visitor from the perpetrator; the design is a formal and
material reenactment of the event itself, figs. 4.
Figure 4: ChiChi Earthquake Memorial.
Figure 5: Choate House.
2.2 The spatial: relations and references
Of the strategies which attempt to connect buildings to aspects of nature, the

relational and referential are primarily context driven and spatial.
Buildings embedded into grade, stepping down a hillside, or perched on a
rock outcrop are formally defined by their direct, formal relation to the lay of the
land. By example is Roland Choate’s mid-1970s Monticito house located in the
dry coastal foothills of Southern California, fig. 5. This project replaces a house
destroyed in a wildfire. In its stead, Choate designed a structure all but
impervious to fire: it is submerged into the hillside, with exposed and carefully
detailed concrete retaining walls and floor; the uphill fragments of the building
are minimal and the furnishings present the barest of fire loads. Down the
hillside, directly in front of the glass enclosing wall, a swimming pool is
plumbed to be a fire fighting reservoir. The building is a fire-deflecting
instrument; the form and materiality of the house is generated by the form and
materiality of the fire. There is a direct relationship between house and fire.
Similar to buildings that relate directly to the land are those which refer to the
forms and forces of nature; buildings which define themselves not in terms of
these forms or forces, but as a reference to them. In early eighteenth century

India, Maharaja Sawai Jai Singh, a student of astronomy, concluded that at that
time, astronomy was limited to analysis through mathematical calculations and
couldn’t adequately observe the cosmos. After consulting authorities on
astronomy, especially those using direct observation, Singh set out to construct
two masonry observatories, one in the heart of Delhi in 1724 and the other in
Jaipur in 1728, fig. 6. These large scale architectural versions of astronomical
instruments are a particularly literal reference to the celestial theater. With intent to
improve the accuracy of celestial observations, these poetic constructions measure
the rotation of the sun; its movement is magnified as its shadow sweeps across
articulated hemispherical cavities. In addition, the positions of the stars are seen in
precise alignment from points within its deep bowl [3].
Figure 6: Solar Observatory at Jaipur.
Figure 7: Solar Ovens at Odello.
The Delhi and Jaipur observatories are indexes; they point to, refer to, celestial
dynamics. In a similar vein is another structure to mention which not only refers to
the sun, but uses it (an early form of a passive solar design). One of a few such
structures located in the French Pyrenees is the solar oven near Odelló, fig. 7.
This elegant and ingenious structure, by means of a mindfully placed field of
reflecting mirrors, reflects and focuses the sun’s energy ... in order to bake bread!
2.3 The physical
The strategy I have labeled physical includes both the material and technological,
and usually refers to sustainability in one way or another. By clever material and
formal choices or by simply employing the laws of physics, we can heat, cool,
moderate temperatures; create a breeze or buffer the wind. We can use the
dispersal of cached water as a resource or an aesthetic; likewise, the sod roof, the
heat sink, and the overhang. Examples abound as this strategy is gradually
enfolded into the common sense that underlies the practical act of design.
One such project rises to the surface: the Academy Mount Cenis built on a
former mine site at the center of the town of Sodingen in Germany’s Rhur
Valley, figs. 8, 9. The concept for this project is extraordinary in its simplicity. A
glass shell, outfitted with louvers, p.v. cells patterned for optimal heat capture
and shading, a loose stone floor as heat sink, and a system of water catchment
and reuse, create a year-round interior environment similar to Marseilles, on the
French Riviera, some 10˚ latitude south of the mine site. Inside, the educational
and public offices are housed in bar buildings which face each other to create a
warm weather street, complete with an ‘outdoor’ café. This building produces
much more energy than it consumes; it distributes the remainder to the town [4].
Figures 8, 9: Mt. Cenis Academy.
2.4 The project
I would like to elaborate on these strategies to link architecture with landscape

with a project I am working on for a small ceramic studio, currently under
construction in Ithaca, New York. The design of this building focused on two of
these strategic realms: the relational and the physical. The primary design
strategy was to slide the building into the land in such a way as to render the
building an element in the landscape from the entry side and as an artifact from
the other, making every possible decision in relation to the site’s physical
location and orientation, its specific topography, aspects of the celestial theater,
the available vista, and the color of the land.
Design priorities for the studio were to orient to a west-facing view over the
lake and to provide year-round passive heat control with no moving air to
disperse ceramic dust. These conditions resist each other: a western view, over a
lake, requires both solar and glare control. By rooting the studio 4’ into grade
with a bracketing set of 13” concrete block retaining and cavity walls, we
accomplish two things: the future patio is framed by what nominally appears to
be a garden wall, and below grade construction serves as a natural insulator and
heat sink. The west view wall is spanned in low-e glass and protected with
exterior solar shades. With a relatively low-slung ceiling and radiant floor heat
for the winter, and ventilation through operable windows and doors instead of
ceiling fans in the summer, moving air is kept to a minimum.
As well, the interior was to be hosed down on occasion. To ensure hose-
ability, there are no finishes inside this building other than sheets of exterior
grade plywood on frame walls. The sloped-to-drain, coil-heated slab has a
brushed finish for traction and is colored 40% grey for heat absorption, the
interior face of the block walls are polished, and the exposed wood roof decking
oiled.
To reuse water runoff, roof gutters sloped to scuppers at three locations
distribute water into the landscape. In terms of solar energy recapturing, future
solar panels or cells would be outfitted onto the south facing roof. The roof
actually bears 7˚ to the west of south; with a roof slope of 21˚, at 42˚ N. Latitude,
the setup is almost optimal in regards to the sun and its potential.
Figures 10, 11, 12: Ceramic studio.
3 Conclusion
By paying attention to the vast sets of possibilities which allow the human arts of
design and building to garner significance from the natural world, theory and
practice take on new meaning. Ecologically engaging architecture is practical,
can be poetic, and provides endless opportunities to dance around in Krauss’
diagram.
References
[1] Krauss, R., Sculpture in the expanded field. The Anti- Aesthetic: Essays on
Postmodern Culture, ed. H. Foster, Bay Press: Port Townsend, WA,
pp 31-42, 1985.
[2] Lippard, L., Overlay: Contemporary Art and the Art of Prehistory, Pantheon
Books: New York, 1983.
[3] Perlus, B., Jantar Mantar. Parabola, XV, 1, pp. 65-73, 1990.
[4] Stadt Herne, Entwicklungsgesellschaft Mont-Cenis, Druckerei Frisch
GmbH: Herne, Germany, 1998.
Ecological, modular and affordable housing

J. Quale
University of Virginia School of Architecture, USA
Abstract
Modular and panelized construction techniques have the potential of
significantly reducing environmental impact – although much of that potential is
unrealized among prefab homebuilders in the United States today. The ecoMOD
project at the University of Virginia School of Architecture is intended to create
a series of ecological, modular and affordable house prototypes. The goal is to
demonstrate the environmental potential of prefabrication, and to challenge the
modular and manufactured housing industry in the U.S. to explore this potential.
In the context of this research and design/build project, an interdisciplinary
group of architecture, engineering, landscape architecture, business,
environmental science, planning and economics students are participating in the
design, construction and evaluation phases of the project. The project is
imbedded in the curriculum of the university.
Working with non-profit affordable housing organizations, the built homes
will be sold to low-income families with subsidies for down payments and
financing. The first completed house is currently being evaluated as part of a
process to determine the environmental impact of the homes during their life
cycle; perceptions of the homes by the owners and neighbors; the energy
efficiency of the design and equipment; the feasibility of their transfer to the
modular housing industry; the life cycle costs; and the financial viability of
taking the prototypes into production. The results of the evaluations will
influence later designs, and the evaluation methods and recommendations will be
made publicly available. The project is mostly funded, and will continue
through to 2010 at a minimum.
Keywords: prefabricated construction, modular housing, panelized
construction, environmental impact, affordable housing, student design / build,
post occupancy evaluation, life cycle assessment, energy efficient buildings,
structural insulated panels.
doi:10.2495/ARC060061
1 Introduction
Centralized within a climate-controlled facility, prefabricated residential
construction offers material and transportation efficiencies, as well as
opportunities for stricter quality control. Although several U.S. companies have
developed EnergyStar-rated models (a program organized by the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency to encourage energy efficiency), and some sell
quality homes superior to conventional stick-built construction, few are seriously
looking at the environmental impact of their methods or materials.
From a design viewpoint, despite the popularity of modern prefab homes in
Dwell Magazine and other mainstream media outlets, very few manufacturers
offer quality contemporary design. The vast majority offer standardized designs
with open interiors, and exterior skins composed of elements borrowed from late
19th and early 20th century home styles.
Among the most surprising trends in prefab housing is the growth in the
upper end of the market. Whereas the public perception is that prefabricated
homes are an inferior product and only appropriate for the least affluent,
increasingly upscale builders are recognizing the financial and logistical
advantages of centralized fabrication [1]. Although they seldom emphasize the
prefab nature of the construction, major U.S. homebuilders such as the Pulte and
Toll Brothers are transitioning from site built to pre-built for their middle and
upper-middle market rate houses [2]. Pejoratively referred to as
“MacMansions,” the percentage of these that are fully prefabricated homes is
still small. Yet major homebuilders clearly recognize the future is in prefab,
which can typically offer a more predictable product, with more control over
quality, schedule and price. Pulte recently built a panelized prefab plant in
Northern Virginia, called “Pulte Home Science” (PHS) where they fabricate
structural insulated wall panels, roof trusses and precast foundation systems.
They are able to ‘dry-in’ a home is a fraction of the time it takes them to build
one on site, and their PHS homes now account for roughly 20% of their single
family home market [3].
Yet the benefits of these investments are not trickling down to the lower end
of the market. Manufactured housing, the technical term for transportable
trailers built to the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD)
building code, is still the least expensive way of getting into the new housing
market. While the HUD code has gotten more restrictive in recent years – with
tighter guidelines for insulation and the attachment of the trailers to
foundations – the fact remains that manufactured houses are still inferior
products. They are difficult to finance, built with the cheapest possible
materials, and like an automobile, tend to depreciate in value. In contrast with
HUD code homes, prefabricated homes that use modular, panelized or
component prefab elements are built to code of the local jurisdiction. While this
requires manufacturers to devise creative ways to track the correct code
requirements for a given home going down their assembly line, many states and
municipalities in the U.S. have recently or are about to adopt the International
Residential Code. Unlike HUD code houses, these homes are considered
permanent construction, and do not face financing problems, and therefore tend
to appreciate in value in the same way as a site built house.
The general public is not sophisticated enough to recognize the difference
between manufactured homes and better quality modular or panelized prefab
homes. So its not surprising the Pulte doesn’t market their prefab homes any
differently than their stick built. In fact, Pulte is literally replicating the same
models in their PHS facility that they build on site. It is likely that most of the
owners of those models don’t know about the prefab nature of the construction.
The availability of affordable housing in the U.S. is a growing problem. As
construction costs increase and home values continue to grow, the challenge of
buying a home in many markets is becoming insurmountable for many. House
values have increased 20% in just the last two years, while incomes for middle
and lower class Americans have remained flat [4]. A family that chooses to buy
a manufactured house is typically restricted to placing that house on a suburban
site, where land is cheaper. In addition, manufactured houses are designed for
the width and orientation of suburban lots, fig. 1. No major manufactured home
company offers models designed for urban lots with the entry side facing the
street. In addition, the typical single-wide module for these homes measures
12’-0” to 14’-0” wide by 48’-0” long – a size nearly impossible to transport into
most tight urban areas. By default, families in the affordable housing market are
being pushed to the periphery, where they have to take on the added financial
burden of driving everywhere.
Figure 1: Standard modular house Figure 2: Entry deck of

in urban setting; note ecoMOD1 house under
entrance on right. construction.
2 Goals of project
It is in this context that the ecoMOD project was developed. ecoMOD is a
collaborative research and design / build project at the University of Virginia
School of Architecture focused on creating well designed and well-built homes
that cost less to live in, minimize damage to the environment, and appreciate in
value. The goal of ecoMOD is to create a series of proto-typical ecological and
modular houses for low-income families in central Virginia. Over the next
several years, UVA architecture, engineering, landscape architecture, business,

environmental science, planning and economics students and faculty will provide
a minimum of four prefabricated houses. Through partnerships with Piedmont
Housing Alliance (PHA) of Charlottesville, Virginia and Habitat for Humanity
of Greater Charlottesville (HFHGC), the homes will be placed in established
communities. PHA will sell three of the homes to low-income families in the
Piedmont region with down payment and financing assistance.
The first PHA house, called the OUTin house, fig. 2, was designed,
prefabricated off-site, and sited in the Fifeville neighborhood of Charlottesville
on 7 1/2 Street. It is being sold as a two-unit condominium (basement unit sold
separately from the upper two floors), and includes a rainwater collection system
that delivers potable water, an extremely energy efficient construction system, a
solar hot water collector, and landscape of native, drought tolerant plants.
ecoMOD2 – known as the preHAB house – is a panelized design that will
house a family displaced by Hurricane Katrina. Constructed in partnership with
HFHGC and the HFH affiliate in Jackson County, Mississippi, the design is
intended to demonstrate the potential of prefab for Habitat affiliates. HFH is
already pursuing panelized construction with their “Operation Home Delivery”
project focused on delivering wall panels from around the country to be set up in
the hurricane devastated Gulf Coast region. The goal with the preHAB house is
to take this one step further, by designing a home that can be pre-fabricated in
various ways – panels, room-sized modules, and/or smaller components.
Typically, HFH affiliates use conventional wood framing or ‘stick-built’
strategies with a large, often inexperienced volunteer work force. The future
homeowners are usually required to put some ‘sweat equity’ into their home, and
while they purchase the home, the price is significantly lower than the cost of the
home.
With ecoMOD2, we imagine future disaster relief efforts where HFH
affiliates from around the U.S. could use their volunteers to build house panels
or modules or components without taking too much time or money away from
their own local building efforts. The perception among Habitat officials is that
prefab construction conflicts with HFH’s volunteer labor strategies. These
officials see the value in the dramatic scene of a crowd of volunteers hammering
conventional walls together to energize the community and maximize
fundraising opportunities. Yet with a carefully designed prefab house system,
HFH affiliates from across the country could also contribute to a larger effort.
By offering choices for the scale of their involvement, the preHAB house
strategy could include smaller affiliates without the resources to ship a complete
home to a disaster area.
The shipping distance is another factor to consider with prefabricated
components. In the context of Hurricane Katrina, HFH affiliates in the states
adjoining Mississippi and Louisiana could contribute modules. HFH affiliates
within 500 miles could produce wall and roof panels, and others could ship
smaller and simpler components. This idea can be likened to the way thousands
of Americans prepared first-aid dressings in their homes for injured soldiers
during World War I. With more than 200,000 homes destroyed by hurricanes in
2005, the Gulf Coast is in the early stages of a long rebuilding effort.
This first preHAB house will be sited on an empty lot in a 1960’s affordable
housing subdivision in the city of Gautier, Mississippi.
Design will begin in Fall 2006 on ecoMOD3 for a low-income family in the
Charlottesville area. Partnering again with PHA, two project options are being
considered. One possibility is to rehabilitate and add a modular unit to a tiny
historic home, believed to have been built in the 1880’s by a freed slave in
Charlottesville. The modest house is in a serious state of disrepair, and was
slated for demolition. Historic preservation students would participate in the
design phase, along with architecture, engineering and landscape architecture
students. The other option is to produce a small multi-unit elderly housing
complex. In this scenario, the shell of the units – the modules – would be
prefabricated by a modular manufacturer, with the students providing the design,
and building the smaller scale modules and components.
Each completed house is to be monitored and evaluated carefully, with the
results guiding the designs of subsequent houses. The evaluation process occurs
in two overlapping courses with additional participation from students and
faculty from non-design disciplines such as business, environmental science,
economics and planning.
3 Design phase
The design process for the ecoMOD homes is structured to maximize the
educational possibilities of the project. The project is imbedded in the
curriculum of the University, and the coursework has been recognized by
professional organizations and major media outlets for its’ innovative
pedagogy [5]. A series of mixed graduate and undergraduate design studios in
the School of Architecture, combined with independent study and thesis students
from the University’s School of Engineering and Applied Science, form the core
of the design process. The two-year cycle includes an academic year for design,
followed by a summer of construction, and an academic year of evaluation.
The studios are collaborative and interdisciplinary, and they include
architecture, landscape architecture, and potentially historic preservation
students. The engineers meet regularly with the rest of the team, but also have
their own coursework.
The first design studio for ecoMOD1 began with student presentations on
relevant prefab and ecological case studies, and design studies that address
specific activities within the home. The team collaborated in small groups, and
the groups were regularly shuffled in order to minimize the potential of isolated
subgroups. Landscape architecture students worked along side architecture
students, and were often participating in the same assignments. The University
of Virginia architecture and landscape architecture programs were combined into
a single department in 2004, and a significant percentage of graduate students
participate in dual degree programs between two of the four disciplines in the
school – architecture, landscape architecture, urban and environmental planning,
and architectural history.
Participants in the first studio were paired with planning students for an
analysis project on the neighborhood for the first house – Fifeville, a
traditionally African-American neighborhood. A neighborhood development

workshop taught by a planning professor offered the context for this
collaboration. Although the students welcomed the possibility of
interdisciplinary work, the results of analysis did not live up to the faculty’s
expectations. Analysis of urban context takes on very different forms in the two
disciplines, and the students found it difficult to collaborate within their
interdisciplinary sub-groups. The students probably required a clearer
introduction into the values supporting their discipline’s distinct worldviews, to
create a more open-minded environment. The Project Director will do the
assignment again, but with more clearly defined introductions.
However, one of the most positive aspects of the early collaboration with the
planning students was the ensuing discussion about the broader agenda for the
project. Planning students were asked to frame a set of guidelines for decision-
making during the design process. Most participants were surprised that the lists
prepared by the planning students overlapped with the collaborative list
developed by the architecture and landscape architecture students. However, one
planning student subgroup posited that the design ought to replicate the existing
architectural language of the neighborhood. A heated discussion on this topic
helped all parties better understand and articulate their positions. It also led to a
self-imposed commitment by the designers to present their design ideas to
members of the Fifeville Neighborhood Association (FNA). Intended as a way
to receive feedback about their preliminary design ideas, the meetings with FNA
became an essential part of the design process. The students thought some of
their design ideas might not align with the opinions of the FNA membership, but
they found they were not so far apart. The participants in the feedback sessions
(four sessions over a period of six months) never questioned the contemporary
nature of the designs, and mostly responded to functional issues. The most
heated discussion in the FNA meetings related to the appropriate location for the
kitchen – nearest the street or nearest the backyard. Eventually the designers
found an effective middle ground, with the kitchen in the middle and a clear line
of sight to both the street and the backyard.
The students also interacted regularly with professional members of the local
community – from building department officials to local contractors and
consultants.
A team of student managers working with the faculty Project Director
collectively made important design decisions. Decisions that required a
comparison of multiple possibilities were often documented with a six pointed
decision web – a concept adapted from the professional world. The web
required the team to remember that decisions are a careful balancing of aesthetic,
technical, financial, social and ecological issues – with the sixth point being an
overall score. In concept, the webs were meant to facilitate the decision process,
but in reality, the webs more mostly treated as a documentation of a decision.
The students were not enthusiastic about the decision webs at the time, but now
appreciate the graphic representations of their collective thinking.
During the break between the two design studios, the client decided to
change the site, forcing the team to respond to a complex challenge. The
students set about redesigning the house for the new narrower lot. The change
significantly delayed the development of the design, but forced the team to
address the adaptability of the design to various sites. The challenge was
repeated again two weeks before the end of the spring semester, as the team was
headed into the construction phase. A series of events led to another site change
– still in the Fifeville neighborhood – but a site with a different solar orientation,
topography and urban context. Once again, the design had to change, and the
schedule was delayed. As with the first site change, the design team responded
by exploring the ways the design could be more easily sited on various
topographies, and in various microclimates.
4 Build phase
The start of the construction process for ecoMOD1 was delayed by nearly two
months. The students fabricated eight small modules for the two-story house in
a decommissioned airport hangar owned by the university, and transported them
to the infill site, fig. 3. Unlike conventional modular houses, the students
designed their modules to fit the proportion of urban infill sites, and to be easily
transported along narrow streets. The modules were less than half the size of a
typical module, allowing for the use of a less expensive crane, and the possibility
of moving the modules to the narrowest streets with the tightest turning radiuses.
The majority of the design studio students elected to stay in town after their
graduation, and participate in the construction process, fig. 4. Most of them had
little or no building experience. The team worked through all the logistics
themselves, including coordination between various building trades, material
procurement, and transportation. They also built the entire of the house, with the
exception of the basement / foundation, and the final installation of the
plumbing, electrical and mechanical infrastructure. Students worked with
professionals for each of these scopes of work, but could not be held responsible
for the permitting process.
Figure 3: Second of eight Figure 4: Construction team

modules lowered on preparing insulated
basement / foundation. roof joist.
Visits to a few modular house fabrication facilities confirmed that the

required tool and equipment where within our budget. The funding for the tools,
and a significant percentage of the summer student fellowship money was

provided by a local non-profit funding organization. The remainder of the
funding was raised the Project Director via grants and donations. The students
devised strategies to work around the more sophisticated equipment that was
beyond our reach financially. For example, one company uses pneumatic
devices to allow the modules to ‘hover’ as they move along the assembly line.
The students built the eight modules in a single line in the hangar, and only
moved them when it was time to transport them at the end. For this, they
designed and fabricated a set of ‘house skates’ using left over framing material
on wheels to roll the modules over a trailer, where they were lowered on to the
bed. Conventional jacks were used to lift the house, and three or four people
easily pushed the modules while on the “skates.”
5 Evaluation phase
Each completed house is to be monitored and evaluated carefully, with the
results guiding the designs of subsequent houses. The evaluation process occurs
in two overlapping courses with participation from students and faculty from
architecture, engineering, commerce, business, environmental science, landscape
architecture and planning. As of this writing, the evaluation is appropriately
50% complete, with a more thorough analysis available in late spring 2006.
The ecoMOD1 evaluation team of students is looking carefully at the choices
made by the design / build team. This includes the following: 1) monitoring the
energy efficiency and water use of the house, contrasting the data with
simulations and comparable homes 2) thorough life-cycle assessments of the
materials and construction process 3) a post-occupancy evaluation with the
eventual homeowners, including questions about thermal and lighting comfort,
as well as evaluation of the design hypotheses set out in the design phase 4) an
affordability analysis comparing the cost of both the prototype and the eventual
production model to other available modular homes 5) a cost/benefit analysis
and investigation of the design’s suitability for production with a major
manufacturer, and 6) a summing up of the key recommendations, including a
prioritized list of issues for the next design / build team to consider.
Preliminary conclusions indicate the following: 1) while the potable rainwater
collection system will save the homeowners money and reduce the home’s
environmental impact, the cost of the filtration equipment negates the efficacy of
recommending it for city locations where the municipal water supply is
relatively inexpensive 2) stricter guidelines need to be established to make sure
the emphasis on building material efficiency at the hangar during the off-site
construction process is not lost during the final phase on site, where a dumpster
was available 3) while the design adequately addresses shading from the summer
sun, it does not appear to sufficiently address the potential positive contribution
of solar heat gain during the winter months 4) the material life cycle assessments
so far support the design decisions, but additional research is required into a
comparison of the cementitious lap siding (as selected for ecoMOD1) versus the
more conventional choice of vinyl siding; as well as corrugated galvalume
roofing versus a membrane or asphalt shingle roof 5) the centralized air handler
and ductwork – located in the middle of the conditioned space appears to
contribute to the energy efficiency of the mechanical system 6) the combined
effect of the energy efficient wall and roof system (structural insulated panels),
the equipment and the passive design strategies seem to indicate a minimum of a
40% reduction in energy costs for the homeowners and 7) the preliminary
financial analysis indicates that if the ecoMOD project were a for-profit business
venture, it would be able to successfully find its niche in the largely unserved
market for ecological, prefabricated and affordable housing.
One other significant consideration is PHA’s policy to always sell homes at
their appraised value, as a part of their commitment to build wealth in the
community. This means they need to raise funds to subsidize the down
payments and financing on the homes, to make them available to families
between 40 and 80% of the area median income (PHA’s target market). HFH
and other organizations tend to ignore the appraised value, and sell the home for
as little as they can bear.
This policy contributes to the growing recognition at PHA that single-family
affordable homes are no longer a viable option in the Charlottesville area. With
house prices and construction costs skyrocketing in the last four years, PHA is
increasingly looking to single-family home renovation, and multi-family
complexes. The ecoMOD1 house appraised $40,000 higher than comparable
homes built by PHA, despite the fact that the costs per square foot were the same
or lower than these homes. Therefore measures need to be established to
minimize the appraised value of the house – at least at the time of the initial
appraisal. The appraiser indicated that a significant percentage of that additional
appraised value was related to the generous exterior decks.
The architectural and financial evaluation will be complete in May of 2006,
and the building monitoring and performance evaluation will be complete one
year after the homeowner(s) moves into the space(s).
6 Conclusions
The copyright registration process has begun for the design of ecoMOD1,
including four adaptations to various solar orientations and topographies. At a
minimum, the design drawings for ecoMOD1 and ecoMOD2 will be available
for purchase by the summer 2006. The designs will be marketed to affordable
housing organizations throughout the mid-Atlantic region, and the ecoMOD
team will soon thereafter begin the process of speaking with modular builders
about taking some of the designs into production.
The most significant impact of this project has yet to be evaluated –
specifically the degree to which this form of reality-based service learning
contributes positively to the professional lives of the students. The results of that
evaluation will reveal themselves over the course of many years. As of this
writing, one former student is on her way to Sri Lanka to participate in the post-
Tsunami rebuilding effort as a United Nations employee, and another is
designing affordable housing for a large corporate architecture firm.
For further information, the ecoMOD website is www.ecomod.virginia.edu.
References
[1] Traynor, T., AB Exclusive State of the Industry Report for 2005: Total
Housing Up 7% to 2.88 Million Units. Automated Builder, pp. 8-9,
January 2006.
[2] Kelley, S. P., personal communication, April 2005, Project Engineer,
Pulte Home Science.
[3] Holtzman, J., Assembly Required: Builders push the productivity
envelope with greater attention to sub-assembly techniques. Big Builder
Magazine, November 2004, www.bigbuilderonline.com/Industry-news;
and similar figures from personal communication in reference [2] above.
[4] Paycheck to Paycheck: Wages and the Cost of Housing in America; study
published by the National Housing Conference, August 2005,
www.nhc.org/chp/p2p/.
[5] Taylor, E., AIA Recognizes Ecoliteracy in Architecture Schools,
Environmental Building News, July 2005; Global Challenges, CNN
International, segment on ecoMOD broadcast several times in November
and December 2005; Cox, S., Design, Build, and Repeat, Architectural
Record, page 54, November, 2005.
Flexi-Living: adaptable property,

adaptable housing, transforming lives
I. MacBurnie
Department of Architectural Science, Ryerson University, Canada
Abstract
Founded on the interrelated principles of flexibility and choice, Flexi-Living
presents an innovative approach towards more affordable and sustainable
residential design and development. It is a middle ground solution combining the
best of urban and suburban design and development, adapted to an industrialized
building process featuring prefabrication, green architecture, and the latest
technology in concrete, steel, and glass. Flexi-Living comprises a pioneering
environment in which change is embraced rather than eschewed, in which mass
production is celebrated rather than masked, and in which homeowners are
empowered rather than forced to comply with a set of rigid and unalterable
norms and standards. It proposes a range of property types, from small lot to
large lot, from narrow and deep to wide and shallow. It envisages both
neighbourhoods which are transformable rather than fixed for all time, and
districts in which a plot of land may be subdivided and sold for profit. It features
a range of housing types, from single-family detached homes to loft-like walk-up
condominium apartments. It proposes dwellings that are adaptable rather than
inflexible, such that, according to a homeowner’s particular desires, a house may
be expanded or reduced in size. Flexi-Living is intended for Greenfield sites
situated on the edge of major North American cities. However, it is equally
applicable to Greyfield and Brownfield redevelopment.
Keywords: housing, affordability, sustainability, flexibility, choice, live-work,
property, change, empowerment, urbanism.
1 Contemporary (sub)urbanism
The three suburban communities sharing the Levittown moniker may never have
been esteemed by the architectural, landscape, or planning avant-garde, but they
doi:10.2495/ARC060071
proved to be both enormously popular with middle class consumers, and highly
influential for subdivision developers. Premised on the mass production and
consumption of inexpensive starter homes (exemplified by the slab-on-grade,
one and one-half storey bungalow that could be easily expanded horizontally or
vertically), the Levittown concept manifested a certain logic in the land-use
segregated, baby-boom era that it came to personify. Within a few decades,
however, the rapidly rising cost of land, labour, materials, and infrastructure on
the edge of major metropolitan areas, coupled with the emergence of a more
diverse and fragmented marketplace, conspired to render this one-size-fits-all
approach to subdivision development obsolete. In its place, the suburban real
estate industry substituted a range of niche-market products, each geared to a
specific class segment and comprising a distinct, physically and socially
segregated neighbourhood, highlighted by large, single-family detached homes
for the more affluent, smaller, “zero-lot line” houses (meaning that the house is
set-back from the property line on three sides, while straddling the property line
on the fourth) for those somewhat less well off, and townhomes, condominiums,
and walk-up apartments for the rest. While on the one hand the contemporary
marketplace offers consumers a wider choice of housing, on the other hand it ties
consumers’ hands. In the contemporary marketplace, the individual dwelling has
in the main become inflexible, prevented from changing either because of zoning
(houses invariably occupy the maximum coverage), or because of private
restrictions originated by the developer and included in the property deed.
This is especially the case in the United States, where the tract-house
approach to subdivision development on the edge of major metropolitan areas
was, long ago, usurped by the Planned Unit or Common Interest development. In
these communities, a once public territory is replaced by a private, at somewhat
higher density, one that is distinguished by a comprehensive set of restrictive
covenants and highlighted by collective amenities, such as a golf course, an
environment in which continuity is valued and change is shunned. In Canada,
where in similar locales the single-family house still predominates, the trend has
been toward the provision of ever smaller and narrower lots. In the absence of
rear lanes, where vehicles can be stored, the front lawn and tree-lined street that
are imbedded in the image of suburbia have given way to a concrete and asphalt
landscape dominated by automobiles, driveways, and garage doors. For at least
several decades, these environments have been lightning rods for a multitude of
critics, especially those who decry sprawl. In the vanguard of the assault and in
the propagation of alternative models of development has been the New
Urbanism.
2 New urbanism
Cornell, Ontario represents the latest wave in suburban residential design and
development in Canada. Located in the Greater Toronto Area (GTA) suburb of
Markham, the project was master-planned by the Florida-based architectural and
planning practice headed by Andres Duany and Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk,
according to principles of the New Urbanism. The development features a street-
and-lane pattern of road infrastructure (the Levittown model dispensed with the
lane), a “town centre,” several parks, and several thousand dwelling units, for the
most part consisting of single-family, detached houses. Conceived for the mid-
range segment of the middle class marketplace, the residential density achieved
in Cornell is perhaps fifty percent higher than in conventional, detached-home
subdivisions in the GTA. The typical width of a Cornell lot is somewhat
narrower than in a conventional neighbourhood. Most dwellings employ a
zero-lot line configuration, and setbacks are significantly reduced. The vast
majority of dwellings are single-family detached, two- and three-stories in
height. Individual properties feature the house and a detached garage, which is
situated to the rear of the lot and accessed directly from the back lane. With all
garages located to the rear, Cornell features a streetscape free of driveways. A
small number of apartments are provided in the development, the bulk located
above stores in the mixed-use buildings that comprise the subdivision’s centre,
with the occasional apartment built above garages situated on the subdivision’s
alleys.
Cornell asserts that its design goes a long way towards achieving affordability
and sustainability. In the main, these are said to be advanced by the “compact”
master plan, resulting in increased residential density and decreased
infrastructure per capita, by the embrace of a broader and more diverse
population, reflected in the provision of a range of housing types, and by the
provision of live-work opportunities. Though the argument is seductive, it is,
unfortunately, specious.
Consider the matter of affordability. While in the shorter term a smaller lot
may be less expensive to purchase in a high land-cost area like the GTA
(although the experience of other New Urbanism projects suggests otherwise, as
New Urbanism generally results in higher property values, sometimes much
higher, than conventional development), in the longer term affordability is
contingent on other factors, such as the ability to adapt to changing
circumstances. For instance, what happens to the notion of affordability when a
homeowner is elderly and living on a fixed income, when he or she becomes
unemployed, or when interest rates begin to rise? Affordability in part means the
ability to capitalize on an investment, and a lot and house are a homeowner’s
greatest assets. While a lot and house can be sold in Cornell, lots and houses
cannot be capitalized. Why is that the case? Because Cornell lot types and
dwelling types, like those of conventional subdivision development, are
inflexible, fixed for all time, as if time stood still. Affordability would be
enhanced by a homeowner being able to capitalize on their asset through the sale
of part of their real property: their land, house, or both. Unlike pre-Levittown
subdivision development throughout North America, to which New Urbanism
designers are said to have given more than a passing glance, Cornell lots cannot
be subdivided and sold. And, unlike the manner by which urbanism unfolded in
older neighbourhoods throughout North America, to which New Urbanism
designers are said to have paid particular attention, Cornell houses cannot be
converted to duplexes or other types of accommodation. In Cornell, only a
handful of dwellings have apartment accommodation located above their
garages, and there are no separately-accessed basement apartments, as is the case

throughout the GTA. McGill University researchers have demonstrated that,
after land, the most expensive aspect of housing is finishes. Cornell, however,
does not offer homeowners the choice between a fully outfitted interior and a
shell to be completed through sweat-equity, over time. No effort has been made
to reduce the cost of finishes, in part because finishes is one of the most
profitable aspects of housing development.
Consider the matter of sustainability. Like so many New Urbanism projects,
Cornell occupies a distant Greenfield site whose eco-system was shattered;
lacking was a remediation strategy. Cornell advertises itself as a live-work
community, but this is achieved by sleight of hand: the work part of the equation
is accommodated in a widened hallway or converted bedroom. For most,
however, the reality is that they still must commute elsewhere to work, not to
mention to shop. Like so many New Urbanism projects, Cornell employs a
hierarchical, street-and-lane pattern of road infrastructure, the street component
comprising an aesthetic space, the lane component a functional space. As most
activities are auto-oriented, the car-clogged rear lane is Cornell’s principal civic
space, providing back-door entry to the home. Largely a symbolic space, the
street is effectively a little-used stage-set. Like so many New Urbanism projects,
Cornell housing does not employ energy-saving technologies such as green
roofs, photovoltaic cells, bio-filtration systems, or pre-fabricated, recycled, and
non-toxic building materials. Accordingly, energy consumption and emissions
are about the same as elsewhere. Like so many New Urbanism projects, Cornell
offers an exceptionally limited range (two) of housing types: there are no starter
homes and no single-floor homes for the elderly; the vast majority of apartments
are clustered in a single complex that comprises the town centre. Cornell
dwellings can neither be expanded nor reduced in size: residents are expected to
move into a different type of accommodation when circumstances warrant. And,
like so many New Urbanism projects, Cornell cannot be intensified over time,
unlike the manner by which urbanism has unfolded throughout history in older,
inner-city neighbourhoods in North America.
At the end of the day, Cornell, like so many New Urbanism projects, is a
cleverly packaged real estate development that accomplishes little in terms of
affordability or sustainability. It may be the best the marketplace offers, but it
leaves much to be desired.
3 Flexible urbanism
Outlined below in black, the Mixed-Density Pocket is the cornerstone of a more

affordable and sustainable suburban development paradigm known as the
Metropolitan Purlieu. Elaborated by this author for Canada Mortgage and
Housing Corporation’s Centre for Future Studies, the Purlieu was conceived
through a collaborative, workshop process (involving architects, planners,
academics, suburban real estate developers, municipal officials, housing experts,
and representatives from homeowner associations) both as an alternative to the
low density, land-use segregated model of residential development which
predominates on the periphery, and as an alternative to the New Urbanism. The

Purlieu comprised a compact, transit-oriented, “green” community of
considerably higher density in which mixed-density pockets – consisting of a
range of adaptable lot and housing types – were enveloped by rings of
increasingly dense and mixed-use structures culminating in mid-rise perimeter-
block and point-block towers fronting major thoroughfares. Programmatically,
the Purlieu encompassed rather than rejected all categories of development
currently located on the periphery – from light industry to Big Box stores –
re-conceptualizing and re-formulating these in the process.
Figure 1: The Metropolitan Purlieu.
4 Flexi-Living
The mixed-density pocket is unique in that it alone, among alternative

development models for suburbia, embraces change rather than rejects it. Change
is the very essence of human existence, yet in the environment where most will
live, change is precluded, whether that be in a conventional development, or one
designed according to the principles of the New Urbanism. Suburban
development models are so commodified that they are conceived for an ideal
condition rather than a human condition. Consider a commonplace example. In
most conventional and New Urbanism developments, a homeowner not only is
unable to alter his or her home’s appearance by enlarging a window, but is
unable to change even the colour of the front door. Consider a more significant
example. Residential lots and housing types are so limited in type and restrictive
in scope that not only is it unfeasible to expand a dwelling – for instance, to
accommodate a larger kitchen or house a member of an extended family – but
there is no room for amenities such as a backyard swimming pool, one of the
very icons of the Good Life. In most conventional and New Urbanism projects,
individual desires have been subordinated to both a notion of the common good,
as advanced either by a homeowners’ association or a real estate developer. As
one’s lifecycle unfolds, it becomes necessary to relocate from one dwelling,
neighbourhood, and subdivision to another, and then again, until one retires on a
fixed income and then goes through the process yet again.
Figure 2: The Flexi–Living formula.
The mixed-density pocket was conceived and formulated to embrace change.

It comprises an environment in which change has been built-in from the outset,
and imbedded in the zoning and private property deeds, a circumstance that
neatly sidesteps one of the many impediments to change in the built
environment, that of NIMBYism. The pocket is a place where one can live,
work, and grow old and retire, without ever having to move. Moreover, it is a
place where one’s property and home is a manifestation of one’s desires and
stage in life rather than a representation of the highly edited and packaged vision
of a real estate brochure. Flexi-Living in the mixed-density pocket responds to

the ambitions of real individuals living in the real world. As revealed in the
following images, it is a middle ground solution combining the best of urban and
suburban design and development, adapted to an industrialized building process
featuring prefabrication, green architecture, and the latest technology in concrete,
steel, and glass. It comprises a pioneering environment in which mass production
is celebrated rather than masked, and in which homeowners are empowered
rather than forced to comply with a set of rigid and unalterable norms and
standards. Flexi-Living proposes a range of property types, from small lot to
large lot, from narrow and deep to wide and shallow. It envisages both
neighbourhoods which are transformable rather than fixed for all time, and
districts in which a plot of land may be subdivided and sold for profit. It features
a range of housing types, from single-family detached homes to loft-like walk-up
condominium apartments. It proposes dwellings that are adaptable rather than
inflexible, such that, according to a homeowner’s particular desires, a house may
be expanded or reduced in size.
5 C-Type: the convertible house
This 250 square meter, loft-like, live-work, detached dwelling situated on a wide
and shallow lot accommodates a dedicated office and separately-accessed,
above-ground, in-house apartment. Lot and house have the built-in potential of
subdivision: the lot can be readily severed and the dwelling easily modified to
generate a free-hold semi-detached, an ideal proposition for the empty-nester.
One semi-detached unit is designed to readily accommodate living on one floor,
ideal for the elderly.
Figure 3.
6 N-Type: the narrow house
This 250 square meter, loft-like, live-work, zero-lot line, detached dwelling
situated on a narrow and deep lot accommodates a dedicated office and
separately-accessed apartment located above the garage. Lot and house front
onto two streets, facilitating access, the accommodation of amenities such as a
swimming pool, and the division of home and apartment.
Figure 4.
7 L-Type: the starter – elderly house
This 125 square meter, loft-like, live-work, zero-lot line, semi-detached dwelling
situated on a narrow and shallow lot accommodates a small, two-story starter
house that can be easily modified to accommodate living on one floor. It is ideal
for the elderly.
Figure 5.
8 E-Type: the expandable house
This 200 square meter, loft-like, live-work, zero-lot line, detached dwelling
situated on a wide and shallow lot can be expanded to accommodate a dedicated
office and separately accessed, above-ground, in-house apartment.
Figure 6.
9 A–Type: the apartment house

These 150 square meter, loft-like, live-work, separately accessed, walk-up
apartments situated above a ground-oriented parking structure accommodate a
dedicated office. Each is a two- or three-story dwelling featuring double-height
living spaces and balconies and large terraces oriented for views and maximum
privacy.
Figure 7.
10 Conclusion
The Flexi-Living concept as outlined above is being further articulated and
refined in collaboration with federal and provincial housing officials, urban
planners, engineers, homebuilders, and subdivision developers. This winter, the
concept formed the basis of this author’s entry in Archetype, a sustainable
housing and urbanism competition sponsored by Toronto’s Design Exchange.
The submission featured Flexi-Living’s concern for managing residential
intensification and growth over time. Similar to Flexi-Living, it featured a
variety of adaptable house types (referred to as wide, narrow, and tall), two of
which comprised zero-lot line, detached dwellings, and it emphasized the notion
of lot severance. The competition is currently being judged, and the award-
winning schemes will be announced in late April. The scheme awarded first
prize will be built as a demonstration project at Kortright, an ecological
interpretation center located a few miles north of Toronto.
Figure 8.
References
[1] Friedman, A., Planning the New Suburbia: Flexibility by Design, UBC
Press: Vancouver, 2002.
[2] Canadian Housing and Mortgage Corporation., Flex Housing: Homes that
Adapt to Life’s Changes, C.M.H.C., Canada, 1999.
[3] Friedman, A., The Adaptable House, McGraw-Hill Professional
Publishing: New York, 2002.
[4] Friedman, A., The Grow Home, McGill-Queen’s University Press:
Montreal, 2001.
The study of restoring an eco-habitat of the

traditional Paiwan tribe in Taiwan
C.-J. Chen
Graduate Institute of Urban Development and Architecture,
National University of Kaohsiung, Taiwan, the Republic of China
Abstract
Paiwan is the third largest aboriginal tribe in Taiwan. The most particular,
original habitat of Paiwan people is their housing system; all structures are
constructed with numerous slats of stone and are built at the same altitude on
mountains, merging with landscape. This type of vernacular architecture
represents strongly, affordable resources and a kind of natural attitude that
responds well with the environmental conditions. Using the local materials,
applying the natural cooling and the landscape adaptation, and forming a self-
sufficient community, the Paiwan habitat behaves as an eco-habitat and reflects
the subtropical characteristic of Southern Taiwan.
Unfortunately, most of the traditional Paiwan territories are decomposed or
abandoned due to political reason as well as the changing society during
vicissitudinary periods in Taiwan. The government has urged the people to
recover or restore the surviving villages. This study’s purpose is to discuss how
to find an appropriate approach for restoring the Old Chi-Jia village, one of the
most complete and intact traditional Paiwan villages in Taiwan. Different topics
such as the investigation process, the architectural intervention and community
conservation are discussed to establish an optimal strategy for restoring the Old
Chi-Chia village.
Keywords: aboriginal tribe, restoration, Paiwan, eco-habitation, Old Chi-Chia.
1 Introduction and history

The evidence found for prehistoric human habitation in Taiwan dates back
12,000 to 15,000 years. Different theories indicated that Taiwan’s aborigines
came from two places: southern China and Austronesia. Recent research shows
doi:10.2495/ARC060081
that Taiwan could be the starting point of the Austronesian emigration

route (Bellwood), i.e. Taiwan’s aborigine people are an important branch of
Austronesian. The Austronesians in Taiwan include two main groups: the plains
aborigines and the mountain aborigines. The plains aborigines (called Pinpu
tribe) resided mainly in the plain and coastal regions of Taiwan. Han people
(Chinese) since the Dutch period came and have assimilated the plains
aborigines in 1624. Until now, the plains aborigines could not be obviously
identified.
Taiwan’s aborigines are considered the northernmost Austronesian people.
Among them, the official classification divides them into 12 major mountain
tribes and 10 Pingpu groups. Mountain aborigines use the “tribe” as their
settlement unit.
Those in the north (Atayal and Saisiat) live in scattered villages, those in
central and southern Taiwan (Paiwan, Ami, Tsou) in compact communities, and
the settlements for Bunun and Lanyu-based island (Yami) have the combination
of the above features. Their houses are usually made of bamboo-wood columns
covered with thatch. The Paiwan, Rukai and Bunun roof their buildings with
stone slate and wood and often build their homes slightly underground. The
Paiwan, closely related in material culture to the Rukai, are divided into the
Raval and Vutsaul peoples. The Vutsul can be further subdivided into the
Paumaumaq, Chaobobol, Parilarilao, and Pagarogaro groups. The tribe of Old
Chi-Jia belongs to Paumaumaq.
2 Concept of original habitation
2.1 Site environment
The original settlement of the Paiwan tribe was usually situated on the contour of
mountains. The altitude of settlement was around 500 to 1000 meters, where the
relative mild climate provided both rich hunting resources as well as fertile soil.
The houses of village were built close to linearly along the contour; all openings
were in the same orientation. Every house unit had its independent territory:
space, granary and courtyard, forming a self-sufficient habitat system. The
traditional houses of the Paiwan and Rukai are similar to those of the Bunun. A
site was levelled by digging into a slope, and then an earth and stone terrace that
extended outward to provide a slightly lower than ground level floor and a
slightly higher courtyard was revealed. Houses of the southern and eastern
Paiwan, however, were frequently constructed at ground level.
The Old Chi-Jia village orients in a southwest direction, with the mountain
background in a northeast direction that brings in the air stream from the Taiwan
Strait into the village in summer and deters the cold current in winter (see
Figures 1 and 2). All houses are built on the terraced field of contour. The pilled
stone slates are around the two sides and the backside of the house, which protect
and indicate every living unit. Some “Chief Houses” have a pilled stone platform
in front of courtyard as a symbol of importance, which protects against wind. All
grounds (inside and outside) are manually consolidated or covered with stone
slates. In this manner, the house disturbs minimally the ground and thus
performs a high permeability (see Figure 3).
Figure 1: View of Old Chi-Jia village. Figure 2: Site map of Old Chi-Jia
village (2005).
Rain
Wind direction water
Plateform resists
the wind
Water flow Water flow
Figure 3: A profile of traditional houses of northern Paiwan tribe.
2.2 Housing system
The most particular feature of north Paiwan houses is its use of stone slate,
which abounds in the mountains of southern Taiwan. Figure 4 describes a typical
Rukai house in Pington County, and Figure 5 shows a typical Paiwan “Chief
House” in Pington county. People use stone slate to build houses that are cool in
the summer, warm in the winter and robust enough to resist typhoons. In other
words, a structure entirely suited to the climate of southern Taiwan. Many
traditional houses, which were erected more than one century ago, remain intact
in southern Taiwan. Figure 6 is a traditional Northern Paiwan house that
survived. Besides, the Paiwan and Rukai are famous for their outstanding wood
and stone sculpture. Ancestral figures were often carved in shallow relief into
house posts, slates, or plank panels. Figure 7 shows carving on wood planks.
Figure 4: Typical Rukai House in Pington County (referred from original

figures of Chijiiwa Suketarou).
Figure 5: A typical Paiwan “Chief House” in Pington county (referred from

original figures of Chijiiwa Suketarou).
Figure 6: Side view of typical Paiwan Figure 7: Carved planks on front walls.
House.
3 Menaces and challenges of the Paiwan tribe

Although the government encourage various affirmative actions to assure the
aboriginal peoples in Taiwan, the menaces and challenges are still inevitable.
They are assumed as follows:
(1) Disadvantaged social position
(2) Inappropriate housing quality
(3) Vanishing traditional settlement
The Paiwan people as other minorities usually compete vigorously in most
domains when they try to merge into a “normal” society. Despite limited
agricultural products, the local people still mainly depend on the housing benefit
and different income supports from government. The offered modern housing
system seems to satisfy only the minimum requirements for living, all inherent
respects and indigenous contents cannot be recognized. Moreover, the living
quality, such as natural comfort and environmental atmosphere, is also
incomparable to the traditional ones. Consequently, the young people leave their
native land to chase or to accept “new values”; the traditional culture and the
traditional settlement can hardly be inherited and are under danger of
decomposition.
4 Important criteria of renovation

According to previous observations, this renovation project will face some
critical situations. Two important objects are considered: (1) the preservation of
living culture and (2) the possibility of renewable development. Three missions
should be defined:
(1) Traditional respect in space – typology of house
(2) Enhanced living quality – improvement on comfort
(3) Preservation of materials and construction techniques
Figure 8 shows how the modernized Paiwan houses change the living
aspects. When village people try to interpret the modernity and to become more
“civilized”, not only does the totem of the tribe disappear, but also the principal
respects, such as social ethic and ancestral. In fact, continuous usage of the
homes by future generations should be the most important philosophy when
restoring these houses. And the correct reuse of houses could empower the new
developments (eco-tourism, open-air cultural museum, etc.) for the tribe.
The authentication of the house should consist of both the appearance
and traditional materials and construction techniques. Figure 9 shows the
comparison of hand cut and machined stone slates. The quality of stone slate as
well as traditional constructors is also critical.
For this project, local people are urged to participate in the construction for
two reasons. The first is to offer more working possibilities to the tribe; the
second is to train and to pass on their traditional techniques in an informal
manner to those are willing to learn. A community participation action and

several workshops will be held before and during the project.
Figure 8: Modernized Paiwan houses in Old Chi-Jia Village.
Figure 9: Comparison of hand cut (left) and machined (right) stone slates.
Figure 10: Typical feature of Paiwan House.
To respect the traditional construction manner, a typical feature of traditional

house is defined (see Figure 10). Table 2 shows the main components and its
traditional names in Paiwan.
Table 1: Original names in Paiwan.
No. Name Paiwan No. Name Paiwan

01 Courtyard katsasavan 09 back wall tsaiqus tseleb
02 Bracing qeoze 10 roof vali
03 front wall tseleb 11 front roof tsaiqaiau qaliu
04 Window quzong 12 back roof tsaikuz qaliu
05 plank panel sasuaian 13 side wall tsaikiti tseleb
06 Door paling 14 tabernacle tavi
07 main post taukes 15 stone Mui
08 Granary sang
5 Architectural interventions
5.1 Restoration inventory
In order to set up a feasible restoration plan, a fundamental inventory was

necessary. The inventory list consists of materials to be used in different parts of
the house, the damaged description (mentioned quantitatively and qualitatively),
the principal plants around the house and the actual circumstance of every house.
According to the classification of different damaged levels, the sequence of
restoration for houses was defined.
Due to limited budget, the project focused on deciding the priority of
recovering the houses that could be reused quickly and could be demonstrated as
exemplary models for the county. Figure 11 shows an investigation sheet form
and inventory list.
5.2 Modified structural system
Traditional houses are built with less durable materials except for the stone
elements. Especially, the weight of a stone roof can be hardly supported because
of the ageing of wood element (beams, rafters). Therefore, the safety of houses
decreases gradually. In this project, the integrity structure of a house should be
improved and refined, thus not only was the traditional structure reinforced or
rebuilt, but also a modified structural system was proposed. Anti-termite treated
wood material and more durable stone slates should replace the old ones
respectively.
Figure 11: Investigation sheet form and inventory list.
Table 2: Indoor Environmental Factors (Data referred from Meng [3]).
Assessment Indoor ACH Q

PMV PPD
topics Temperature (°C) (l/h) (m3/h/m2)
Winter Summer Win. Sum. Win. Sum. Win. Sum.

Standard
values -1 ~ +1 10% 15% 3~6 3~6 8 8
20~24 23~26
Winter
20.97 -0.33 8.42% 8.36 7.59 21.91 19.9
(traditional)
Summer
24.93 0.59 12.84% 13.09 5.44 34.31 14.26
(traditional)
Winter
21.13 -0.33 8.41% 5.91 1.05 6.08 0.55
(modern)
Summer
29.1 1.28 39.61% 14.17 2.52 14.57 1.32
(modern)
5.3 Improved ventilation
Due to ethnic policy and natural disasters (mudflow, flood and earthquake),
several migrations occurred prior to the actual habitation. Most of the people live
in the modernized but inappropriate housing system. To discuss the comfort of

Paiwan houses seems a little extravagant. Very few researches mentioned the
physical states of such housing system. Meng [3] studied how the natural
ventilation influences the indoor environment of the Northern Paiwan Tribe. The
indoor Predicted Mean Vote (PMV), Predicted of Percentage Dissatisfied (PPD),
Air change per hour (ACH) and Air exchanged rate (Q) are discussed. The
measured results show that the traditional Paiwan houses perform better on ACH
and Q, which provide a superior indoor air quality compared to the modern ones.
For PMV and PPD, the traditional ones also have the advantage of thermal
comfort. The comparison results are shown in Table 2.
For traditional houses, the smoke from cooking and campfire can barely
dissipate due to the inefficient ventilation. The stacked stonewalls and roof can
lightly “respire” and can evacuate a small percentage of the smoke. But in
modern houses, the stone slates are usually stacked and “sealed” by mortar.
It is necessary to propose a modified ventilation system (shown as Figure 12)
that can be combined and built with main structural system. The indoor air
quality of houses will be thus improved.
Main wooden beam large roof plank
Main wooden beam
Steel section
Steel section to
conduct the smoke Stone slates
Figure 12: Ventilated steel section beneath the main wooden beam.
6 Conclusion and perspective

As a unique aboriginal habitation in southern Taiwan, the Old Chi-Jia village
should have a chance to be a living heritage of Paiwan culture. The meaning of
this restoring project is to preserve the authentic habitation and at the same time,
to consider the future perspective of the tribe.
Comparing to the modern houses, the advantages of traditional houses on
thermal comfort and on IAQ are clarified. Such wisdom and the ecological
concept fund in vernacular habitation can always inspire us on how to harmonize
the natural environment and resources with human settlement.
More aspects like anthropology and environment science should be
introduced and integrated into such projects to resolve comprehensively the
requirement of aboriginal tribes in Taiwan.
References
[1] P. Bellwood, J. Fox, and D. Tryon, eds., “Austronesian Prehistory in
Southeast Asia: Homeland, Expansion and Transformation” The
Austronesians. Pp. 96-111.1997
[2] Chijiiwa Suketarou, The Dwellings of Aborigines in Taiwan (in
Japanese), 1960 Tokyo, 1988 Taipei.
[3] Hui-Tung Meng, The effects on the Environmental Changes by Natural
Ventilation to the stone-plate Houses of Northern Pai-Wan Tribe (in
Chinese), Master thesis, Shu-Te University of Technology, 2005.
[4] http://www.gio.gov.tw/taiwan-website/5-gp/yearbook/2004
[5] Moderate thermal environments-Determination of the PMV and PPD
indicesand specification of the conditions for thermal comfort”,
International Standard ISO7730, 1994.
[6] Chi-Jen CHEN, Recovery Project for Stone Slate Houses of Old Chi-Jia
Village, Technical Report, 2006.
Urban planning and the quality of life in

Putrajaya, Malaysia
D. Bt Omar
Faculty of Architecture, Planning and Surveying,
Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam , Malaysia
Abstract
The overriding principle of urban planning is to provide the best quality of life
for every one to live, work and play. The quality of life process offers an
opportunity to have more input in the urban planning process. The underlying
aim of the Total Planning Doctrine is to develop a community that should be
able to meet changes in values within society and be able to contribute to
improving the quality of life, especially in a new town development including
Putrajaya. This paper is based on research that has explored the social and
physical characteristics of Putrajaya in order to measure their relative impacts. A
perception survey was carried out to evaluate the level of quality of life
experienced by the residents. The analysis sought to uncover information
relating to community life in Putrajaya which was specifically planned to
provide a good quality of life for its inhabitants continuously until the
completion of the development. The findings of this research could be used to
address the future development of Putrajaya and also other towns. The findings
will be useful in determining the physical planning and quality of life indicators
for sustainable development. There is a need especially in Malaysia to have new
clearer policies to guide and build sustainable environments.
Keywords: urban planning, quality of life, The Total Planning Doctrine,
community life, sustainable environments.
1 Introduction
The Total Planning Doctrine is a new approach to the planning and design which
is expected to guide the physical planning system focusing on the concept of
sustainable development. This is a paradigm shift that should enable physical
doi:10.2495/ARC060091
and social planning to be integrated with moral and spiritual values that will not
separate economic growth from social needs and justice that will contribute
towards sustainability and increase the quality of life for society. The
Government of Malaysia has attempted to provide a policy to keep pace with the
rapid economic growth so as to bring about a better quality of life to the
people [1]. In this country, it is still not easy to determine the sustainability of a
city as there are no standard criteria or measurement tool for urban sustainability.
However, as for the urban sustainability concept is absorbed into The Total
Planning and Development Principles.
The application of this Doctrine has been included in the development
planning of Putrajaya [2]. The trend analysis sought to uncover information
related to community life in Putrajaya which specifically planned to provide a
good quality of life for their inhabitant continuously until the completion of
Putrajaya development. The researcher intended to carry out a research in every
three years. This is the second research. The first research was carried out in
2000, the first year of the re-settlement programme of the Federal Government
administrative officers [3].
Traditionally, planning was based on physical planning criteria. However,
with The Total Planning Doctrine, the future cities and new towns require a new
set of planning standards and the final outcomes will be reflected in the design of
human settlements. The Doctrine has embedded the underlying premise of
attaining sustainable communities. Planning and development need to provide a
living environment that is socially beneficial with sufficient and optimum
provision of infrastructure, utilities such as clean water supply, amenities such as
cleansing, electricity and drainage systems; public facilities, recreational spaces
and commercial and industrial centres. The underlying aim of the Doctrine is to
develop a community who should be able to meet changes in values within
society and be able to contribute to improving the quality of life, especially in
new town development. The research is to explore the social and physical
characteristics of Putrajaya in order to measure their relative impacts. A
perception survey is to evaluate the level of quality of life experience by the
residents. The findings of this research could be used to address the future
development of Putrajaya and also other towns. Comments from the respondents
were very encouraging and it was suggested that the research should continue.
This is the first research in urban planning and the findings will be useful in
determining the physical planning indicators for sustainable development.
2 Urban planning, sustainable development and the

quality of life
The overriding principle of urban planning is to provide the best quality of life
for every one to live, work and play. The quality of life process offers an
opportunity to have more input in the urban planning process. Consideration of
the social factors is pivotal for the success of urban development as a social city
and this very much related to the concept of self containment. This can only be
achieved by policies that take into account the society’s needs and through the
building of balanced new settlements rather than the single-use–unbalanced

extensions to existing settlements. There is a need for a broader policy for new
town development which focuses on the interests of new large communities and
their future [4]. The developers, future residents in the vicinity, local authority,
state, national government and the larger public are influenced the character of
the future growth throughout the state must be considered. If the new town
developments were to provide a framework for better life and environment, the
planning objectives and strategies must be truly inspired. There is a need to have
new clearer policies to guide and build sustainable environments. Sustainability
requires specific initiatives and needs to be coordinated. However, in some cases
the environmentally desirable urban forms might be less desirable in economic
and social terms. Wing [5], in his research on Hong Kong and Singapore, found
that there is much to improve on the overall quality of life, cost of living,
infrastructure, urban amenities, recreational facilities as well as culture and arts.
Urban life is generated by the movement and living function provided by the
urban centres which allow people to go anywhere in safety. Rogerson [6] stated
that in the list of the world’s most liveable cities and various quality of life
assessments the highest feature from an urban area is security.
3 Background of Putrajaya
Putrajaya, a new administrative capital city for the Malaysian Federal
Government was planned as early as 1981. Putrajaya was the first major
intelligent garden city developed in Malaysia. The total area is 14,780 hectares
where about 30 per cent of the area is for the administrative centre. The physical
planning was to ensure that it is a sustainable city providing high quality living
to its population. In 1996 the Federal Government set up Putrajaya Corporation
to monitor the mega project implementation. Putrajaya Corporation Act 1995
(Act 536) came into effect on January 5, 1996 and listed the power of the
Corporation which is to administer and manage the Putrajaya Corporation Area
on behalf of the Federal Government. The corporation functions like a local
authority to ensure the success of Putrajaya towards 2020 and beyond. When
complete, Putrajaya is expected to have 570,000 population where 250,000 will
live in the core area and the remaining 320,000 in the surrounding residential
areas.
Putrajaya masterplan, based on the Garden City Concept, delineates the area
into twenty precincts, of which five are in the Core Area included Government,
Commercial, Civic, Mixed Development, and Sports and Recreational. The
remaining 15 are precincts of various sizes also known as peripheral area.
Twelve of the 15 precincts make up the residential neighbourhoods. Each unit
was planned for some 3,000 dwellings or 15,000 population with a mix of low,
medium and high cost housing and a variety of designs. A total of 67,000 homes
of varying ranges, sizes, types and densities have been planned. Each
neighborhood is equipped with necessary public facilities and amenities. Among
the facilities provided in the residential areas are schools, hospitals, shopping
centres, mosques, multipurpose halls, learning centres and parks. This fulfilled
the underlying principle of the doctrine towards more sustainable communities

and a better quality of living environment.
4 Quality of life satisfactions in Putrajaya

This paper presents the data analysis and synthesis from Putrajaya’s residents
perception surveys. The results and the major findings pertaining to the quality
of life in Putrajaya development are presented. The discussion in this paper
focuses on the components of the built environment which contribute to the
quality of life as experienced by the residents of Putrajaya. The research sought
to uncover information related to community life in Putrajaya which was
specifically planned to provide a good quality of life for their residents. The
analysis is presented in two parts. Part one is on the general analysis that
discusses the background of respondents and the overall perceptions, part two
focuses on the quality of life achieved.
The quality of life in a particular area was a subjective issue and that each
respondent may have different views or perceptions with regard to subject
matter [7]. It is of theoretical interest to explore the relationship of the built
environment and the satisfaction level of different living areas. Campbell [8]
addressed the concept of quality of life as measuring the people’s perceptions,
evaluation and satisfaction. Leitmann [9] listed four reasons for assessing the
quality of urban life:
a. to make comparisons
b. to identify problems
c. to develop policies
d. to monitor and evaluate the implementation of interventions.
For many researchers satisfaction was viewed as more definable, more plausible
and more appropriate to measure and compare people’s assessments on quality
of life experience [10].
5 General analysis
This part is to demonstrate the results of data gathered from Section A of the
original survey questionnaire. The data retrieved includes age, race, gender,
length of stay, types of houses, employment by occupation, problems faced by
respondents and suggestions for improvements. The summary of the results from
the respondents to the survey questionnaire is tabulated and discussed below.
The analysis was considered important because their perceptions would
demonstrate the quality of life there as they experienced living there.
The research found that more than 78% of the total respondents were married.
The majority of respondents were having a family size of four which are lower
than the national standard of five. This is important in relation to the housing
design and community facilities standards. It was found that majority of
respondents were in the age group of between 20-40 years old. The distribution
of respondents by working categories reflected that the distribution of Putrajaya
residents and the highest were those in the Clerical and Related Workers
Category. The data was associated to the provision of the type of

accommodation. In terms of duration of stay of the respondents in Putrajaya, it
was found that majority were with two years. The highest percentage which was
about 30 percent found to have been staying for two years.
6 Residents’ perceptions
In this second part, the analysis is focused on Section B of the original survey
questionnaires which retrieved information on respondents’ perceptions. This is
concerning the community facilities, infrastructure services, commercial
facilities, open space and surrounding areas, feeling safe in the living area and
safety of property, feeling about living in the particular new town, sense of
neighbourhood community, adequate comfort in housing, mobility and public
transportation service. Their perception is assumed to be an important indicator
for a particular new town as an ideal or unsatisfactory place to live in. The
respondents had freedom to make choices regarding the environment. The
residential environment is important in the analysis of the quality of life because
of the role it plays in human experience. This part of the research attempts to
measure the effect of the environment on the respondents’ life and to compile
and compare the quality of life to be achieved in future years. Perceptual
evaluation of these indicators were tabled to illustrate quality of life dimensions.
The findings from residents’ perceptions may become one of the ways in
getting people involved so as to ensure the continued success of their
community. The survey questionnaire asked whether the respondents’
perceptions were completely satisfactory, satisfactory, average, unsatisfactory
and completely unsatisfactory with regards to the indicators used to quantify the
quality of their living environment. Tables 1-9 show the findings of this research.
The quality of life would increasingly play a significant role in various planning
dimensions and would likely to be a complex one [11].
Table 1: Public facilities.
Public Facilities Perceptions of respondents (residents)

Primary Schools Completely satisfactory
Secondary Schools Completely satisfactory
Smart Schools Satisfactory
Religious Schools Completely unsatisfactory
Higher Learning Institution Completely unsatisfactory
Place of Worship Completely satisfactory
Entertainment Centre Unsatisfactory
Police Service Satisfactory
Fire Service Satisfactory
Hospital Completely satisfactory
Clinic Completely satisfactory
Table 1 shows five of the public facilities listed were rated as completely
satisfactory by the respondents which include primary school, secondary school,
place of worship, hospital and clinic. These were the five very important
facilities been provided by the government to ensure good living environment
for the communities [12]. They were satisfied with the provision of smart school,
police service and also fire service. They rated entertainment center as
unsatisfactory while both religious school and higher institution as completely
unsatisfactory. These three facilities were not available during the time of
research.
In many cases for place of worship and hospital were rated as completely
satisfactory. Based on the findings there is a need to provide more and better
facilities for the communities in order to change their perception to reach the
completely satisfactory level.
As for shopping facilities the majority from respondents were unsatisfied with
the provision of lower and higher order commercial services. (Please refer to
Table 2). The shopping facilities especially for the lower order goods should be
provided as early as the settlement. Majority of them had to go to Kajang, Bangi
and other nearby towns for their daily goods. The research found that their living
situation were harder after moving into Putrajaya because many of them were
used to living in Kuala Lumpur where shopping facilities were abundance and
within easy reach.
Table 2: Shopping facilities.
Shopping facilities Perceptions of respondents

Lower order goods Unsatisfactory
Higher order goods Unsatisfactory
Table 3: Infrastructure facilities.
Infrastructure Perceptions of Respondents

Electricity Satisfactory
Water supply Satisfactory
Telephone Satisfactory
Infrastructure facilities (refer to Table 3), playground/open space facilities as

shown in Table 4 and environment (refer to Table 5) were well served in
Putrajaya and are at the satisfactory level.
Table 4: Playground and open space facilities.
Open space/playground Perceptions of Respondents

Children’s playground Satisfactory
Public open space Satisfactory
Other open spaces Satisfactory
Landscaping Satisfactory
Table 5: Environment.
Environment Perceptions of respondents

Safety of self and properties Satisfactory
Aesthetics of the surrounding area Satisfactory
Cleanliness of the area Satisfactory
Landmarks Satisfactory
Signage Satisfactory
Table 6: Social aspects.
Social aspects Perceptions of respondents

Social activities Average
Sense of community Average
Feelings about living in Putrajaya Satisfactory
Table 6 demonstrated that majority of respondents rated their social activities

and sense of community to at the average level. This may be due to the length of
stay, whereby most of them were new to each other and also lack of social
programmes and activities being organized for the community. However, they
were satisfied with the feeling about living in Putrajaya.
7 Conclusion
The research was intended to study the quality of life through the perceptions of
those working in Putrajaya. They were residents of Putrajaya. The perception
study of the quality of life were considered as a significant role in Putrajaya for
being the first city development in the country to be guided by the Total
Planning Doctrine. The findings showed that there are several planning and
implementation issues need to be reviewed in order to achieve the planning goals
and objectives which lead towards a better quality of life. It is recommended that
more research to be done on how to integrate quality of life dimensions into
overall Putrajaya development as well as another new developments. It is hoped
that our planners could devise better strategies to enhance the quality of life in
the communities.
References
[1] Mahathir B. Mohamad (1998). The Way Forward, London: Weindfeld &
Nicolson.
[2] Government of Malaysia, (2001). Total Planning and Development
Guidelines, Department of Town and Country Planning, Peninsular
Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, (2nd Printing).
[3] Dasimah Bt Omar (2004). Quality of Life in Putrajaya: Trend Analysis,

Research paper, Institute of Research, Development and
Commercialisation, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam, Malaysia.
[4] Dasimah Bt Omar, (2002) New Town Development in Peninsular
Malaysia: Case Studies of New Town Development by State Economic
Development Corporations, PhD Thesis (unpublished), Universiti
Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam, Malaysia.
[5] Wing, H.C., (2000). Planning Policies and Quality of Life in Hong Kong
and Singapore, Quality of Life in Cities: 21st Century QOL, The Second
International Conference, Singapore, March 2000.
[6] Rogerson, R.J., (1999). Quality of Life, Place and Global City, Yuan,
Yuen & Low, eds., in Urban Quality of Life, Critical Issues and Options,
National University of Singapore.
[7] Marans, W.R. and Cooper, M. (2000). Measuring the Quality of
Community Life: A Program for Longitudinalman Comparative
International Research, Quality of Life in Cities: 21st Century QOL, The
Second International Conference, Singapore, March 2000.
[8] Campbell, A., Converse, P., & Rodgers, W. (1976). The Quality of
American Life, New York: Sage.
[9] Leitmann, J. (1999). Can City QOL Indicators be Objective and Relevant?
Towards a Tool for Sustaining Urban Development, National University
of Singapore.
[10] Marans, W.R. and Cooper, M. (2000). Measuring the Quality of
Community Life: A Program for Longtudinalmand Comaparative
International Research, Quality of Life in Cities: 21st Century QOL, The
Second International Conference, Singapore, March 2000.
[11] Dissart, J.C. and Deller, S.C. (2000). Quality of Life in the Planning
Literature, Journal of Planning Literature (FJPL) Vol. 15, 1 (August).
[12] Putrajaya Development Corporation, (2004).Briefing Notes.
Section 2
Historical and philosophical
aspects
Evaluating the sophistication of

vernacular architecture to adjust to the climate
E. Tsianaka
RMJM London Ltd., Cambridge, UK
Abstract
Globalisation in architecture and the highly developed artificial technology of
the 1950s allowed architects to design buildings without responding to the needs
of the people in their climates. After the oil crisis of the 1970s, architects started
referring back to local and traditional methods for inspiration to re-establish the
relationship between form and climate. This paper aims to evaluate whether the
vernacular architecture was sophisticated enough to offer wise and sustainable
solutions to the housing needs. Taking Greek vernacular architecture as a test
case, the study is based on the comparison of two architectural types, which were
developed at the same time in different climates; the Cycladic type and the
North-Hellenic Tower type. The white cubical houses are generally considered
more picturesque and photogenic compared with the less well-known North-
Hellenic loggia houses. This study shows that both types have many qualities
and were developed in response to local and regional characteristics with the
Tower type presenting more sophisticated answers. In addition, the paper tries to
support the study of not only stylish buildings, but also less elegant and
cosmopolitan houses. It is possible that many sophisticated architectural answers
are hidden behind the appearance.
Keywords: Hellenic vernacular architecture, Cycladic, North-Hellenic Tower,
architectural form, loggia, sahnisin, winter and summer zone.
1 Introduction
Vernacular architecture has attracted the imagination of many architects. It is
believed that traditional wisdom and lore in buildings may still offer wisely
managed, economically effective and culturally appropriate solutions to the
world’s housing needs [1]. However, was the vernacular architecture
doi:10.2495/ARC060101
Figure 1: Cycladic house. Figure 2: North-Hellenic Tower house.
sophisticated enough to establish a dialogue with the environment and

furthermore what environmental qualities were developed? This study
investigates two types of architecture of the past; the Cycladic type and the
North-Hellenic type, as illustrated in figures 1 and 2. An effort to answer the
afore-mentioned questions is made by examining the reaction of both types to
summer and winter sun; to seasonal temperature variation, and the effect on
their architectural forms. In addition, architects’ search of imagination design
related closely to the study of popular and elegant buildings, such as the
Mediterranean vernacular cubicle houses [2, 3]. This work endeavours to
combine the investigation of both popular and less known traditional buildings.
The paper consists of five parts. The first two parts analyse the climate as well
as the historical and social background of each location. Section four explains
their architectural characteristics, while the fifth section examines their reaction
to seasonal temperature variations and the effect of sun on their architectural
forms, investigating the way people tried to welcome the sun in winter and shun
the glare and heat in summer supported by diagrammatic illustration of shading
geometry. The last part concludes the investigation.
2 Location and climate
2.1 Cyclades
The Cycladic style was developed in the South Aegean area of the Mediterranean
Sea. It was mainly centred on the Cyclades, a group of twenty-three islands and
most especially in Amorgos, Mykonos and Santorini. The landscape is diverse
with mountains, gorges, sheer coasts, plateaus and sandy beaches. The climate is
Figure 3: Comparison of Ta Air Figure 4: Comparison of Irradiations

Temperatures in [0C] of Global Radiation
(MeteoNorm). horizontal in [kWh/m2]
(MeteoNorm).
typically Mediterranean; it is moderate and coastal, with sunny, dry and warm
summers and mild and damp winters. There is little diurnal and seasonal
temperature variation and freezing temperatures are uncommon, fig. 3. The
islands are subject to hot, dry winds blowing from the south and dry, cold winds
blowing from the north [1]. The radiation from the sun is intense, especially in
summer, fig. 4.
2.2 North Greece
The North-Hellenic tower style was developed in the northern Greek mainland,
in Makedonia, Thessaly and East Thrace and the North Aegean. The topography
has great variation: mountains, valleys and hillsides, but the usual landscape is
coastal valleys surrounded by mountains. This area belongs to the continental
zone, which has a climate consisting of sunny, dry and hot summers and cold,
damp winters. Generally, it is a two-season climate with important diurnal and
seasonal temperature variation, fig. 3. There are some local climate anomalies
due to the Alps: special winds called bora in Greece [1]. The sun’s radiation is
high, especially in the summertime, fig. 4.
3 Historical and social background
3.1 Cyclades
The Cycladic type dates from the seventeenth century [4], when this area was a
part of the Ottoman Empire. During this period, the islands suffered from
continuous pirates’ raids. Therefore the settlements were located inland, so as not
be visible from the sea. In spite of the history of successive occupations, after the
sixteenth century the majority of the population remained Greek and was Greek
Orthodox [2]. The South Aegean culture was heterogeneous, with many
influences from ancient Greek, Roman, and Byzantine civilizations. People used
to spend more time living outside their houses than inside. They gathered in the
central square, in streets, and in churches for daily discussions and social contact.
3.2 North Greece
The North-Hellenic tower type dates from the sixteenth century when Greece
was under Ottoman occupation. At that time, the population was mixed. Greek,
Jewish and Turkish people lived together in separate ethnic-religious
neighbourhoods. Heterogeneous cultures were characteristic of this time with
Byzantine and Ottoman influence and many strict local rules especially for the
female population. People had to spend more time in their residences, without
many opportunities for entertainment and social contact. Women used to
socialise in the yards or in the streets in front of their houses.
4 Architecture
4.1 Cycladic architecture

The popular Cycladic villages were developed organically in repetitive forms
based on cell-like additive tradition. The houses are very close to each other and
in many cases the buildings share party walls or roofs. Individual Cycladic
buildings are not necessarily unique but collectively form a unique cubical urban
environment famous for the inspiration derived from them, as shown in fig. 5.
Both interior and exterior spaces are simply and economically developed. The
plans, rectangular shapes usually with 1:2 proportions, vary according to specific
needs within the limitation of the building order. They are single or two-storey
houses and include living space, sleeping rooms and kitchen area. In some cases,
working room is comprised while the toilet is always out of the building. Each
dwelling has a small outdoor space: an interior courtyard, a yard or a roof
terrace. The Cycladic structure is masonry, contrasting with the mild local
climatic conditions. Three reasons explain this choice: stone was the main local
material, the islands were susceptible to earthquakes and the people preferred
more permanent structures [1]. The most visible element in Cycladic architecture
is the flat earthen roof (doma) used for drying products, sleeping on hot summer
nights, or for social contacts, an element harmonized with the hot dry climate.
The whiteness of the Mediterranean village, for both practical and symbolic
reasons, is a very interesting architectural feature. The white surfaces make the
streets more negotiable after dark, maintain a level of hygiene, protect against
diseases, and reflect the summer heat. Moreover, they unify the settlement giving
emphasis to the sense of civic pride in the community.
Figure 5: Settlement of Mykonos Island.
4.2 North-Hellenic architecture
The North-Hellenic villages are mountainous and fortified principally because

the enemies’ invasions were frequent. The built-up area is typically dense and
nucleated with irregular streets and with a central square. The most interesting
characteristic was the division of built-up areas into ethnic-religious quarters,
allowing the co-existence of these cultures. This less popular type is an evolution
of Byzantine architecture, as presented in figure 6 with influences from both
Western and Eastern culture [1]. This style, with more complex architectural
structures and exhibiting greater skills, was reflected not only in public, but also
in residential architecture [5]. They are mainly two-storey houses. The ground
floor walls are usually made of local stone 60cm to 65cm thick, while the upper
are lightweight walls 20cm to 25cm thick [6]. A very interesting architectural
feature is the slightly inclined roof, at thirty degrees inclination, found in
temperate climates with a consistently dry summer, as in northern Greece. The
most notable elements in North–Hellenic architecture are the hagiati and the
sahnisin, both of them controlling the level of sunlight in dwellings.
A hagiati (loggia) is a semi-enclosed space, also called doxatos. It is an
efficient topological and morphological element not only of the Greek traditional
dwelling, but also of the Balkan and Minor Asian dwellings. It is situated either
in ground level or in upper levels. Hagiati was a multi-purpose room. Workers
used to spend their time after work continuing the process of the agricultural
products, women used to weave and to prepare the daily meal in open-air
fireplaces.
A sahnisin (solaria) is a wood-frame extension of the main room cantilever
over the street to the masonry bases. This extension could be either in the front
façade of the house or on the sides. Principally, it was designed for the formal
room of the home and there were no specific size dimensions. This
morphological and functional architectural feature derives from Byzantine
vernacular architecture and not from Ottoman architecture, as the Ottoman
dwelling adapted sahnisin from Byzantine dwellings and spread it throughout the
Balkans [5]. There were also social reasons for the sahnisin, as it worked as an
opening to the outside world for the female population. Women hid behind the
curtains of sahnisin windows, watching what was happening in the streets when
it was dangerous outside. Besides this, the sahnisins were useful for cooling off
in the summer days, especially when the house did not have a hagiati.
Figure 6: Evolution of North-Hellenic Tower type.
5 Effect of climate on architectural form

The gradual evolution of buildings in vernacular architecture is based on the
experience of many centuries and depends on the local environment and climate,
as well as the social characteristics. The analysis of the climatic response of
vernacular buildings is proved to be more complicated than expected. It is
difficult to separate out cultural and social issues, and also technical constraints
set by availability of materials, topography etc, none of which are strictly
climatic. However, climate produces certain effects on architectural forms, which
are easily observed [7]. The following section endeavours to identify the
environmental qualities of each traditional type and to investigate their reaction
to temperature variations, and winter and summer sun.
5.1 Cycladic type: environmental qualities
The Cycladic type embodies some environmental qualities, essentially because

of the functional simplicity of the structure. On the one hand, the rectangular
plan is the perfect shape for hot and dry climates and on the other hand, the space
configuration is very helpful, because the multi-purpose room is usually facing
the south or east. This type of architecture puts more emphasis on protection
from light not only at the scale of individual buildings, but also at the urban
scale. The sun’s radiation is very intense, and the need for sun protection is
fundamental. Moreover, people preferred to spend more time outside than inside.
Consequently, how does vernacular architecture seek to protect people from
the rich and dramatic light? First of all, architecture tries to limit light in
settlements by a combination of narrow and shade-inducing streets, tunnels and
vaults. There are numerous examples of the previous architectural elements in
Cyclades villages. Light and heat are also reflected by the annual whitewashed
surfaces. Furthermore, the heavy masonry architecture provides extremely stable
interior conditions that are desirable in summer [1]. In this type of vernacular
architecture, some facades are completely without windows and some others
have small openings for ventilation and lighting. Social areas that need sufficient
light have larger windows compared to sleeping areas, which have tiny openings.
An interesting feature of light management, which can be also found on the
tower type, is the widening of the window sides and sill towards the interior for
glare control [6].
However, there are two architectural features that the Cycladic vernacular did
not adopt, which are very common in other places with the same climatic
conditions. There are no shadowing-shelters over the openings and no loggia.
Both are prevalent in the Mediterranean area.
5.2 North-Hellenic tower type: environmental qualities
The North-Hellenic tower type offers numerous methods of temperature and sun
control: the separation of summer and winter zone and the use of loggia and
sahnisin along with the opening size and the proper orientation.
The main characteristic of this type is the inter-seasonal use of different

spaces. The houses were divided into summer and winter zones. The winter zone
was either on the lower level (stone structure) or on the upper level coexisting
with the summer zone, while the summer zone was situated on the upper level
(timber structure). The winter zone had a lower ceiling, fireplace and south-
facing windows. The size of the openings was small and used mostly for
ventilation and lighting in wintertime. Shutters were not common because the
light was desirable during the short winter days. In the winter zone, the minimum
internal air temperature is maintained at high levels compared to the very low
ambient temperature in winter due to the high thermal inertia of the overall
structure [8]. Contrary to winter zone, the summer zone had numerous large and
cross-ventilating windows. The shutters were absolutely necessary in order to
avoid overheating. Sometimes, this space was completely open on hot days. An
interesting element of the summer room was the clerestory windows, as shown in
figure 2, additional openings above the conventional windows for exploiting sun
luminance. During the summer day, the large windows were usually shuttered
and only the clerestory windows lighted the space.
Hagiati functioned as a shaded balcony in summer protecting the interior
from overheating and a sun space in winter allowing the lower sun of winter to
penetrate for solar advantage [3]. Sometimes, it was closed in winter and open in
summer in order to adjust to two different environmental conditions.
Consequently, it combines the advantages both of the enclosed and open space.
Additionally, it was a place for socialising, especially in winter days. People
gathered for discussion and lunch or dinner.
Sahnisin was created for functional reasons: the lack of sun lighting in
residential buildings. The built-up area and the irregular streets did not allow
direct sun lighting of the houses, so these solaria were an answer to this problem,
and their name (solaria) proves their origin [5]. This space with at least two large
windows and a few fanlights, positioned usually to the south or east on the upper
floors, was the main summer room of the dwelling. The daylighting conditions
on the upper floors are considerably better than of those on the ground floors [9].
Another problem it solved was that of the lack of space on the upper level. This
extension could increase the size and orthogonality of the upper level to the main
street of the settlement. As a result sahnisin also offered protection from the sun
and rain to pedestrians.
5.3 Discussion and summary
Summing up the basic architectural characteristics and the methods developed

for sun protection and temperature control of the two types, some interesting
conclusions emerge. To begin with, these two Hellenic types constitute two
completely different architectural approaches, even if they were both developed
at the same time and are adjacent to each other. This is due to the fact that they
are two architectural results that evolved from a specific social, environmental
and cultural background. The different sites, the climatic variations, the use of
the local materials, and the influences of other cultures entailed the formation of
a particular type in a particular place.
Figure 7: Shading diagram of Cyclades Figure 8: Shading diagram of Tower

dwellings (Santorini example). dwellings.
In both cases, the local architecture has endeavoured to establish a dialogue

with the environment. Both styles make efforts to answer some of the
environmental problems. In particular, the North-Hellenic Tower dwelling tries
to adjust to seasonal climatic differentiations and to be more ‘flexible’ to
temperature variation developing special architectural elements, such as hagiati
and sahnisin. On the contrary, the Cycladic dwelling is more concerned with sun
and summer season.
More specifically, the sahnisin in the Tower type welcomes the summer
sunlight, as it is illustrated in fig. 8, while the long eaves and the shuttered
windows prevent the interior from overheating. In addition, the hagiati works as
a shaded balcony in hot summer days. On the other hand, the Cycladic type uses
small windows to reject the sun and whitewashed surfaces to reflect the sunlight,
as it is depicted in fig. 7. Both types refuse the winter sun due to the limited
number and small size of openings, even if the windows are unshuttered.
Comparing the two Greek styles, the Cycladic dwellings are more picturesque
and photogenic. Representative examples of this popular architecture are
displayed in numerous books and magazines. These “villages in the sun” are
universally known after Le Corbusier’s journey to the islands of the Aegean. He
discovered a public architecture influenced by trading and past occupations and
he continued to draw upon this experience throughout his architectural work.
The inspiration of many modern and contemporary buildings derived from Le
Corbusier’s projects. To the contrary, the Tower dwellings are not well-known
and scenic, and did not inspire the work of many architects. Despite that, these
buildings are more complicated, sophisticated and integrated. This type shows an
architectural maturity in its many morphological, topological and functional
elements. Specifically, the Tower style experienced adjustment to environment
and climate to face social problems and to distinguish the different ethnic groups.
The windows were a case in point. Shuttered windows were typical in a Hellenic
residence, while unshuttered windows were popular in Ottoman dwellings.
These buildings were more “flexible” and adaptable, because they could support
the needs of a small society including open and closed, private and public space,
contrary to the Cycladic cell-like buildings, which distributed within a

settlement.
6 Conclusion
This study has shown that both types have many qualities. The vernacular
architecture was sophisticated enough to answer to numerous environmental and
social questions. These styles were developed in response to local and regional
characteristics, as well as social and cultural requirements. In addition, it is
imperative to study not only stylish buildings, but also less elegant and
cosmopolitan houses. It is possible that many sophisticated architectural answers
are hidden behind the appearance. Consequently, the study and analysis of
vernacular houses will renew both the relationship with traditional thought and
the structural rationale of the past and finally will teach us ways to confront
environmental questions.
References
[1] Oliver P., Encyclopedia of Vernacular Architecture of the World, Volume
1 & 2, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 134-135, 144-145,
155-156, 1462-1464, 1490-1495, 1540-1551, 1997.
[2] Atrosenko V.I., M. Grundy, Mediterranean Vernacular, a Vanishing
Architectural Tradition, Anness Publishing, London, pp. 14-19, 96-116,
138-140, 1991.
[3] Goldfinger M., Villages in the Sun: Mediterranean Community
Architecture, London, pp.9-24, 1969.
[4] Philippides D., Greek Traditional Architecture-Cyclades, Volume 2,
Melissa, Athens, 1998.
[5] Moutsopoulos N.K., Traditional Architecture of Makedonia, 15-19th
century, Paratiritis, Thessaloniki, pp. 22-23, 30-36, 42-51, 1993.
[6] Kizis Y., Domestic Architecture in Pelion (17-19th c.), ETBA, Athens, pp.
523-529, 1994.
[7] Fathy H., Natural Energy and Vernacular Architecture, the University of
Chicago Press, Chicago and London, 1986.
[8] Oikonomou A., Winter Thermal Comfort in 19th century Traditional
Buildings of the Town of Florina in North-Western Greece, PLEA 2005:
the 22nd Conference on Passive and Low Energy Architecture, Lebanon,
13-16 November, pp. 353-358, 2005.
[9] Oikonomou A., Daylighting in 19th century Traditional Buildings of the
Town of Florina in North-Western Greece, PLEA 2005: the 22nd
Conference on Passive and Low Energy Architecture, Lebanon, 13-16
November, pp. 359-364, 2005.
Examining line as a heuristic device

in the design ethos of Alvar Aalto
P. Harwood
Department of Architecture, Ball State University, USA
Abstract
The significance of line in Alvar Aalto’s design method must be looked at
critically as any interpretation of his work lies in the expressionistic,
iconological, wavy line sketches so integral to his process. Looking at Aalto’s
experiments in wood, glass pieces, furniture design, drawings, and built works, I
will illustrate that the line is the experimental media that serves as a point of
departure for arriving at a symbiosis between nature and culture, defining
everything from the topographical character of a roof line to the tectonic form of
a door pull. His upbringing, family life, homeland of Finland, and drawing
technique all influence his design method and built work. In this paper, the line
is explored as a heuristic device provoking questions and providing insight into
Alvar Aalto’s way of experimenting and intervening in land, in light, and in life.
Keywords: regionalism, environmental architecture, Scandinavia, Finland,
Alvar Aalto, modernism, architectural design.
1 Experimenting and intervening in land

The strongest impressions Aalto received were “from his parents, his childhood,
and the surroundings he grew up in. These were the sources on which he drew
all his life.” (Schildt [1]). Born in 1898 in a small village in eastern Finland,
Aalto grew up in the town of Jyvaskyla, the unofficial capital of the densely
forested Lake District in the heart of Finland. The landscape of this meandering
terrain is punctuated by sweeping curves of lakes weaving with forests that lend
the region its distinctive character. Goran Schildt has written extensively on the
influence of Aalto’s contextual and familial background on his tradition of
building. Aalto’s grandfather was a certified forester and a teacher at Evo Forest
doi:10.2495/ARC060111
Institute. Aalto’s mother followed in the forestry profession and married the
surveyor J.H. Aalto, thus uniting the two disciplines.
Figure 1: Kiruna Town Hall. Figure 2: Imatra Church.
1.1 The contour line
The effect of his father’s surveying practice and mother’s forestry background is
undoubtedly embodied in Aalto’s propensity to use the contour line to delineate
both landmass and topographical form. This formative experience provided
Aalto with an elementary exposure to native construction materials and
techniques, sustainable practices and forestry conservation, as well as
acquaintances with drawing and technical factors related to land surveying. In
looking at Aalto’s concept sketch for the town hall at Kiruna, fig. 1, it is
informative to see how strongly the mapmaker’s line asserts itself and how he
“seems to build up forms as if he were marking the stepping contours of a
mountain or hillside,” clearly occupying the space of each line as a habitable
terrace at vertical intervals as he draws (Hewitt [2], pp.162-176). Suggesting
reciprocity between building and landscape, lines of paths, steps, flora and site
contours are drawn with equal weight. The sensibility with which Aalto uses this
contour line to adapt his buildings to the terrain and the sky and to plan built
form and land form as an interwoven fabric is clearly informed by his acquired
feeling for the lie of the land and its representation in topographic maps. “There
is but one rule holds in architecture, build naturally,” writes Aalto. “Our
buildings should be placed in the landscape in a natural way, in harmony with its
general contours.” (Aalto [3], p.21).
Saynatsalo Town Hall illustrates how sensitively the contour line that
defines the courtyard promontory rises out of the surrounding forest and acts as
the perch upon which the honorific council chamber projects. The fluid contour
of the chamber’s roofscape greets the sky as a jagged mountain, highlighting the
major space within the building from the exterior. Shaping the mass as one
would shape the land, the contour line then defines and adjoins entities in a series
of topographical forms, grouped around the central court. Similarly, the Town
Hall at Seinajoki follows the organic pattern established at Saynatsalo, but here a
blue-tiled wall is used to order the spaces that surround the inner court. This
rustic, grassy, contoured hill steps diagonally up to the ceremonial cliff-like mass
of the council chamber and visually connects you to the vertical axis of the bell
tower beyond, even as a broad road serves to separate the two. The contour line
was a way for Aalto to shape form, unite space and mass, and willingly express
how buildings sit in the earth and get rained upon as they silhouette the sky. In
material terms, these nitty-gritty issues were abstracted as Aalto took flashings,
copings, and base courses and turned them from necessity into poetry.
1.2 The undulating line
The irregular coastline, numerous lakes, and seemingly unending wilderness of

the Finnish context is of further importance in understanding the alliances Aalto
established between the land that he grew up in and the undulating line that
characterized his architectural idiom. This context undoubtedly pre-disposed
Aalto towards an interest in nature, especially as he sought to create figured
interior landscapes in his work. Symbolically, the undulating line between water
and land, and forest and clearing became a metaphor for Aalto, translated into
the wave-like wall and ceiling of Imatra Church, fig. 2, the sinuous wall of the
Worker’s Club redbrick façade, and the undulating balcony form of Essen Opera
House. More than contriving a stylistic motif, however, this undulating line is
intrinsic to Aalto’s work as a means to achieve a harmonious accommodation
between man and nature (Weston [4], pp.98-122). Aalto writes, “Architecture
should always offer a means whereby the organic connection between a building
and nature, including man and human life is provided for.” (Aalto [5]).
The Finnish Pavilion for the 1937 World Exposition in Paris became Aalto’s
first unmistakable metaphor of the forest edge. Here, a single, undulating line
running diagonally across the rectangular volume becomes the parti for the
winning entry entitled Northern Lights. Goran Schildt describes this serpentine
space literally as “a forest space, related to the spatial experience of wandering
among tree trunks, rocks and bushes in the broken terrain of a Nordic forest.”
(Schildt [6]). Another metaphor suggested by Richard Weston compares the
billowing forest wall and reflective lake floor to a painting of the aurora borealis
by Norwegian artist Peder Balke, noting a “striking resemblance to the snaking,
closely striated form Aalto adopted.” (Weston [7], p.64). Whatever the
inspiration, the uniqueness of the Finnish context is illuminated in this inspired
installation.
Clearly connected to Aalto’s experience of the northern forest, the organic,
non-geometrical perception of space acquires particular poignancy in the interior
landscape of the Villa Mairea. A common Aalto motif is to cast major internal
spaces as ‘outdoor rooms’ as is seen in the main floor of the villa, where the
interior can be read as a metaphoric forest (Weston [7], p.63). Aalto
individualized all the columns, singly, in pairs, or in a clump of three, wrapped
with rattan, clad with pine slats, or painted black steel, transforming the
Cartesian logic of the regular column grid into a series of ‘forest fragments.’ In
the undulating screen band that separates the library from the main space, lines
of light as rays, streak across the ceiling like sunlight penetrating the forest edge.
Commenting on this organic line, Aalto writes, “that curving, living,
unpredictable line which runs in dimensions unknown to mathematicians, is for
me the incarnation of everything that forms a contrast in the modern world
between brutal, mechanicalness and religious beauty in life.” (Aalto [3], p.49).
When used in conjunction with the familiar contours of the surveyor’s line and
the gestural sketches of his exploratory design method, the syntax of the
undulating line becomes native to his work.
1.3 The speculative line
Aalto was compulsively speculative in his design process. His searching, built-
up lines were used to contour mass and space in plan and section, often building
a figure out of the page as he explored complex formal patterns. The tentative,
soft pencil line ‘idea sketches’ of his projects appear alongside formal
presentation drawings, paintings, and photographs of his work in the book
Synopsis, that Aalto himself helped lay out (Hoesli [8]). Aalto utilized the
‘exquisse’ technique, a tiny plan surrounded by projections into section,
elevation or perspective, as the starting point for each project (Hewitt [2], p.166).
Once he determined his concept through speculative sketching, he would entrust
the work to an office assistant who “in close collaboration with Aalto would
translate the sketches and pictorial explanations into a presentable conceptual
plan.” Supervising the intervening stages of design development, Aalto returned
to the project at “the phase of cultivating the building with refining details.”
allowing the distinct Aaltoesque quality of space to become evident. (Fleig [9],
p. 9-11).
Aalto favored the soft media of charcoal crayon and the 6B pencil for his
exploratory line work, suggestive of varying textures of material, flora, and light.
Drawing as if by instinct, Aalto’s chubby pencil moved fluidly over the paper.
His speculative line traversed all corners of the sheet, exploring every aspect of
the design, and filling the entire page with multiple representations. “The Creator
created paper for drawing architecture on,” Aalto exclaims. “Everything else is,
for my part at least, to misuse paper.” (Aalto [10], p. 7). The childhood
experience Aalto recalls most vividly concerns the white table at which his
father, mother, and their collaborators worked. “The white table is big, possibly
the biggest table in the world. And it stands in the biggest room in my parents’
home.” As he was to explain later in his career, the white table became a symbol
for Aalto, “a neutral plane in combination with man, so neutral a plane that it can
receive anything, depending on man’s imagination and skill. A white table is as
white as white can be, it has no recipe. The white table of my childhood was a
big table. It has kept on growing. I have done my life’s work on it.”
(Aalto [3], pp.11-12). Whether drawing a stair rail detail or the building’s ‘parti’,
the ‘white table of Aalto’s childhood’ was a way of interrogating the design.
Aalto let the speculative, abstract line-work edit his evolving ideas and test the
validity of form. (Schildt [11], pp.10-13). In multiple views of the Church of
Lahti, emerging lines tracing plan shapes, masses, and contours of land and
building form are shown with remarkable scalar accuracy. In a rich analysis of
Aalto’s drawing technique, Mark Hewitt writes, “Although the apparent
spontaneity of the line is suggestive of a purely speculative method, most of the
published sketches follow a predictable problem solving system” based upon
earlier training in surveying and academic architectural design. (Fleig [9]).
Figure 3: Section of Church of the Three Crosses in Imatra.
2 Experimenting and intervening in light

The Nordic experience of light is unique. “The sun does not rise to a zenith but
grazes things obliquely and dissolves in an interplay of light and shadow.”
(Norberg-Schulz [12], p.1). This dispersed light highlights fragmentary and
boundless space as places conceal their figural effect, creating spaces of moods
and shifting nuances. Aalto’s work demonstrates that he had an acute awareness
for this quality of light, not only as it occurs in the Finnish landscape and is
reflected in his interiors, but also as it relates to humankind spiritually.
2.1 The double line
Exploring how we can link the interior and exterior of our homes, Aalto
discusses the thick, demarcating line that in Nordic climates “requires a sharp
differentiation between the warm interior and the surroundings” and unites the
more intimate rooms with the open air (Aalto [3], p.50). Recalling his own
childhood home, Aalto believed that when entering a room you should sense the
unity of the room, the external wall, and the garden. He understood that the cold
climate might do violence to this unity, but that there is nothing wrong with
Nordic homes being closed to the outside world. “The Finnish home should have
two faces. One is the aesthetically direct contact with the world outside; the
other, its winter face, turns inward and is seen in the interior design, which
emphasizes the warmth of our inner rooms.” (Aalto [3], pp.51-52).
This double-faced line is well illustrated in the Finnish National Pensions
Institute in Helsinki. The external façade facing Mannerheimintie reveals an
austere composition of a ground floor public entrance sheathed in copper and

bronze with solid exterior doors, sealed like a vault. Once inside, however, the
intermediate space sharply contrasts the somber exterior in material, color, and
mood. The main hall beyond is surprisingly arresting, a vast, internal court filled
with daylight spilling downward from four large, trough-like, multi-layered
skylights. This double line defining two ‘shells,’ fig. 3, is also used to
tremendous success in the Church of Three Crosses at Vuoksenniska where
Aalto creates a space of light in the dimension between the interior and exterior
walls. Horizontal light, filtered through the birch and pine forest enters high in
the double-layered windows of the east elevation, bounces against the shallow
white space, and fills the sanctuary with a diffuse ‘half-light.’ The configuration
of the three bulging swells in plan is analogous to the double-line ripples of the
sanctuary ceiling. Following this descending, wave-like line in section, the altar
roof peaks southward from the crown of the nave like a rock projecting from a
shallow river. The formal reference to cascading movement reinforces the
meaning of ‘vuoksi’ as flowing water, the name of the river that runs through
Imatra, as well as the Finnish word aalto meaning ‘wave’ (Nerdinger [13], p.20).
2.2 The fragmented line
In Finland, the land of the midnight sun, the diffuse white-light of a summer
night is bewitching as the palpable dissolves in an enigmatic shimmer.
Something analogous happens in winter when the snow covered earth and large
sky vault saturate the night with a peculiar dark light. Indeterminate and
fragmentary we inhabit a realm without fixed boundaries or clear geometric
form. Things do not appear individually, but are interwoven. Spatially, “we are
cleft into fragments of disparate character.” (Norberg-Schulz [12], p.6).
This heterotopia of dissimilar entities is a particular curiosity with Aalto’s
work, as is pointed out by Demetrius Porphyrious. (Porphyrios [14]) In the
Cultural Center at Wolfsburg, a number of geometric coherences are brought
together as if by chance, be it the radiating fan of lecture rooms or the introverted
stepped library and the uneven orthogonal grid of offices. Discontinuities are
welcome. There is autonomy within every ordering gesture as fragmentary lines
of space and light define an intimately nuanced network of places. The Library at
Seinajoki is a similar composition of fragmented lines brought together in light.
The spatial organization shows the sunken reading area with its central control
desk, a volumetric, figural library hall with a fan-shaped wall admitting dappled
sunlight through horizontal louvers, and a low lying block of support spaces. A
fragmented, undulating ceiling line distributes reflected light throughout the
interior, referencing the typical northern sky of shifting clouds and broken sun
(Weston [4], p.184). As these examples illustrate, the building’s interior becomes
highly differentiated, leaving the monolithic order of Modernism behind. Aalto’s
use of the fragmentary line lends great variety, spatially, formally, and
materially, offering a rich palette to his buildings, capable of adjusting to all sorts
of indeterminate circumstances. As Mark Hewitt aptly puts it, “A unity of
concept is achieved without sacrificing formal diversity.” (Hewitt [2], p.176).
2.3 The analytic line
“I learned - at the age of four, I believe - the philosophy of pencil and paper,”
Aalto writes (Aalto [3], p.12). Later in life, his acquired sketching penchant was
used in conjunction with more formal, analytic design techniques. It is apparent
in Aalto’s use of simultaneous plan, section, and elevation modes on a single
drawing, for instance, that he assimilated well the lessons of the academic
classical method from his Beaux-Arts influenced curriculum at the Helsinki
Institute of Technology (Schildt [11], pp.68-82). Additionally, Aalto learned the
conventions of picturesque composition as we note the perspective views of
massing studied within the margins of a page. Aalto’s extraordinary synthesis of
space/mass composition in his conceptual sketch was the most powerful design
tool in his repertoire. Mark Hewitt writes, Aalto’s “unique conceptual schema
seemed to embrace the poetic qualities of form in drawing while simultaneously
adhering to a precise, analytical methodology.” (Hewitt [2], p.177). Aalto
understood that a loosely drawn sketch might uncover several alternative
expressions of formal character and spatial enclosure, while simultaneously
helping to refine the space between inner and outer walls and even articulate the
acoustic and lighting design. To look at his drawing of space and light in a
specific design is therefore informative in understanding this summarizing,
analytic line.
“When I designed Viipuri City Library,” Aalto writes, “I spent long periods
getting my range, as it were, through naïve drawings. I drew all kinds of fantastic
mountain landscapes, with slopes lit by many suns in different positions, which
gradually gave birth to the main idea of the library building.” (Aalto [15], p.97).
The spatial order of the library comprises various reading and lending areas,
which are stepped at different levels with the administrative and supervisory
center at the ‘peak.’ Layered within this interior landscape, the horizontal ceiling
plane is fitted with circular skylights deep enough to prevent direct penetration
of sunlight, fig. 5. Aalto’s childlike drawings of mountain landscapes were only
indirectly linked with the architectural idea of Viipuri, but they led to an
interweaving of the section and the plan shape, and to a kind of unity of
horizontal and vertical construction (Aalto [15], p. 98). What is most intriguing
when tracing the sketches of Viipuri library is the way that Aalto used the line to
describe light, sound, and space in at once an analytic and experiential manner.
This is seen in Aalto’s delineation of the acoustical form for the meeting room as
well as the shaping of the conical skylights of Viipuri City Library, fig. 4. Lines
of sound, like lines of light are projected and reflected from surrounding surfaces
to achieve a unified diffusion in other works as well, most notably the shaping of
the curved forms of Vuoksenniska Church and the fan shaped auditoria of
Finlandia Hall in Helsinki.
3 Experimenting and intervening in life

Believing that “great ideas arise from the small details of life,” Aalto always
designed with the day-to-day needs of people in mind (Aalto [15], pp. 94-95).
“My theory are my buildings, I build, that’s all,” is often quoted to explain
Aalto’s untheoretical bent and focus on actual construction. Karl Fleig remarked
that in the twenty-five years during which he spent countless hours with Aalto,
he never talked about architectural theory. “What motivated him were his
observations of life. Aalto attempted to invest everything with form.”
(Fleig [9], pp.9-11) Others have pointed to the emotional qualities of Aalto’s
expressionistic sketches as crucial to his view of design as an extension of life.
“If form somehow fails to be logically connected with everyday life, it will
suffer and loose significance,” Aalto exclaimed. “There are only two things in
art: humanity or not” (Aalto [3], p.183, 202).
Figure 4: Daylight and artificial light in Viipuri Figure 5: Idea sketch.

Library.
3.1 The horizontal line
At the introduction to a lecture given to his British colleagues in 1950, Leslie
Martin, vice president of the Royal Institute of British Architects introduced
Aalto by referencing a ‘horizontal line.’ “Above this horizontal line I would
choose to place the creative work of these great designers and below it the rest.”
(Schildt [11], p.201). Aalto referenced Martin’s horizontal line in the same
lecture saying, “The real line is to plan and to build for the little man, for his
benefit.” (Aalto [3], p.204). Thinking about what people need, fresh air, daylight,
gardens and forests, Aalto writes, “it is from these little things that we should
build up a harmonious world for the people. This would be possible if everybody
tried to get the people who are in the administration to just follow our line.”
(Schildt [11], p.205). In the attention that Aalto played to the little things, from
the tactile quality of a double door handle at a library to the dampened sound of
splashing water in a washbasin at a hospital, it is apparent that he never forgot
that he was designing for human beings. Here we are again reminded of Fleig’s
comment that Aalto had “little time for formal architectural theories; only life
that is lived and observed can furnish guidelines.” (Fleig [9], p.9).
Life did offer guidelines for Aalto in the design of Paimio Sanitarium for he
was ill at the time of its design. “It irritated me to lie horizontal all the time and
the first thing I noticed was that the rooms were designed for people who spend
their days in a vertical position, not for those who have to spend days on end in
bed.” (Aalto [3], p.178). As a foundation for the humanizing of architecture,
Aalto based his design on this horizontal line of reclining patients. He designed
the lighting to be outside patients’ field of view, ceiling heating to be directed
toward patients’ feet, the ventilation of special opening casement windows to
avoid drafts, the ceilings to be painted in dark, restful colors, the communal floor
surfaces to be bright yellow linoleum to promote a sunny and upright disposition,
sun loungers to be wheeled out to the open air terraces at the east end of each
floor, and a wave-like chair with molded arm rests and a laminated wood
supporting system to resiliently receive the occupant (Aalto [15], pp.76-79).
3.2 The meandering line
The naturally flowing, seemingly self-evident, meandering line of movement is
an important design element with which Aalto relates buildings to human beings.
Aalto understood the way we orient in the density of the Finnish forest and in the
uninhibited thickness of human life. We wander, because things are not precise.
In this meandering line of movement, we come to find our way. As an
expression of life and motion, Aalto’s ‘forest spaces’ allow us to find a tentative,
wandering way. One never moves along an axial line, following an orthogonal
route system from one point to another. Instead, the line of movement constantly
turns off in a different direction, with the vitality and variety of nature expressed
in the freedom of modulated and attenuated space (Nerdinger [13], pp.20-24).
Like the asymmetrical fan-like form akin to many of his works, the flow of
movement is like a subsiding wave, pulsating in and out, up and down, forward
and backward.
Aalto translates the everyday movements of people into architecture,
applying this principle particularly well to the design of interior landscapes. In
the figured space of Finlandia Hall, we see how the rectilinear concert hall forms
are thrust into the public space creating wave-like, billowy lines of access,
lending the interior a feeling of natural form and movement. This meandering
line can also be seen in the form and experience of the Baker House Dormitories
at Massachusetts Institute of Technology where every step and view is carefully
choreographed. “The starting point of Aalto’s design was to place the living
accommodation as well as possible in relation to the river,” Elina Standertskjold
noted. “He made dozens of sketches and finally adopted an unusual plan in
which the narrow spine of the building twists in parallel with the river road.”
(Standertskjold [10], pp.56-63). This serpentine form resulted in an individual
view of the Charles River from every room, wandering passages between public
and private spaces, and an organic contrast to the rectilinear design of the MIT
campus.
3.3 The indivisible line
Aalto regarded everything that touches human life as a task for the architect and
he referred to this process as the total synthesis (Fleig [16]). Seeing architecture
as a single indivisible line, from painting to urban planning to experiments in
wood to the design of a staircase balustrade, is a special quality of Aalto’s work.

Aalto understood every construction as an integrated whole, designing
everything down to the smallest detail himself. Commenting on the
inseparability of art forms, Aalto writes, “Paintings and sculptures are all part of
my working method. So I wouldn’t like to see them separated from my
architecture. To me these works are all branches of the same tree, the trunk of
which is architecture.” (Aalto [3], p.40). In much the same way as Aalto’s
paintings experiment with the natural metaphors of form and movement, Aalto’s
bent wood studies and furniture design subtly but effectively transform
industrialism into a harmonious quality of civilization. The fusion of sketching,
painting, sculpture and architecture yields a dense web and complex mode of
conception where the line is a unique heuristic device allowing Aalto out of the
‘maze’ when he gets that kind of “three in the morning feeling.” Aalto writes, “I
forget the whole maze of problems for a while. I then move into a method of
working that is very muck like abstract art. I simply draw by instinct, and in this
way, on an abstract basis the main idea gradually takes shape.”
(Aalto [3], p.108). Then “one tackles the material. Through application the ideas
will become more concrete and realistic. The three art forms, architecture,
painting, sculpture, are connected because they are an expression of human
intellectuality based on ‘materia.’” (Aalto [3], p.267) Idea becomes reality as the
indivisible line takes material form.
4 Conclusion: “Following the Line”

Aalto was fascinated by lines; as the strata and contours of the earth, as
manifestations of natural forces, as expressions of meandering movement, as
undulating wave-like spaces, even as striations of an uneven brick façade. In all
his works, Aalto writes, he sought to “accentuate the lines of square and street
perspectives. In the country, their function is to accentuate the landscape.”
(Aalto [3], p.22) Uniting building and landscaping with a cartographers eye,
combining speculation with rationality in an imaginative way, harmonizing
space and mass with environmental sensitivity, and fusing form and function
with remarkable human compassion, Aalto used the line in a heuristic way. What
makes the line magical, Marja-Riitta Norri, director of the Museum of Finnish
Architecture ponders? “The line contains human thought, it carries the mark of
the hand that drew it; they combine into a single living material that goes to build
the real world.” (Norri [3], p.9) Aalto’s theory is his process, he builds when he
draws!
References
[1] Schildt, G., “Alvar Aalto’s teachers – three leaves from the book of his
life,” Alvar Aalto 1898-1976, ed. Aarno Ruusuvuori, The Museum of
Finnish Architecture: Helsinki, pp. 13-21, 1978.
[2] Hewitt, Mark A., “The Imaginary Mountain The Significance of Contour
in Alvar Aalto’s Sketches,” Perspecta 23 The Yale Architectural Journal,
eds. M. Chapman, B. Rubenstein and S. Wright, Rizzoli International

Publications: New York, 1989.
[3] Aalto, A., Alvar Aalto In His Own Words, ed. Goran Schildt, trans.
Timothy Binham, Rizzoli International Publications: New York, 1997.
[4] Weston, R., Alvar Aalto, Phaidon Press Limited: London, 1995.
[5] Aalto, A., “Nature and Architecture,” Alvar Aalto 1898-1976, ed. Aarno
Ruusuvuori, The Museum of Finnish Architecture: Helsinki, p. 34, 1978.
[6] Schildt, G., Alvar Aalto: The Decisive Years, trans. Timothy Binham,
Rizzoli International Publications: New York, pp. 131-132, 1986.
[7] Weston, R., “Between Nature and Culture: Reflections on the Villa
Mairea,” Alvar Aalto: Toward a Human Modernism, ed. Winfried
Nerdinger, Prestel Verlag: Munich, London, New York, 1999.
[8] Hoesli, B. Alvar Aalto: Synopsis, Birkhauser Verlag: Basel, Boston,
Stuttgart, p. 5, 1980.
[9] Fleig, K., Alvar Aalto: Volume II, 1963-70, Artemis: Zurich, 1971.
[10] Aalto, A., The Line: Original Drawings from the Alvar Aalto Archive, ed.
K. Paatero, trans. H. Hawkins, Helsinki, 1993.
[11] Schildt, G., Alvar Aalto: The Early Years, trans. Timothy Binham, Rizzoli
International Publications: New York, 1984.
[12] Norberg-Schulz, C., Nightlands: Nordic Building, trans. Thomas
McQuillan, MIT Press: Cambridge, London, 1996.
[13] Nerdinger, W., “Alvar Aalto’s Human Modernism,” Alvar Aalto: Toward
a Human Modernism, ed. Winfried Nerdinger, Prestel Verlag: Munich,
London, New York, 1999.
[14] Porphyrios, D., “The Ordering Sensibility of Heterotopia,” Sources of
Modern Eclecticism, St. Martin’s Press: London, pp. 1-8, 1982.
[15] Aalto, A., “The Trout and the Mountain Stream,” Sketches: Alvar Aalto,
ed. Goran Schildt, trans. Stuart Wrede, MIT Press: Cambridge, London,
1978.
[16] Fleig, K., Alvar Aalto: Volume I 1943-63, p. 6, 1995.
Historical influences of wind and water in

selecting settlement sites
P. Kilby
Fellow of the Royal Institute of British Architects,
Member of the Institute of Historic Building Conservation and
Fellow of the Wessex Institute of Technology, UK
Abstract
Air and water are the essential ingredients of all life and throughout history the
choice of sites for settlements, whether secular or ecclesiastical, comes down to
these two factors
The influence of prevailing winds is significant and contains some elements
of mystery or unexplained facts and the presence of a plentiful water supply
again influenced where towns stood, not only next to rivers, but also where water
from under ground sources was present i.e. artesian wells.
1 Introduction
The influence of prevailing winds in the location of a settlement can be seen, for
example, in the first Roman settlement of Clausentum in AD 43, and the Saxon
town of Hamwic, on the opposing bank of the River Itchen, that are sited in a
line with the medieval walled town of Southampton on the banks of the River
Test, all in a south-westerly direction, in line with the prevailing wind. Is this
chance or design or has this notoriously persistent wind exerted a subliminal
influence on this alignment? See Figure 1.
Looking nearby at the City of Winchester, just 12 miles north of
Southampton, it was created in AD 70 by the Romans with a new town called
Venta Belgarum, when the River Itchen, on which it stands, was diverted and a
whole new shape created where the grid layout of the town’s streets is tilted in a
south westerly direction facing towards the prevailing wind; Figure 2. The
presence of a plentiful water supply, whether from a river or an underground
source, certainly influenced where towns stood. However, the abundance of
doi:10.2495/ARC060121
Figure 1: This drawing represents the siting of the Roman Fort of

Clausentum, The Saxon Town of Hamwic, and the later Medieval
Town of Southampton, all sited in a south westerly direction.
water on flat flood plains brought with it problems for medieval builders of
cathedrals and monasteries where large structures needed support on unstable
ground.
Water was also a means of transportation before the coming of the railways,
on rivers and man made canals, while the sea exerted its influence around the
coasts. In Southampton, for instance, the prosperity of the medieval town up to
the present day relied on the unique advantages of the dual tides, giving its port
the advantage of 4 extra hours of high water first noted by the Venerable Bede,
writing in the 8th Century AD.
Figure 2: Venta Belgarum, today’s Winchester, was one of England’s ‘New

Towns’ laid out on a grid, following the diversion of the River
Itchen to accommodate the preferred plan, and tilted on a south
west orientation.
2 Climatic influences
Enquiries made with the UK Met Office, Jebson [1], have cast an illuminating
insight into the relationship between weather and the built environment over the
centuries.
The source of the south westerly winds in the northern hemisphere relates to
their origin at the equator, where warm air rises, and together with the forces of
gravity and the rotation of the earth on its axis, has been driven throughout
history towards the south west coast of Britain. These warmer winds have been
recorded back to Roman times, not by any meteorological sources but by the
strange and fortuitous evidence of vineyards growing as far north as Yorkshire.
In Professor Lamb’s [2] scholarly book, ‘Climate Past Present and Future’, it
confirms the influences of wind and rain, over the built environment for the
period of the Roman Conquest, through to medieval times and beyond.
Experience of the author over many years as a practicing architect in central
southern England, has reinforced the view of the significance of the prevailing
winds, especially in times of heavy and continuous rainfall, when rainwater
against the envelope of building over a period of time, requires extreme design
measures to keep the water from penetrating inside.
There are other historical factors to consider namely the cycles of wet and dry
periods and the reaction of structures comprising ancient settlements.
During the period between 1100 and 1310, there is evidence of predominantly
dry weather, mainly from the dendrochronolgy of trees, when Professor Lamb
asserts “A climate event such as an extreme season can be dated in favourable
circumstances to an exact year”. It is suggested that in this same period of
Norman construction, that the failure of large building like Cathedrals and
Churches may have been due to the lowering of the water table, and subsequent
drying out and shrinkage of the ground on which these buildings stood. The most
classic failure of a Norman structure in modern times is linked to Winchester
Cathedral which almost collapsed at the beginning of the 19th Century, saved
only by the endeavours William Walker a diver, the Consulting Engineers and
Sir Thomas Jackson the Cathedral Architect, who said of the event, “From first
to last, however, the history of the Cathedral has been marked with disaster
owing to the unfortunate selection of the site”, (i.e. next to the River Itchen on
it’s flood plain).
3 The birth of settlements and their buildings

The earliest man made structures were simple timber frames with straw roofs
and earth floors. There were of course no architects or planners to decide where a
settlement should be founded. The first consideration was one of safety and we
see in this, the Iron Age Hilltop Forts of St Catherine’s Hill south of Winchester
dating from circa 300 BC and at Old Sarum nearby to Salisbury dating from
about 500 BC.
More solidly constructed buildings came first with the Roman occupation of
Britain in AD 43, after their landing at Clausentum in Southampton Water and
setting up a fortified camp there on the site of, what is now, Bitterne Manor,
making probably their first settlement here in this country. From this strategic
position in southern England, would radiate the system of Roman roads, where
during the occupation of 400 years or so, would extend over the whole country,
including Wales and the lowlands of Scotland beyond Hadrian’s Wall in the
North of England. It was along these roads that vast numbers of settlements grew
in the guise of Villa homesteads, for which Rome was famous.
Additionally this form of town planning brought with it the engineering
expertise of the Romans, to introduce for the first time the technical installations
of the hypocaust and steam baths, proper drainage and sanitation and all the
refinements to deal with an inhospitable climate, unlike Rome, a place that was
unlikely to be seen by its soldiers again.
Further refinements in the organisation of town planning are seen in the
layout of Venta Belgarum, i.e. Winchester as we know it today, where the tilt on
the axis of the plan to the south west can best be attributed to allowing the
prevailing wind free access across the grid of streets forming in effect a
ventilation system. In addition, to the north of the new town, a necropolis or
‘City of the Dead’ was created to avoid contamination of the water supply by
burials and to protect the spirituality of the living world.
The securing of a sustaining water supply was a key element in the founding
of a settlement. In the case of Winchester, Venta Belgarum, the chosen site was
next to the River Itchen, which in addition is groundwater fed, over a catchment
area of some 400 square kilometres where rainfall soaks into the chalk substrata,
and there forms a massive underground reservoir or ‘aquifer’. The Roman
engineer’s would have known this when choosing this particular site for their
new town. Almost a millennium later the same decision was reached when the
monks founded the Benedictine Priory of St. Swithun here in AD 964, led by
Bishop Ethelwold.
Without doubt the most significant individual structures of the medieval
period in England, and indeed Europe were ecclesiastical buildings. Architects as
we know them were not known, or at any rate recorded. The building work was
done by master masons, members of exclusive ‘Lodges’ within whose enclaves
were refectories and workshops housing, in effect, a closed order of expertise,
guarding their knowledge of the geometric rules of construction from the outside
world. The names of some of these elite masons are known, for instance William
de Wynford who in 1382 was responsible for organising work on Southampton
Castle and later was to assist Bishop William of Wykeham in the remodelling of
the nave of Winchester Cathedral. However, one exception to the rules of
exclusivity is seen in the writings of Villard de Honnecourt (circa 1175-1240) a
French master mason who has left behind some rare manuscripts in a ‘Lodge
Book’, dealing with medieval building construction and methods, Curl [3].
4 Conclusions and final analysis

Referring back to the significance of the prevailing winds in the choice of
settlement sites and orientation of the plan form, in a south westerly direction,
further evidence arises to support this theory. On the Isle of Wight, the medieval
layout of the streets of Newport, the Island’s ‘Capital’, originate from the late
12th Century AD, when Richard de Redvers, Lord of the Isle of Wight, laid down
a parallel street system, namely the High Street and Pyle Street, which has
endured to this day. The orientation of this street system is in a south westerly
direction, Shepard [4].
Richard de Redvers, quite clearly a property entrepreneur of his time,
similarly laid out the foundations of Lymington, across the Solent on the
mainland this time, with what has been described as a ‘single axial’ street,
forming the nucleus of the present street system, laid out in a south west
orientation. This layout is confirmed nearer to our time in history by the 1750
‘Map of the Manor and Haven of Bewley (now Beaulieu), in Hampshire’,
Figure 3.
This same map includes a reference to the foundation of the shipbuilding
town of Bucklers Hard on the Beaulieu River, when it states “Adjoining the Key
(Quay) there is a good situation for a Town, on rising Ground, gravely soil, with
plenty of fresh water”. It was here that Lord Nelson’s ship the Agamemnon was
built in 1781, Montagu [5].
Quite clearly the availability of water both for drinking and transportation
purposes has been a significant influence on the choice of settlement sites in the
same way that wind and weather would seem to have both a practical as well as
subliminal influence, although quite difficult to substantiate.
Figure 3: Map of Bewley (Beaulieu) 1750. This 18th Century map clearly
indicates the original axial plan of present day Lymington, (circled)
(called Limington on the map), laid out in the 12th Century by
Richard de Redvers, Lord of the Isle of Wight, again on a south
westerly axis.
In a recent television programme (2005) on BBC2 entitled “Talking

Landscapes” the presence of unexplained prehistoric stone features above ground
was explained by the significant statement “Belonging to a landscape results in a
desire to replicate it with these structures”.
Quite clearly there were influences beyond man’s comprehension in early
history, when the forces of nature were a cogent element to be acknowledged and
reacted to when creating a town or settlement on a virgin site. The wind direction
was in effect a natural compass and one can find no other reasonable conclusion
to explain the phenomenon of the south westerly orientation of some coastal
settlements.
References
[1] Jebson S. Information Officer, UK Met Office, E-mail 22/09/05.
[2] Lamb H.H. Climate Past Present and Future, London, Methuen and Co
Ltd, 1972.
[3] Curl J.S, A Dictionary of Architecture, Oxford, Oxford University Press,
1999.
[4] Shepard B, Newport Isle of Wight Remembered, Newport, Natural
History and Archaeological Society, 1984.
[5] Second Lord Montagu of Beaulieu, Bucklers Hard and its Ships, London,
1909.
[6] Kilby P., Southampton Through the Ages, Southampton, Computational
Mechanics Publications, 1977
[7] Kilby P., Winchester an Architect’s View, Southampton. WIT Press,
2002.
Unity, simplicity and balance:

sustainable management of cultural historic
environments of mountain summer farming
G. Swensen
The Norwegian Institute for Cultural Heritage Research
Abstract
Ecologically based architecture aims to maintain a long-term harmony between
the built environment and nature. It assumes that there is a close, interlocked
connection between natural conditions and cultural expressions, a unitary and
holistic comprehension of time and space, and a belief in one’s ability to
influence the long-term effects of technological development in an ecologically
beneficial way. In this paper these hypotheses will be viewed in light of some
basic principles on which the structures of traditional building forms have been
based. Special emphasis will be put on the relationship that has long existed
between the built environment and the landscape. This approach will be
illustrated by the presentation of a traditional regional type of dwelling still
found in active use in some mountain areas in Norway and by the ways farmers
adapt to the demands set by modern farming directives. The paper is linked to an
ongoing interdisciplinary research project: “Redefining Rural Resources – Local
capacity-building in sustainable management of cultural historic environments of
mountain summer farming”.
Keywords: cultural historic environments, cultural heritage protection,
sustainability, ecological architecture, vernacular architecture, mountain
summer farming.
1 Introduction
1.1 Main perspectives
This article should be seen as a small contribution to the basic discussion on

which cultural heritage management is based, namely how to secure a viable role
doi:10.2495/ARC060131
for enduring cultural historic environments in meeting the challenges set by

modern forms of production. It is illustrated by a region where mountain summer
farming still plays a vital role and the article primarily focuses on one aspect of
mountain summer farming, namely the dwellings and the cultural historic
environment and landscape of which they form an integral part.
The mountain summer farm constitutes a cultural environment of material
components: buildings and other built structures (fences etc), surrounding areas
(pasture, mowing land), as well as immaterial connections. Today the owners
find themselves in the intersection between several trends: agricultural
readjustments leading to either a reduction in or the discontinuance of mountain
summer farming – a developing tourism industry based on an appreciation of
national heritage – and expanding areas of modern holiday homes and outdoor
pursuit centres in key mountain regions. Are the characteristics of the built
environments that are recognised as assets for local farmers commensurate with
the technical demands, agricultural regulations, and economic framework to
which today’s farmers have to adapt? The primary question in this context is: can
the basic principles of forms, constructions and plans on which traditional types
of dwelling are based be sustained and developed from an eco-architectural
perspective to meet the demands today’s mountain farmers face, thus managing
to maintain the tight-knit bond between landscape and forms of settlement?
This paper is linked to an ongoing interdisciplinary research project:
“Redefining Rural Resources – Local capacity-building in sustainable
management of cultural historic environments of mountain summer farming”
(2005 – 2007). Two case studies will be carried out in different regions with
active summer mountain farming. The analysis will entail study at three different
levels: 1. A critical review of relevant official documents and proposed and
approved plans 2. Qualitative interviews with key actors participating in the local
capacity-building process 3. A field study, including systematic observations in
the selected localities. This article presents some reflections based on the first
case study, with references to some of the key official documents as well as to
information from some of the 13 interviews.
1.2 Presentation of some key concepts
Discussions about sustainability reflect a growing concern for the environment.

Place-based communities have become central to a holistic concept of
sustainability which integrates environmental, economic, political, cultural and
social considerations. It rests on a recognition that the safeguarding and
preservation of nature and cultural environments must be grounded in the
communities and societies which utilise and depend on them (Richards and
Hall [9]). This strong emphasis on the local community constitutes the premise
on which this article will be based.
When sustainability is referred to in discussions about ecological architecture,
aspects such as technology, renewability and traditional wisdom are focused on
(Butters and Østmo [2], Williamson [16], Phillips [7], Thompson [14]).
According to James Steel, the need for sustainable development has led to a new
way of looking at materials and form, opening the way to a greater willingness to
replace scarce resources with renewable materials. This requires looking beyond
fashion to a more durable approach to design. A more open minded attitude has
moved the perspective towards learning from traditional building methods and
realising “that local architecture grew out of many trial and error attempts to deal
with natural phenomena and should be respected as a repository of wisdom”
(Steel [11]). The sustainable management of cultural historic environments
characterised by active contemporary use gives rise to examples where such
knowledge is needed by the participants involved at all levels – farmers,
builders, and management officials. The challenges being set by modern
operating methods require the redefinition of cultural historic resources in a new
setting, though on the terms stipulated by the old buildings and the context of
their environments.
2 Case study: Budalen – a region dominated by active

mountain summer farming
2.1 A local example
Budalen was selected as case study due to the active summer farming which has
taken place here for generations. According to the list of farmers receiving
production subsidies in the municipality, 28 farmers were practising mountain
summer farming here in 2004. Of this total, 17 of the mountain summer farms
are situated within a landscape protection area (Endal and Budal). In this part of
the municipality the number of active mountain summer farmers has stabilised
during the last ten years.
Traces of mountain summer farming in this region can be found from as far
back as the middle of the 17th century, and during the subsequent 200 years a
series of summer farms were established. The main reason for the continuous
summer farming is the need for supplementary animal fodder. The main farms
are situated in a region where the summers are too short to provide enough
cultivated grazing land for the livestock. During the peak summer months,
normally between 1st July and 1st September, the livestock is moved into the
valleys to supplementary grazing land in the mountainous area.
The two valleys are reminiscent of two arms stretching out towards a
remarkable mountain formation named Forollhogna. Endalen is situated in the
western part of the region. It is a relatively open valley situated approximately
700 – 1,100 m above sea level and stretches over approximately 35 km. Today
the valley has no milk round, which means that the dairy products have to be
produced at the summer farms. There are three active milk farmers in Endalen,
with the rest of the dwellings being run by sheep farmers. All the land in this
valley is owned by the state. The eastern valley, Budalen, which has given its
name to the whole region is slightly shorter than its neighbouring valley. A few
of the summer farms are privately owned in its southern part. The daily milk
round forms the economic basis on which today’s summer farming is based,
though the so-called niche production of traditional milk products plays an
important supplementary role.
As a mountain region, Forollhogna is a popular habitat for large herds of wild

reindeer and other rare wildlife. Because of this the region was turned into a
protected national park in 2001. The two neighbouring valleys where the
summer mountain dwellings are situated are listed as landscape protection areas,
which means they are subject to restrictions concerning building alterations,
rebuilding, etc. The main focus is still on the maintenance of active farming,
which to a large degree influences how the regulations are interpreted and
applied.
2.2 Mountain summer farming - a cornerstone of Norwegian agriculture
From a situation 150 years ago where almost every farm had a summer mountain
farm, and some farms even had more than one, about 1,200 summer mountain
farms are currently in use (Norsk seterkultur 2003).
The fact that a lot of farmers found it financially unsatisfactory to maintain
mountain summer farming led to a dramatic reduction after 1945 due to major
changes within the rural sector. Sør-Trøndelag, the county in which Budalen is
located, had more than 2,000 active mountain summer farms in 1939. By 1998,
the total number had fallen to 425. The threat this trend represents with respect to
losing key assets has caused both the rural and the cultural heritage sector to act.
Different forms of grants have therefore been introduced, both for community
development and cultural landscape management. This has resulted in a slight
increase in summer farming since the lowest level was reached in 1989, and
between 1989 and 1998, 71 farmers decided to start up again in Sør-Trøndelag
(Statens Landbruksbank [10]).
The summer farming in Budalen typifies a Norwegian mountain summer
farming region in the sense that it blends into a pattern of multifunctional
agriculture that represents an adaptation to the particular climatic conditions
farmers in this country have always had to face. At the same time its character
makes it unique: partly because of the close-knit unity which still exists between
the landscape and dwellings, and partly because of the strict regulations to which
the summer farm region is subject as part of the landscape protection. The level
of degradation has reached a higher tempo in most other regions.
3 Traditional buildings as part of today’s landscape

3.1 Some basic principles of traditional wood building techniques
The importance of upholding certain general rules that govern the traditional use
of wood as a building material was stressed in a recently completed project,
which has led to a greater focus on how traditional techniques can be transferred
to a modern setting. Particular attention is paid to principles such as:
- The principle of adequacy, which states that the optimal quality of the raw
material is that which is good enough for the job. While certain exposed parts
of a building require top quality timber, others are adequately cared for by
using poorer materials.
- The complementary principle of protective construction, which pervades much

of our architectural heritage and is embodied in numerous methods aimed at
ensuring buildings maximum lifetimes (methods and constructive elements to
ensure ventilation, combat rot, preventing the entry of water, etc.) (Egenberg
2004b:6)
3.2 A short description of the regional building traditions
The mountain summer farms in the two valleys are located according to the
topography. Unlike the main farm settlement, no distinctive farmyard structure
dominates. There is however a slight tendency to place the buildings in a row, in
which case the mountainous landscape formation often plays an important role.
The Swedish architectural historian Finn Werne [15] has introduced group form
as a concept in his studies of traditional peasant buildings. It describes an open
and dynamic form in which new parts or elements can be added and others
removed or changed without the unity or pattern being broken. Group form is
characteristic of the building traditions in the old peasant society. It grew out of
several social and particular phenomena, and is related to a complex network of
routines, customs, traditions, knowledge, motivations, roles and material
preconditions. It is typical of ordinary building constructions and is significantly
distinct from architecture as a formalised art form.
A mountain summer farm in this area normally consisted of three main
building types: a house built as a combined dwelling and storehouse (“seterbu”),
a cow barn, and a hay barn. In addition to this, separate cookhouses and
storehouses were common on most mountain summer farms. Smaller hay barns
were also situated outside the building cluster nearer to the hay outfields. The
combined dwellings and storehouses were quite small, between 4-5 m long. They
normally had three rooms. The entrance led into a combined hall and storehouse
(“skjæle”) and from here into the room with the fireplace, a room combining
several functions: cooking, sleeping and recreation (“bu”). On the other side was
a cool storehouse (“masbu”) without windows for storing dairy products. The
outbuildings were generally laid out as one-storey buildings with one room.
There are also examples of combined outbuildings, for instance cow barns
extended with hay barns. A few cow barns had a cellar for manure, but more
commonly there was an opening in the gable wall. Most buildings had natural
stone foundations or rested on cornerstones. The construction method most
frequently used was cogged joints, often in combination with a timber
framework. To keep the roof waterproof a layer of birch bark was placed
between the roof boards and a layer of turf. These old techniques fell out of use
when galvanized sheets were introduced. The buildings were designed to be
utilitarian and ornamental details were only sparsely incorporated (Sør-
Trøndelag County Council [12]:6-9).
3.3 Restrictions set by the landscape protection regulations
Since many of the areas are owned by the state, a special set of rather strict
regulations apply (“Seterforskriftene”). However, there is a willingness to open
the way for new activities aimed at producing supplementary income such as
tourism and culture based services. There is an assumption that such
combinations are necessary to maintain mountain summer farming.
The active milk farmers today use generators to run their milking machines,
and solar panels for general lighting. Permission has been granted for the
provision of electricity to the valley in the future. Buried cables have been
recommended, but financial considerations are currently preventing installation
(Forvaltningsplan [6]: 17, 18). When it comes to the buildings, the importance of
protecting the landscape against interference (for instance erecting new
buildings, demolishing old farm buildings) is highlighted as the primary
function. Room has however been made for exceptions and such applications are
generally accepted when their purpose is to erect buildings that are necessary to
enable summer farming and grazing, or to allow either restoration or rebuilding
for farming purposes. It is also possible to apply for permission for a change of
use. Except in the case of ordinary maintenance, all applications concerning the
dwellings are considered by cultural heritage officers at a county level
(Forvaltningsplan [6]: 19-21).
3.4 Conflicting interests between conservation and modern farming?
In a handbook published by the county’s cultural heritage department, the

farmers are asked to take account of old building traditions when it comes to
reparation, maintenance and new buildings. When it comes to new buildings, the
importance of orienting them according to the longitudinal direction of the valley
is stressed. In addition to this, extensions also have to be built lengthwise and not
at an angle. Do such approaches represent a basis for conflicts?
There are two main reasons why a need to alter a building arises. One is the
need to add an extension to the combined dwelling and storeroom in cases where
a farmer is hoping to rent out rooms to tourists. So far only one or two such cases
have been handled by the municipality’s Building Inspection Department.
The other major group of buildings undergoing reparation, alterations or
rebuilding are the cow barns. Any buildings in which milk products are
processed for retail are today classified as production buildings and have to meet
the specifications set by the agricultural authorities. The requirement to conserve
the old cow barns while complying with new demands has led to interesting
experiments. The so-called “milking stable” complies with the detailed
specifications concerning dimensions linked to the size of the herd. Old cow
barns would neither be high nor bright enough to satisfy today’s standard. The
milking stable is used as a temporary shelter while the milking takes place. The
livestock is let out again as soon as the milking is over, and the time consuming
job of removing manure no longer exists. Not all of the mountain summer
farmers have found the milking stable experiment satisfactory. One argument
against it is animal welfare, since cold mountain nights can be harsh. According
to anecdotal stories, cows belonging to farmers with a milking stable tend to mix
in with other herds in an attempt to get shelter. The new cow barns which are
being erected to house a normal herd of between 12 – 16 cows need to be bigger
than the old cow barns to satisfy current directives. A few such barns are
extensions of old buildings with stipulated height requirements being met by

digging down and constructing new foundations. However, most of the new cow
barns differ from the old in construction, length, dimensions and materials.
A local builder specialises in erecting buildings with cogged joints. He is
himself a mountain summer farmer. When he needed to restore some of the
buildings on his own summer farm, he took courses so he could restore his own
buildings. Today he is running a small building business and has delivered two
buildings to mountain summer farmers in the two local valleys. There seems to
be local demand for this sort of specialised knowledge, but no apparatus for
channelling the demand in the right direction.
Plans for using old buildings in new ways are normally approved by the
municipality’s Building Inspection Department. At the moment there are new
plans to restore cookhouses. Another idea planned for some time in the future
concerns restoring a collapsed barn and turning it into guest accommodation.
The financial backing which makes such plans possible is sought from several
sources. An annual subsidy is distributed at the county level to all mountain
summer farmers and there also are several other grants. You need a well-
established network and good advisors in order to be familiar with these
possibilities. The rural advisor employed by the municipality plays an important
role here and is referred to by most of the interviewees. Being a part-time
mountain summer farmer himself, he has an insight into the nature of the job,
which is now largely aimed at combining active use and protection.
Many other challenges faced by farmers on a daily basis stem from
regulations concerning hygiene and health directives for agricultural food
production. Those farmers who are interested in placing more emphasis than
before on specialised milk and cheese production, have to comply with directives
which are unsuitable for these goals. As one of the farmers put it: “We have to
follow the same procedures in these mountain areas as a chef in a gourmet
kitchen in the capital”.
4 A discussion of mountain summer farms in relation to

eco-architectural principles
4.1 Influence and local participation
The legislation that ensures the protection of valuable areas contains an inbuilt
potential for conflict, regardless of whether one is talking about natural resources
or cultural heritage assets. The formal decisions are primarily made at a state or
county level, which creates a need for constructive dialogue to enable local
opinions and suggestions to be taken into account. Without an understanding of
local factors much of the effort to ensure protection is likely to fail. Not
surprisingly the initial discussions about protection where met with a lot of
scepticism in Budalen. The farmers were afraid that strict regulations would
impede active summer farming which had survived during a long period of
continuous adjustments. During a period dominated by discussions the
scepticism has slowly worn off. Now the dominant viewpoint seems to be an
understanding of the potential being generated. This is due to the engagement of

several parties, not least initiatives at the municipal and county level. Active
farmers are involved in courses and inspire each other to try new methods in
accordance with handed-down knowledge. Due to a greater awareness on a
national level of the cultural landscape resources at stake, recent changes to the
government’s rural policies have made it easier to direct grants and subsidies
towards active mountain summer farming areas. Thus new initiatives have been
created which have resulted in a new optimism among the farmers.
4.2 Ensuring harmony between built settlements and the surrounding

landscape
The interviewees have surprisingly uniform opinions when asked what the main
assets of the valleys are. The primary value they mention is the harmony that
exists between the landscape and the settlement, which make it unnecessary –
and impossible – to rank one particular settlement above the others. The
explanation given for this is the continuous and vital role it plays in ensuring
their daily income. Seldom is a consensus concerning cultural values so easily
reached. In this case it can be understood in light of people’s shared perspective
due to active practice in today’s landscape. It is based on an understanding of the
dialogue and dialects which exist between nature and culture. In this case the use
of the Nature Conservation Act can be seen as one of the available means of
ensuring the continuation of the long established harmony between the built
environment and nature. By specifying the importance of continuous active use
in relation to modern rural demands, the regulatory documents reveal an
underlying shared understanding of the importance of maintaining the unity of
time and space to which the dwellings situated in the landscape bear witness.
4.3 The need for a new perception of the past
Today, there is renewed interest in reviving elements from the past in most
western countries. Some of this interest is based on expectations that tourism will
create new economic opportunities in rural areas struggling with migration.
Other reasons may have a political and ideological origin at a time when
European countries are becoming more tightly woven into the fabric of the EU.
In Budalen however, it is not a question of reviving, but of maintaining a way of
living which has proven to be highly adaptable. During the last few years the
population level has been stable. Most of the people living there regard
themselves mainly as farmers by profession, even though the family economy is
often supplemented by other incomes, and they want to continue as farmers for
as long as an opportunity to do so exists. Getting young people interested in
spending a summer season in charge of the mountain summer farm is not a
problem, one of the youngest is a 17 year old girl. However, farmers in Budalen
are well aware of the renewed interest in rural traditions in the tourism market
and have an open mind towards new ways of combining farming, tourism and
cultural tourism. The uniqueness of these valleys lies in the interplay which takes
place here between traditional buildings and a landscape which, though

dominated by biodiversity, is still in active use.
4.4 Promoting ecological friendly building forms and methods

(“green structures”)
Knowledge of the old ways of building is no longer shared knowledge because

the long process of specialisation has given rise to a wide gulf between the
location of production and the local market. Local craftsmen are often used in
Budalen when it comes to erecting new buildings and rebuilding. But, when it
comes to deciding which building materials, oils and paints to use, financial
considerations count more than ecological ones. Protected areas represent an
ideal basis from which to promote ecologically based solutions (“green
structures”) and test the potential of influencing the long time effects of
technological progress in an ecologically accommodating way. These decisions
however have to be made on a different level than the local market in which tight
financial margins leave no room for risky experiments. A national strategic
programme for testing out ecologically based solutions in protected mountain
summer farming areas would be an interesting test case to promote.
5 Concluding remarks
The main focus of this article has been how the conservation of cultural historic
environments can be combined with the practical contemporary use of the
buildings in a satisfactory way from a social, financial and ecological point of
view. By choosing the situation which occurs in the somewhat “ideal” setting of
a landscape protection area as an example, the article illustrates some of the
milder practical problems which occur when farmers try to combine an historical
interest with the obligations today’s farming directives set. The
interconnectedness which exists between landscape and settlement in the
example region of mountain summer farming has been underlined as the major
quality by all the parties involved in activities in this area.
Those actively participating in the development of modern “taskscapes”
(Ingold [5]) can find a lot of inspiration from traditional ways of building. A
continuous and constructive dialogue concerning the adaptation of new building
types and styles in conservation areas should be a requirement, and we should
encourage proponents of ecological architecture to participate in this discussion.
There is a need for more pioneers to develop solutions that can work within the
new financial, social and ecological limits today’s farmers encounter. The
“repository of traditional wisdom” inherent in cultural historic environments can
be seen as a rich source of inspiring new solutions.
References
[1] Bladh, Gabriel 1995: Finnskogens landskap och människor under fyra
sekler – en studie av natur och samhälle i forändring. Göteborg
University.
[2] Butters, C & F.Østmo 2001.Bygg for en ny tid. Mot en miljøvennlig

arkitektur – 127 norske eksempler. Oslo: Norsk arkitekturforlag.
[3] Egenberg, Inger Marie 2004a. Tre i tiden. Tradisjonsbaserte løsninger.
Oslo: The Norwegian Institute for Cultural Heritage Research.
[4] Egenberg, Inger Marie 2004b. Timber for Today. In: NIKU Annual
Report 2004. Oslo. Available at http://www.niku.no
[5] Ingold, Tim 2000. The Perception of the Environment. Essays in
livelihood, dwelling and skill. London/New York: Routledge
[6] Municipality of Midtre Gauldal 2005. Forvaltningsplan for Endalen,
Budalen, Forddalen. Landskapsvernområder.
[7] Phillips, Christine 2003. Sustainable place. A place of sustainable
development. Chichester: Wiley-Academy.
[8] Norsk seterkultur 2003: Seterbrukaren. Skrift frå Norsk seterkultur, nr.3-
4/2003.
[9] Richards, Greg & Derek Hall (eds.) 2000: Tourism and Sustainable
Community Development. London / New York: Routledge.
[10] Statens Landbruksbank 1999. Prosjekt seterbruk i Norge. Status og
virkemidler. Rapport for fase 1.
[11] Steel, James 2005. Ecological Architecture. London: Thames & Hudson
Ltd.
[12] Sør-Trøndelag County Council, Department of Culture 1994:
Verneplanarbeide Gauldalsvidda Forollhognaområdet. Trondheim.
[13] Sør-Trøndelag County Council, Department of Culture 2002: Nybygging i
seterlandskapet. En mini-håndbok for eiere av setrer i Sør-Trøndelag.
[14] Thompson, Ian H. 2000: Ecology, Community and Delight. Sources of
values in landscape architecture. London/New York: Spon press:
[15] Werne, Finn 1993. Böndernas bygge: traditionellt byggnadsskick på
landsbygden i Sverige. Stockholm
[16] Williamson, Terry, Antony Radford & Helen Bennetts 2003.
Understanding sustainable architecture. London/New York: Spon Press.
A tale of two city halls:

icons for sustainability in London and Seattle
D. Armpriest & B. Haglund
Department of Architecture, University of Idaho
Abstract
Recently two great cities—London and Seattle—have built new city hall
buildings with a green agenda inspired by activist mayors—Ken Livingstone and
Paul Schell. Their political agendas include a focus on planning and design
activities that will help transform their cities for continued viability and livability
in the face of increasing environmental challenges. In London, Livingstone
carved out a congestion zone to allay mounting, gridlocked automobile traffic in
the central city; it costs eight pounds a day to drive into central London.
Meanwhile in Seattle, the city has implemented a green building agenda (LEED
silver) for all public facilities, and the city has “signed” the Kyoto Accord in
defiance of the Bush administration’s stance. These new city halls are intentional
symbolic icons marking their evolving visions for the future. Comparing the two
buildings will reveal much about the commonalities and differences in
approaches to sustainability in the United States and United Kingdom.
Through the lenses of first-hand experience in the buildings, analysis of
critical commentary, and comparative evaluation, we examine the mindsets of
the two cultures. The analysis includes several key project characteristics that
provide the basis of the comparison, including the design process, building
image, public access, sustainable design strategies, and performance in these
exemplar buildings.
Keywords: sustainable architecture, building performance, city halls.
1 Introduction
London and Seattle are both similar and different in ways we believe speak to
cultural attitudes on sustainability. Both urban hubs have set an agenda for
sustainable development and have used new city hall buildings as exemplars.
doi:10.2495/ARC060141
However, London chooses to take the lead in a country committed to reversing

global warming while Seattle pursues sustainability against the grain of national
policies that frustrate efforts to address global warming. Greater London is larger
(12 million to 2 million) and denser than the Seattle Metropolitan area and its
mass transit is much more extensive and successful—all factors that make
sustainability more palpable. On the other hand Seattle has strong visual
connections to its beautiful natural setting—vistas of the Olympic Mountains,
Puget Sound, and Mt. Rainier—that serve as reminders of the fragile natural
environment to be sustained. Both cities are sited in mild northern climates
dominated by ocean influence that moderates temperatures, provides rain and
cloud cover, and places high value on daylight and sunshine. These are favorable
climates for attaining energy-efficiency in office buildings.
Figure 1: London City Hall viewed from the west and Seattle City Hall’s
office tower viewed from the northwest, comparing image and
shading strategies.
The mayor’s vision is for London to become an exemplary sustainable world

city, based on the three balanced and interlocking elements—strong and diverse
economic growth; social inclusivity, allowing all Londoners to share in London’s
future success; and fundamental improvements in environmental management
and use of resources [8]. The Sustainable Development Framework for London,
drafted by the London Sustainable Development Commission in 2002,
proclaims, “We will protect and improve the city’s natural ecosystems, its
biodiversity, its open spaces and its built environment. We will help to protect
the wider regional, national and international environments with which London
has links.” To this aim City Hall was designed as a sustainability exemplar, a
congestion charge was enacted to discourage automobile traffic in central
London, and new planning regulations for large-scale development in Greater

London that require that 10% of its energy be provided by on-site sources. The
mayor exhorts be lean, be green, be clean when chosing energy sources.
Seattle mayor Greg Nickels’ Environmental Action Agenda sets three goals—
to create a “lean, green city government,” “healthy urban environments,” and
“promote smart mobility” [17]. In February, 2005, he announced, on the day the
Kyoto Protocol took effect, that Seattle would commit itself to meet or beat the
goals of the agreement despite the failure of the United States to join the treaty .
At this time, he also appointed a Green Ribbon Commission consisting of
environmental, city, and business leaders to assist him in developing the plan.
The Commission is reported to be considering following London’s lead in
charging a fee to drive into the city [20].
2 Design process
2.1 London
A competition resulted in selecting a developer/architect team. The building was
developed by More London (CIT Group) and leased to the GLA for 25 years.
Designed by Foster and Partners, with Arup as structural and services engineer,
it employed the UK’s most renowned green design team. “We designed the
building from the outside,” says Foster and Partners project director Richard
Hyams. The design was revised from the architect’s original all glass concept,
dubbed the fencing mask, in response to sophisticated computer modeling by
consulting engineer Arup who produced a “thermal map” to show how the heat
from the sun would travel over the building’s surface throughout the course of a
year. To reduce the building’s cooling requirements and thus reduce the
building’s energy load, the architect refined the building’s form to a shape that
leans to the south, so as to limit the extent of façade exposed to the sun. The
southern elevation, which has the greatest potential for solar gain, has also been
stepped so that the floor above cantilevers to shade the floor below, fig. 1. On the
northern elevation, however, free from excessive solar gain, the architects have
indulged in an unshaded façade [18].
2.2 Seattle
The City Hall was designed by a collaborative team that combined the local
talent of Bassetti Architects with the nationally recognized green firm of Bohlin
Cywinski Jackson (BCJ). They were selected through a competition process,
beating out the finalists, Antoine Predock and Patkau Architects. The design
process included 50 public meetings and workshops and a web-based system for
public input. Local architect and city councilman Peter Steinbrueck claimed “the
process almost killed this design” due to the challenge of responding to the
extensive criticism [22]. Architectural critic Sheri Olson claims the design,
which is touted by the architects and city as being grounded in the site and
regional, is actually the same scheme the architects brought to their interview
and changed very little as a result of the process. The design team did consult
with the Seattle Lighting Lab to refine natural and electrical lighting strategies.
3 Building image
London City Hall is an iconic building that competes for attention with nearby
Tower Bridge and the Tower of London and is framed by the reflective
background of More London, a commercial project Seattle City Hall is more
modest in appearance, serving as background for its iconic neighbour, the Seattle
Public Library. Both city halls were designed not only to demonstrate sustainable
design, but employ generous glazing to portray an open and accessible city
government, fig. 1.
3.1 London
According to Foster and Partners, “City Hall has been designed as a model of
democracy, accessibility, and sustainability.” [1]. Its eleven stories and
185,000 square feet (18,000 m2) house both the Chamber of the London
Assembly (25 elected members) and the offices of the Mayor and 500 staff of the
Greater London Authority, providing about 370 square feet per person.
Completed in May 2002, it cost about $64,000,000 or $345 per square foot. The
building has achieved an excellent rating in the BREEAM assessment.
3.2 Seattle
The new City Hall is a seven story, 200,000 square foot building that houses the
mayor, city council and a staff of 320. There are two stories of parking below
ground, the majority of which are reserved for alternative fuels and carpooling
vehicles. It was completed in 2003 for a cost of $72,000,000 and recently
received a LEED Gold rating. As designed, the building provides 625 square feet
per person, and cost $320 per square foot. The language used by city officials to
describe the Seattle City Hall stated aspirations similar to those used to describe
the GLA: “to invite citizen participation in city government… celebrate the
magnificence of our natural beauty…, incorporate public art…[be] a model for
sustainable design and…serve the city for the next 100 years” [6].
The Seattle City Hall is one of five new or renovated buildings that form the
Seattle Civic Center. It is a light and open structure with views to city, Puget
Sound, and the Olympic Mountains. (It replaced the 1950s City Hall building
that was characterized by small, dark, and cluttered spaces). BCJ describes the
final building scheme as “a seven-story glass office block, a metal Council
Chamber, and a lobby of transparent and translucent glass uniting the two. This
transparency reflects the goal of an open, accessible city government, easily
identified, where ordinary citizens can locate city services. The curved metal
volume of the City Council Chamber is a modern form that evokes a civic
dome.” [4].
4 Public access
4.1 London
“The ramps were conceived so that the public could see democracy in action by
looking down at assemblies in progress. But in practice, when the assembly
chamber is in use, people are barred from using the spiral ramps or even opening
or shutting doors leading on to them because of the distracting noise.” [21].
Furthermore, except for occasional weekends, the general public is not welcome
to the upper floors and when invited is subject to a security check. The lobby and
lower floor are publicly accessible.
The building is surrounded by public outdoor spaces that are paved in
charcoal-gray limestone, exploit the riverbank site, and project a suitably civic
character. On the west side lies a shallow amphitheatre, or “Scoop”, which can
be reached from both the riverside walk above and the basement restaurant
below. Tourists and local office workers find it an inviting bowl in which to take
a break. Free musical events at lunchtime and dramatic performances in the
evening are regularly staged for audiences of up to 1000 people. The Scoop is
bounded on two sides by an external exhibition area and a model of the world.
While the river walk and amphitheater are successful, the site’s large lawns are
not inviting nor up to London’s expectations for parks [21].
4.2 Seattle
The Seattle City Hall was designed to be barrier free, and also includes a number
of spaces designed specifically for social interaction and “community building.”
[6]. The Grand Stairs provide seating as well as access to the Plaza and City
Council chambers. City Council meetings can be televised to visitors in the
lobby, and a fireplace and piano are also tucked away in a niche adjacent to a
large meeting room. The lobby is large and open, providing visual and physical
connections throughout the building, and the mayor’s office on the top floor is
open to all comers. Public art is also highlighted in four installations at the lobby
level. There are no security checkpoints in the building, so it is fully accessible
to the public.
The recently completed Fourth Avenue Plaza on the site’s southwest corner,
together with the Grand Stair and Lobby provide a link and rest stop for people
moving up the steep hill climb between a major public transit stop and the civic
center. Like London, Seattle values its public parks and urban spaces, but the
new Plaza has been criticized as a missed opportunity to be “a dramatic,
all-things-to-all-people plaza that’s equally suited to private contemplation or
noisy demonstrations.” [16].
5 Sustainable design strategies

5.1 London
The design team’s intention was to cut energy consumption by a novel
combination of architectural form and natural energy sources. Although the
building’s efficient spherical shape reduces the external envelope by 25%, it was
originally conceived to be all glass, the most thermally permeable material.
Arup’s solar studies convinced the architect to reduce the glazing to 25% of the
façade of the east, south, and west-facing office floors. The remaining 75% is
made of insulating panels with a glazed exterior face [2]. The shifted floor plates
that form south-facing overhangs to cut solar gain in summer are less than
moderately effective. The building’s more effective shading devices are the user-
controlled louvers housed between the panes of double glazing.
The environmental system combines displacement and natural ventilation and
perimeter heating. Cooling is provided by chilled beams that avoid conventional
refrigerants and instead draw naturally cool water from two 50 m deep
boreholes, which also greatly reduces electrical consumption and avoids CO2
emissions. It uses a quarter of the power needed for a conventional air-
conditioning system. The expended borehole water is used for flushing toilets
and grounds irrigation purposes and excess is discharged into the Thames. In the
GLA’s hybrid natural ventilation and air-conditioning scheme, the occupants can
open the windows, to enjoy fresh air, providing them with some control over
their environment. Opening the windows switches off the local air-conditioning,
saving energy. On the fully glazed north façade, which affords spectacular views
of the London skyline from the council chamber and the ramp above, cooling
and heating are provided by cool ground water or heated water passing through
the 300 mm diameter core of the horizontal primary steelwork of the structural
diagrid, which becomes a series of giant tubular radiators. In the winter, some
warmth is provided by recycling heat from people and office equipment. Air
extracted from the offices passes through a heat exchanger that heats the
incoming fresh air, supplied to the offices via a floor plenum at a low velocity to
minimize the energy needed to power the fans. A gas boiler provides additional
heat when required through trench heaters around the building’s perimeter [2, 9].
The curved office façade with user-controlled louvers puts all the workers
close to apertures they can control for light and glare. The success of this
daylighting strategy is highlighted by the occupants’ complaints about the
contrasting, gloomy, un-daylighted committee rooms in the basement.
Green transportation is encouraged by the site design. No apparent car
parking is provided near the building (it’s under the green roof of the south lawn)
nor do any roadways approach the building. The most obvious and attractive
approach to the building is via the Thames-side walk.
In 2005 “GLA facilities management received a £270,000 grant from the DTI
to go ahead with the £500,000 scheme, which will convert light energy into
electricity using the curved roof. Allan Jones, chief development officer for the
London Climate Change Agency, which helps the mayor reduce carbon
emissions in the city, said City Hall was built with the intention of installing
photovoltaic panels at a later date.” [12]. These roof-mounted photovoltaics
should generate up to 81 kW.
5.2 Seattle
The goals for sustainable design at the City Hall include providing connection to
the outdoors, conserving energy and water, the use of sustainable materials,
providing healthy indoor spaces, minimizing traditional effects of new buildings
in an existing urban structure, “long-life, loose-fit,” and “smart mobility” [6].
More specifically, strategies include extensive use of natural light. Each
façade is designed based on solar orientation and microclimatic factors. The
north façade is fully glazed with translucent vertical fins that provide shade
during the six month period it is exposed to direct sun. The lower council
chamber’s south façade has wide horizontal louvers while the tower is shaded by
a curving wall of fritted glass. The primary circulation space for each floor flanks
the façade, providing public views to the green roof below while providing a
buffer against solar gain. The west façade is protected by operable interior
shading devices, and the east side which is shaded by the adjacent justice center
features smaller punched openings. Small floorplates mean that most workers are
able to sit close to a window. Strategies used to conserve energy include high
efficiency HVAC equipment and a raised-floor displacement ventilation system.
Electrical loads are minimized as a result of the design of the façade to optimize
daylighting and reduce requirements for electrical lighting.
Water conservation measures include waterless urinals, low flow lavatories
and toilet fixtures. Rainwater run-off is collected in cisterns below the building,
and used to water plantings and for toilet flushing. In addition, a large green roof
detains rainwater during winter, reducing stormwater discharge, but also thrives
without water during the dry summer months. Many of the materials came from
local or regional sources and include recycled content. There has been some
controversy; however, about the contra-sustainable use of titanium to clad the
city council chambers (in an effort to pay homage to Boeing), and imported
limestone cladding. In keeping with the concept of smart mobility, there is no
public parking available on site; however, there are multiple connections to
public transit and accommodations for pedestrian access.
6 Building performance
To assess building performance we have had to rely on evaluation by interested
third parties—Building magazine [12, 21] for the GLA building and the Seattle
Post-Intelligencer [13, 14] for the SCH. Meanwhile, in the UK after it comes in
force on 6 April 2006 the Energy Performance of Buildings Directive will oblige
public authorities to publish energy consumption data; and in Seattle an
extensive post occupancy evaluation, now underway, will assess
20 environmental, social and economic indicators, providing a very broad view
of City Hall’s performance.
6.1 London
“City Hall does not meet its target of using one quarter of the energy for air-
conditioning required by comparable office buildings. Last year, it came in at 8%
above the government’s good practice guide for total energy usage, partly
because the building is used more intensively than originally intended. (In the
first three years of its life, the number of building occupants has grown to 650,
well above the 426 for which it was designed) Even so, it still undercuts a similar
prestige office building by 34%, and it exploits the renewable energy sources of
ground water for cooling, and in the near future, photovoltaic cells for
electricity.” [21]. The total energy in gas and electricity consumed during the
financial year 2004/5 was 376 kWh/m2 of environmentally controlled floor
area—50% above the energy consumption target of 250 kWh/m2 set at the design
stage [21].
“City Hall is one of a number of high profile green buildings that have
struggled to live up to their green credentials. Foster’s Swiss Re and Hopkins’
Portcullis House have also been found to perform better on paper than in
practice. This discrepancy has been blamed on building managers, who critics
say have yet to come to grips with how to run low-energy buildings. Energy
experts at BRE blame a lack of communication between architects and facilities
management for the shortfall in performance. A GLA spokesman said the
building was using more energy for two reasons—first because it housed more
people than it was designed to do and, second, because it was also used as a
conference centre and tourist attraction.” [12].
6.2 Seattle
The Seattle City Hall was designed to achieve LEED silver certification, but
after the building was completed and documented, it was found to have gained
the higher rating of LEED gold even though photovoltaics, that were an original
part of the design, have yet to be installed. However, the Seattle Post-
Intelligencer proclaimed “Seattle’s new City Hall is an energy hog” in the July 5,
2005 issue [13]. The article claimed, based on data provided by the local utility,
that energy costs for operating the building ranged from “15% to 50% higher
than for the older building that was replaced.” Closer review of the data indicates
the new City Hall had lower overall electrical costs between May and mid-July,
but was otherwise much more expensive to operate, especially in winter and
spring. There has been much speculation about the causes of this situation—the
building managers haven’t figured out how to run the system, there are many
high ceilings and open spaces that must be heated in winter, and there are fewer
occupants per square foot in the new city hall than in the old.
7 Conclusion
By examining these two buildings we’ve observed that even though the national
political context (Kyoto and not) and architectural expression (internationalism
vs. regionalism) contrasted, the strategies to attain sustainability are quite
similar—a combination of low-tech strategies and advanced HVAC systems,
attention to shading, incorporating daylighting, encouraging public use, and
discouraging automobile access. Both buildings were initially praised for their
ambitious green agendas. However, choosing to create an icon of sustainable
design attracted critical attention. After the initial honeymoon of public praise
both buildings have encountered criticism for not truly attaining their lofty goals
and both are undergoing assessment and evaluation for self-improvement.
Should we be dismayed by this fall from public grace? No, not only do the
two City Halls serve as exemplars of sustainability, but through public scrutiny,
they also provide a template for a process that truly defines sustainable building.
Sustainable buildings must be designed to be sustainable, must be commissioned
to ensure that design intentions were met by the systems and features installed,
must be assessed for fitness after they have be occupied for a year or two, and
must be periodically re-evaluated.
Both of these buildings have suffered “successful building” syndrome—their
popularity and quality has attracted wider use than anticipated. So far design
teams are fairly good at the design and improving on commissioning activities,
but tend to walk away from the building after it’s completed, ignoring the
lessons that could be learned from its occupancy. It is clear that when people
occupy buildings they change the buildings’ behaviour and much of the criticism
that both City Halls have encountered is as a result of their evolving patterns of
use. Occupancy is not a predictable or constant state but changes continually
over time, suggesting that a feedback loop is needed to determine the effects of
occupancy on building performance (and coincidentally occupant performance).
This evaluation can be accomplished by periodically assessing their performance
as the building ages and each time occupancy patterns are significantly altered in
order to adjust their operations and remodel their systems and features in
response. The lessons learned from these assessments can also be used to
improve future architectural and systems design. This system of stewardship and
learning is the hallmark of long-term sustainability and is necessary to propel us
into a future where the earth’s resources are not only sustained but regenerated,
ensuring a joyful existence for future generations.
References
[1] Arup, Designing City Hall, self-published brochure.
[2] Barker, Don, “Foster’s New City Hall.” Architecture Week, 26 March
2003.
[3] Bassetti Architects web page, www.bassettiarch.com.
[4] Bohlin Cywinski Jackson web page, www.bcj.com.
[5] Better Bricks, “Seattle City Hall Case Study” Northwest Energy
Efficiency Alliance, www.betterbricks.com.
[6] City of Seattle, “Seattle City Hall” Brochure, 2003.
[7] City of Seattle, Seattle Municipal Civic Center Master Plan, June, 1999.
[8] GLA web site, “A Sustainable Development Framework for London,”
www.london.gov.uk.
[9] Lane, Thomas, “Keeping Ken cool,” Building, October 12, 2001.
[10] Merkel, Jayne, “City Hall, London, England,” Architectural Record, 02
2003.
[11] Miller, Brian, “Best Municipal Makeover,” Seattle Weekly, August 4,

2004.
[12] Miller, Vikki, “City Hall to add solar panels to boost green performance,”
Building, September 16, 2005
[13] Mulady, Kathy, “Seattle’s new City Hall is an energy hog,” Seattle Post
Intelligencer, July 5, 2005.
[14] Mulady, Kathy, “Energy audit of Seattle City Hall sought,” Seattle Post
Intelligencer, August 2, 2005.
[15] Office of Mayor Greg Nickels, “Mayor calls for Seattle, other cities to
meet protocol goals” News Advisory, February 16, 2005.
[16] Olsen, Sheri, “On Architecture: Confusion trumps beauty at Seattle’s new
City Hall”. Seattle Post Intelligencer, September 8, 2003.
[17] Paladino & Company, Inc. LEED Performance Evaluation Plan: Seattle
Justice Center and City Hall, December 31, 2003.
[18] Pearson, Andy, “It’s a wrap,” Building, September 21, 2001.
[19] Seattle City Light, “City Hall Energy Usage” table published in Seattle
Post-Intelligencer, July, 2005.
[20] Shogren, Elizabeth, “Seattle Tackles Greenhouse Gases” NPR Morning
Edition, November 28, 2005.
[21] Spring, Martin, “Time has told,” Building, October 21, 2005.
[22] Steinbrueck, Peter, in an interview entitled “City Hall and the Legacy of
New Public Architecture”, Arcade Magazine 22.2, March 2003.
Poetic water images in architecture

U. Kirschner
Department of Cultural Studies, Lüneburg University, Germany
Abstract
This essay identifies and examines uses of water imagery in architecture
worldwide and through centuries. Architects have introduced imagery in their
architectural design since antiquity. This analysis illuminates how the intensive
interaction with nature, in this case with water, corresponds to an ever lasting
spirit. As Thales of Milet declared: “Water is the source of all things” [1]. This
element plays a unique role in the interaction of natural forces. During the
Renaissance and particularly during the Baroque age resistance to social
alienation was expressed in an abundance of ornamentation; the water foliage
and wave formations on the colonnaded capital are analogous to the multitude of
water images at times used extensively in lyricism. The water with its varying
states of aggregation and mobility inspired many architects to spectacular
designs.
Keywords: design method, analogies in architecture, nature and architecture.
1 Introduction
In all cultures, rituals and symbolism are influenced by the evidence and
unlimited abundance of the “element” water. “Water escapes the earth’s surface
in the form of a spring, moves forward as a river, stands still as a lake and rests
in eternal calmness, yet everlasting movement in the form of the ocean. It
transforms itself to ice or to steam, it ascends through evaporation while it
descends as rain, snow or hail ... it hovers as a cloud ... it is colourless, yet can
take on all colours ... it is formless, yet can adapt to any given form; it is soft, yet
stronger than stone. It creates contours in the form of valleys, coastlines and
grottos” [2]. In mythology and legends, the oceans and rivers are inhabited by
gods and goddesses, spring and water nymphs, sirens and mermaids. The water
source, the spring, symbolizes the tears, blood and milk of Mother Earth. In the
doi:10.2495/ARC060151
atmospheric lyricism of the 18th century, metaphors such as mentioned were

often portrayed.
Poets employ water as a metaphor for abundance and power, strength and
movement, temptation and danger; an idyllic, on the other hand, uses water
colour to create a peaceful and balanced atmosphere. According to Goethe
“Poetry reveals the mysteries of nature and attempts to solve these mysteries
through imagery” [3]. Water is one of the most archetypal images with which
poetry attempts to do this [4].
2 The influence of water on space

“When water comes in contend with solid elements, is when it becomes
imaginative. It creates forms, whirl pools and veils, drops and streams, rivulets
and veins around every stone it comes in contact with. It endlessly swirls about
the solid element, nestles itself up to it and hollows out a space within it” [5]. In
the Wells cathedral the nave is connected to the main hall of the clerical chapter
by a waterway, which divides itself into two different levels. This English church
is otherwise designed according to rules of Gothic tradition with the influence of
Roman cubes and Gothic curves. The attributed bold entryway has been guiding
the course of a multitude of clerics for centuries. The hand-modelled stairway,
constructed according to the architectural prerequisites, subtly bridges the
altitude difference of the nave level and the foyer level, fig. 1. Its function as an
entryway into the chapter hall seems secondary to the beautiful image of flowing
water that it creates.”
Figure 1: Cathedral of Wells [6].
Water appears to have left its footprints in the form of a hollow in the middle
of each step. This illusion gives the steps of Wells a flowing rhythm, like that of
waves [7]; their beauty lies in their resemblance to the natural movement of the
water.
An increase in kinetic energy creates vibrations on the waters’ surface. Waves
are the result of the complex dance between water, wind and time. Antoni Gaudi
built a school on the Sagrada Familia plot in Barcelona based on the idea of
using stone to create wave sequences. Gaudi’s choice of the wave as the main
motif of his design was religiously inspired; it is a temporary apparition.
Additionally, the wave offers practical construction advantages: the curved
structure increases the weight-bearing capacity of the facade as well as the
ceiling, which was built in the form of the sine curve, fig. 2.1. Thus, it was
completely unnecessary to use any pillars or structural bearing walls in the
interior space. The exterior is constructed in highly porous brick, suitable to the
weather in northern Spain.
Figure 2: 1. School in Sacrada Familia, Gaudi, 2. Opera, Philippines,

Locsin [8].
In contrast to Gaudi’s romantic portrayal of waves, the Philippine architect

Leandro of Locsin designed the Theatre of Mount Makiling in Los Banos (1976),
as a possible precursor for a storm tide of Homeric dimensions:
“Like the storm of relentless wind.. ./. . .excites the flood

and creates the breaking waves of the thunderous open sea...” [9].
As an architect, Locsin worked with similar expressiveness as Homer on the

design of the theatre and opera house in which he had previously worked as
singer and stage designer [10]. For this building, he chose the form of a
threatening, somersaulting wave complemented by its mirror image in a flat pool
of water, situated in front of the building, fig. 2.2. The inherent strength of the
construction resembles a dancer, who requires every muscle in order to float as
light as a feather across the stage. Time frozen in an image is the major factor
characterizing these artistic portrayals. Time is frozen in the form of an edifice.
3 Water mythology – fantasies of space

A mirrored water image creates the centre of the 17th century Schah mosque in
Isfahan. The mosque courtyard is laid out in the shape of cross. Four liwane or
arched entryways symbolically support the canopy of heaven above the indoor
courtyard and border the pool in its centre, fig. 3.1. The water mirrors the
surrounding edifices and vaults. The mirror image reconstructs both the
horizontal and vertical axes of the edifice, while at the same time creating a third
vertical axis, connecting water, heaven and earth. The nature of the orthogonal
grounds keeps the visitor on the centre line. The central entrances through the
liwane into the courtyard lead the visitor to the focal point of a “kaleidoscopic
vision”, which reveals the infinity of creation [11]. Many languages use only one
word for the terms: soul, image and shadow. An image is considered to be a
living representation and embodies the soul of its bearer. Much more value is
attached to it than to the human body itself [12].
Figure 3: 1 Isfahan, Liwane; 2. Insurance Building, Ipswich, Forster [13].
“Narkissos fell in love with his own mirror image while drinking water from
a spring. Because he could not attain this image, he was devoured by desire and
transformed into a flower, the narcissus” [14]. In contrast to this well-known
metamorphosis water can also provide a living dimension to lifeless matter, for
example a building. Norman Forster chose, consciously or unconsciously, the
smooth surface of pond water, as his design motif for the Willis Insurance
Building in Ipswich, 1974, fig. 3.2. The amorphous floor plan is reminiscent of a
lake that one can only walk around and can only set foot upon when frozen; the
building is circumnavigated by traffic as if it were an island. The facade of the
building is a mirror image of the surrounding city life, creating a magical point
of attraction. Much like the mirroring waters of a garden, it seems to be the eye
of the city.
Figure 4: Admission Building, India, Correa [15].
From 1967-1972, Charles M. Correa built the administration building for the
Electronic Corporation of India in Hyderabad, fig. 4. His idea was to create a
sober and demystifying replication of the sea. Correa analyzed the ecological
conditions in the depths of the sea and put his findings to work by creating an
office building with optimal climatic conditions. The shape of the roof is
amorphous, similar to Forster’s floor plan. Individual, crystalline-shaped three-
dimensional spaces are situated just under the roof. For cooling purposes, pools
of water were installed above these closed spaces. These pools reflect sunrays,
intensifying the comparison to a stilted sea surface with a rocky reef shimmering
below. The rest of the roof consists mostly of segment bars, which partly cover
the courtyard and partly jut out, partially shading the underlying rooms. The
interesting dance between light and shadows suggests the atmosphere of the
underwater world. With these and other simple methods, Correa created the
prerequisites for a salubrious climate without using any energy-wasting facilities.
4 Ice-, snow- and fog-architecture

Water exists in fluid form, in solid form or as steam. Under normal pressure
conditions, at 100°Celsius water transforms into steam, at O°Celsius it freezes,
and at 4°Celsius it possesses the highest density. Ice is water in its part-
crystalline, part-solid aggregate state. Unlike ice, snow is not frozen fluid but
rather water, crystallized through condensation. Water differs from most
substances in that the transformation from the fluid to the solid state involves a
reduction of density. The result of this is that ice floats on water, but it can also
display explosive force when it is generated from water.
Figure 5: 1. Im Eismeer, C.D. Friedrich; 2. Opera, Skopje, Tange [16].
A well-known ice motif is Le Corbusier’s chapel roof of Ronchamp,

modelled in the form of a voluminous, one-meter-thick snowdrift. Caspar David
Friedrichs’ famous painting “In a sea of ice”, fig. 5.1, with its steeply erected,
overlapping ice floes, served as the main atmospheric inspiration for Hamburg’s
utopian cities, designed by students of various universities, among others [17].
Deconstructivists, in particular, especially like to implement this repertoire of
forms. The Slovenian architecture group “Studio 7” constructed such a work of
art in an Opera house in Skopje, located in the southern province of Macedonian,
fig. 5.2. Following an earthquake that destroyed the city, Kenzo Tange worked
out a concept for the restoration of the city in 1968. He situated the new opera
house adjacent to the Vardar River, directly in the centre of the city. The opera
house was built from 1972-1981 and is considered one of the most important
post-war constructions of the country [18]. The architectural team described the
edifice as follows: “Motion and vitality have been created by the purity of form
and diversity of space reaching from the interiors to the exteriors. The play of
light and shadows on the white walls additionally enhances the idea and
expression of the space” [19]. In their design of the opera house, the architects
adopted the tangible drama of Friedrich’s painting, with its virtual cracking and
breaking sounds of shattering ice floes, and accentuated it with white colour. In
the preceding examples, we have considered the forms that water can create as
well as interpreted the movement and various states of water.
Glass is a building material which is similar to water and ice in many ways.
The physical correlation between glass and water lies in the fact that glass is
solidified fluid.
Figure 6: Kirchner Museum, Davos, Gigon and Guyer [20].
The entire facade of the Kirchner museum building complex in Davos,

Graubünden (Northern Switzerland) is seemingly constructed entirely of glass
and gives the impression of water in its aggregate states, fig. 6. The Zurich
architects, Anette Gigon and Mike Guyer, erected the museum in 1992, which is
comprised of four massive cubicles, the exhibition rooms and the entry hall. All
constructional components, with exception to the entryways, are panelled with
matted, i.e. cauterized glass plating. The fibrous surface structure of the
insulation material shimmers through the glass plating, leaving the impression of
a glittering, non-transparent ice surface. With its diffuse reflections, the house
seems to adapt to the seasons like a chameleon. It is as if the building puts on a
cape of fog when the mountain summits are buried in the clouds; when the
landscape is covered in snow, the glass front shimmers in a light shade of green,
like glacier ice; the glass cubicles glimmer in the falling rays of sunlight. The
roof of the museum with its diffuse reflecting glass-splinter surface,
complements the building facade. Despite the amount of glass incorporated into
its facade, the building offers only a minimal view from the outside into its
interiors; similarly, from the inside, one can see only little of the surrounding
high mountain landscape. The exhibition rooms exclude the outside world. Only
three-meter-high small, angled ceiling windows provide indirect light exposure,
allowing the daylight to stream in at a side angle. Traditional ceiling windows
are too readily darkened by falling snow. The raw concrete walls of the
connecting hall correlate to the outside world. Correspondingly, the sculptures
are intentionally situated to seemingly be a part of the surrounding mountain
landscape [21].
5 The relationship between water and location in architecture

Since primeval time man has dreamed of controlling the forces of nature.
C. N. Ledoux designed a home for the Director of the Department of Water
Control in the form of a pipe connected to a massive underground foundation,
fig. 7.1. Retained by the pipe walls, the wild mountain water of the Loue River
rushes through the house. This design was never built and was often criticized
because it did not meet the prerequisites of a residential home. Nevertheless, it
was a project that fully incorporated the force of water and the spectacular image
is still frequently referred to today.
Figure 7: 1. Livinghouse, Ledoux; 2. and 3. Fallingwater house,

F. L. Wright [22].
The “Falling Water” house from Frank Lloyd Wright is the perfect example
of a man-made imitation of the phenomena of water and nature. Wright built
this vacation home above a waterfall, a constant cascade of falling and flowing
water over massive rock formations ending in the Ohiopyle Valley below. Using
glass and concrete, he seemingly extended the waterfall in an upward direction,
fig. 7.3. From the foot of the waterfall by day, the whitewashed basins seem
more like falling water and the dark glass components look like water-covered
stones. At night, the opposite effect occurs. The reflection of artificial lighting
makes the glass seem bright and pattering, while the basin edges disappear in the
darkness. In the winter, the terraces lose their gleam next to the snow-covered
stone landscape and now-frozen water. In the winter months, not only the visual
impression but also the functionality of the house is reduced to its stone towers
and glass volumes. This project was constructed using only horizontal surfaces,
i.e. the surface of water, and perpendicular lines, i.e. falling masses of water.
Wright avoided the use of diagonals where possible; not even one handrail or
banister exists in the entire house. The stairways are suspended from vertical
poles or built between two parallel walls, fig. 7.2 [23].
My personal choice for the theme of an architectural project was the
encounter between water and stone. On the northern island of Germany called
Helgoland, the ocean is the dominant force versus the red sandstone cliffs. A
boarding school for children suffering from allergies was to be built on a strip of
man-made land between the northern jetty and the edge of the cliffs. The
exposed setting and the unique location of the windy island offered the perfect
architectural stage. The complex is composed of five residential houses, a
combined school building and sports hall, as well as a stone garden and an
underwater garden. The architecture and layout of the complex reflects the
emergence of Helgoland, fig. 8. Through a crack in the stratum layers, water
poured into the salt masses lying deep below the surface. Over time, the osmotic
pressure pushed the new red sandstone layers from southwest to northeast. At the
27° angle of inclination found today, the move stopped as the water had become
saturated with the accumulated salt masses [24]. In the design the stone garden is
a ground relief created by the exposed stratum layers. Within the five boarding
houses, the rock layers form a great mass, raising up the oceans here in the form
of a skin of glass and opening the gate to the underwater world. The “underwater
garden” is also used by a neighbouring biology institution. With its aquariums, it
serves as a space for experiments and exhibitions, illuminated by the light
shining through the skin of glass above it. This “skin of glass” also serves as the
floor for observers to walk on as they steal a view into the underwater world.
The boarding school children have access to this virtually allergy-free world
through the connecting multi-purpose rooms of the residential building. The
garden serves as an entryway to the joint boarding school and sports hall. It is as
though this building were a cascade on the mountainside making the
stratification and crystalline quality visible. The boarding school is built as a
stilted terrace above the sports hall with a splendid view of the ocean beyond the
roofs of the boarding houses. The school courtyard is situated on the roof of the
sport hall and bordered by carefully placed flood lights.
Figure 8: Design for a boarding school, Helgoland, Kirschner, photo of the

cliff.
6 Conclusion
Metaphors, which act as ideas for architectural designs are analysed in this paper.
In nearly the same way as styles pictures can act as leitmotif, their perception
touches the depths before moving the surface [25]. Architecture ought to address
more than functional constraints; and instead engage in and adapt an interactive
exchange with other arts and issues. While painting, sculpture and literature may
depict – but do not really have to – architecture, like music, has to create its own
topics. This is the principle task of architectural design.
Here in particular the element of water with its figurative polarity may serve
as a metaphor for mythic death as tide and at the same time as the source of life
itself. The church like a ship with Christ as its captain on the rough sea is an
essential Christian image. In the use of religious symbols in sacred buildings or
the representation of operational sequences in functional buildings their design
idea becomes obvious. This holistic approach is described by Walter Benjamin
this way: “Humans have a primal urge, to correlate the objects and phenomena of
their world” [26].
References
[1] Thales-Zitat 6. Jh. v. u. Z., ed. Böhme Hartmut Kulturgeschichte des
Wassers, Frankfurt a. M. pp. 52-53, 1988,
[2] Böhme Hartmut (eds). Kulturgeschichte des Wassers, Frankfurt a. M.,
pp. 12-13, 1988
[3] Trunz v. E. (eds). Maximen und Reflektionen, No. 904, Goethes Werke,
Hamburg 1948, XII, 493.
[4] Blume Bernhard, Existenz und Dichtung, Frankfurt a. M., p. 152, 1980
[5] Schwarz Rudolf, Von der Bebauung der Erde, Heidelberg, p. 53, 1949
[6] Peter Sager, DuMont Kunst-Reiseführer Südengland Köln p. 227, 1989
[7] Sager Peter, DuMont Kunst-Reiseführer Südengland, Köln, pp. 251-252,
1989
[8] 2.1. Zerbst Rainer, Antoni Gaudi, Köln, p. 214, 1987; 2.2. Polites
Nicholas, The architecture of Leondro V. Locsin, New York + Tokyo S
108, 1977
[9] Homer, “Ilias”, in Bernhard Blume (eds), Existenz und Dichtung,
Frankfurt a. M., p. 150, 1980
[10] Udo Kultermann, Architekten der Dritten Welt, Köln, p. 157-158, 1980
[11] Henry Stierlin, Isfahan, Orbis Terranun, Genf, pp. 78-83, 1976
[12] Martin Ninck, Die Bedeutung des Wassers im Kult und Leben der Alten,
Darmstadt, p. 58, 1960
[13] 3.1. Stierlin Henri, Isfaha, Genf, pp. 112, 83, 1976; 3.2. ChaslinFrancois,
Hervet Frédérique, Lavolou Ammolle, Norman Forster, Paris, pp. 56-57,
1986
[14] Ovid, Metamorphosen 3, Frankfurt a. M. 1998.
[15] Cantacuzino Sherban, Charles Correa, Singapore, pp. 36-37, 1984
[16] 5.1. Friedrich C. D., Im Eismeer, www.Onlinekunst.de/september/05_
eismeer _friedrich.jpg; 5.2. Kultermann Udo, Zeitgenössische Architektur
in Osteuropa, Köln, p. 198, 1985
[17] Held-Schäfer Andrea, in Bauwelt 40/1987, Dissertation, Gütersloh,
pp. 1508-1509
[18] Kultermann Udo: Zeitgenössische Architektur in Osteuropa, Köln,
pp. 197-198, 1985
[19] Udo Kultermann: Zeitgenössische Architektur in Osteuropa, Köln, p. 200.
1985
[20] Kirschner Ursula, 2002; Binder Hans, db, Stuttgart, pp. 64, 4, 8/1994
[21] Binder Hans, db, Stuttgart, pp. 64-69, 8/1994
[22] 7.1. Vidler Anthony, Claude-Nicolas Ledoux, Massachsetts, p. 320, 1990;
7.2., 7.3. Hoffmann Donald: Frank Lloyd Wright´s Fallingwater, New
York, p. 94, 1978
[23] Hoffmann Donald: Frank Lloyd Wright´s Fallingwater, New York, p. 59,
1978
[24] Geologisches Jahrbuch, Reihe A, Heft 62
[25] Barchelard Gaston, Poetik des Raumes, München, p. 17, 1975
[26] Benjamin Walter, Die Lehre vom Ähnlichen, in: Siegfried Unseld, Zur
Aktualität Benjamins, Frankfurt a. Main, p. 23, 1972
Section 3
Design with nature
The 2005 Solar D house

M. Garrison
School of Architecture, The University of Texas at Austin, USA
Abstract
The Solar Decathlon provided an international forum for competition among
eighteen university student teams, each of which designed, built, and operated a
totally solar-powered home with a home office and their transportation needs
using a solar-charged vehicle. Organized by the U.S. Department of Energy and
the National Renewable Energy Laboratory, the Solar Decathlon competition
challenges university teams to design and build an 800 ft2 (74.3 m2), totally
solar-powered house. The competition took place on the National Mall in
Washington D.C., where each house was constructed and operated from
September 28 to October 19, 2005. The competition consisted of ten contests
focusing on ingenuity, energy production, energy-efficiency, design, thermal
comfort, refrigeration, lighting, communication and transportation.
Professor Michael Garrison, Assistant Professor Samantha Randall and
Lecturer Elizabeth Alford of the School of Architecture were the faculty advisors
for the University of Texas at Austin (UT) Solar Decathlon student team, which
included more than 40 graduate and undergraduate architecture, landscape
architecture, and engineering students.
The team developed a design that features four pre-fabricated modules that
can be snapped together in order for the house to be transported from Austin,
Texas to Washington D.C. and constructed in just four days, operated for two
weeks, and then deconstructed and sent back to Austin, Texas again. An
innovative foundation system of rails and rollers allow each module to be
lowered off a truck and rolled onto the rails and the fours sections of the house
snapped into place.
1 Design
The University of Texas 2005 Solar Decathlon House is limited in size by rules
of the competition, which, require that the roof “foot-print” must be less than
doi:10.2495/ARC060161
800 ft2. To provide our modest 1-bedroom/1 bath house with a spacious feel, the
team utilized three design techniques. 1) The spaces are multi-use, so the
bathroom is also the laundry room; the bedroom has a foldaway bed so it can
function as an office/study during the day; and a central main room contains the
kitchen, dining and living room in an open plan configuration. 2) The main room
connects to a patio deck space along the entire south elevation to expand the
interior space to the outdoor deck space. 3) The combination of a cathedral
ceiling and generous amounts of daylighting enhance the sense of spaciousness
in the modest sized house.
Figure 1: 2005 UT Solar D house on the National Mall in Washington D.C.
Figure 2: UT Solar D house south elevation.
The design of the house stressed four fundamental principles including,

1. Well constructed and tightly sealed thermal envelope with appropriate
ventilation.
2. Proper design and installation of heating and cooling systems (properly sized,
high-efficiency, good ventilation and sealed ductwork).
3. Energy-efficient doors, windows, and appliances.
4. Home orientation and placement of building elements to maximize natural
heating and cooling efficiency.
Figure 3: Interior of the UT Solar D house with Congressman Lamar Smith.
2 Energy systems
The Texas solar decathlon house is solar-powered and utilizes the latest energy
efficiency technologies and sustainable building materials. The Energy saving
features of the house include, a 7.9 kW photovoltaic solar power system,
evacuated tube “heat pipe” solar water collectors, a high efficient HVAC system
and an energy conserving design that achieves a ratio of one ton of air
conditioning per 933 ft2 (86.7 m2) of conditioned space. The HVAC system
combines a variable-speed Inverter compressor mini-split heat pump with an
energy recovery ventilator, a separate refrigeration whole-home dehumidifier
and horizontal direct-drive chilled water DHW/Air Coil heat exchanger. The four
components work together to assure a narrow interior comfort zone of between
72˚F and 76˚F (22˚C and 24.4˚C) and a humidity range of between 45 and 50%
relative humidity. To control the components the team developed a computer
controlled smart building technology that allows the building to be controlled on
the Mall from Austin, Texas.
2.1 Photovoltaic solar system
The Texas 2005 solar decathlon house is designed to be energy efficient and is a
stand-alone system, which does not use electric utility power. PV’s provides
direct DC power when sunlight is available. If power is needed when sunlight is
not available, batteries will be required to store power for the times when the sun
is not shining.
The Texas 2005 solar decathlon house has 42-175 W BP polycrystalline
panels and 4 Romag-BP custom-translucent thin film panels that comprise the
7.9 kW PV system. For our area, we multiplied the rated wattage by 5.1 to get
the average Wh (watt hours) amount produced in one day. The 5.1 factor equals
the viable operating hours per day and accounts for the fact that there will be
more sun available in the summer and less in the winter (7.9 kW x 5.1 =
40.29 Wh).
The 42 BP 4175 modules are mounted on the roof canted at 20 degrees. The
4 BP-Romag custom modules are cantilevered off the roof, shading the southern
glazing. Single insulated conductor MC USE-2 cables are used to connect the
modules in free air to roof-mounted fuse/combiner boxes. The PV array is
divided into three inverter groupings; 4 parallel/8 series BP 4175B modules for
the SB6000U inverter and 10 series BP4175B modules for the SB2500U
inverter. All series strings first go through fuses in pullout holders before any
combing of parallel circuits through a terminal block. After the combiner boxes,
conductors are run from the roof to the electrical closet.
The electrical section of the closet contains the disconnect switch and over
current devices for the PV array, the inverters, the DC circuit breakers, and the
AC distribution panel. A contiguous, but separated section of the closet is used
to store the 32-Marathon 12V batteries. The system is dependent on the inverters
to perform all necessary ground fault detection and interruption (GFDI) of
ungrounded and grounded conductors to prevent fire on the roof mounted
system.
Although the solar decathlon competition requires a stand-alone system for
the competition on the National Mall, this system will be adapted to a grid
connected system upon the redeployment of the house in Austin, Texas after the
competition. In the grid connected system PV’s can, provide power directly to
the user and to the centralized power grid when PV power exceeds the user’s
requirements. The Austin solar decathlon house will use power from the central
utility when needed and supplies surplus home-generated power back to the
utility. It is termed a “parallel” system by Austin Energy. The power produced
will be metered so that when power is produced by the PVs and sent into the grid
the meter will run backwards, thus allowing for a discount in consumption costs.
2.1.1 Evacuated tube solar water heating

The 2005 Texas solar decathlon house utilizes Sunda’s Seido evacuated tube
solar water collectors, which function as heat pipes. A heat pipe acts like a low-
resistance thermal conductor. Due to its thermal-physical properties, its heat
transfer rate is a thousand’s times greater than that of the best solid heat
conductor of the same dimensions. Sunda’s Seido heat pipe is a closed system
comprised of two meters of copper tubing, an evaporator section, a capillary
wick structure, a condenser section and a small amount of vaporizable fluid. The
heat pipe employs an evaporating-condensing cycle. Heat pipes are inserted into
the aluminum absorbers forming assemblies, which in turn are inserted into the
glass tubes. The tubes are made of borosilicate glass, which is strong and has a
high transmittance for solar irradiation. In order to reduce the convection heat
lost, glass tubes are evacuated to vacuum pressure. By evacuating air out of the
glass tube the absorber material and selective coating are protected from
corrosion and other environmental influences.
2.1.1.1 Energy conservation The 2005 Texas solar decathlon house utilized a
number of energy conservation design standards to improve thermal
performance, including site planning and building configuration, thermal
capacitance; thermal insulation; glazing type, amount and orientation of windows
and air flow.
The UT solar decathlon house is elongated on an east-west axis which is the
most efficient shape for most U.S. climates because it captures low-angled solar
radiation in winter, which minimizes heating requirements and, with a properly
designed shading overhang, minimizes cooling requirements in the summer.
Because the diurnal temperature swing during the summer months in
Washington D.C. and Austin, Texas is relatively low, the likelihood of
inadequate night time flushing of a high thermal capacitance design led our team
to a strategy of light frame construction. Light frame construction also allows
the HVAC system to respond more adequately to a rapidly changing exterior
climate.
The next consideration is the type of wall, roof, and foundation system to be
used and the R-value that will be achieved. R-value represents resistance to heat
flow, the higher the R-value, the better a wall’s efficiency. High R-values can be
achieved with any type of construction: standard “stick-built” or alternative wall
construction methods such as structural insulated panels, insulating concrete
forms, or straw bale construction. Our team chose to use 6-inch thick structural
insulated panels, which are rated at R-30.
Windows, which have a much smaller R-value than walls, can have a large
impact on the energy efficiency of a building. For this reason, one step towards
efficiency is to minimize window area, which for our building represents less
than 13% of our wall area. There are several other factors to consider when
choosing windows including, frame material, glass coatings (such as low-e), gas-
fill between the panes, overall U-value, solar heat gain coefficient (SHGC), and
ultraviolet (UV) and visible light transmittance (VLT). Windows specified for
the Texas Solar Decathlon House are Comfort Line fiberglass Low-E, argon
filled. These windows have a typical U value of .24 and a SHGC value of .38.
The fiberglass frames do not expand and contract with water or differences in
temperature, they have a strong strength to weight ratio, do not degrade due to
sunlight and contain a recycled glass content.
Keeping air from leaking in and out of a building can dramatically reduce
energy needs. Air infiltration, which occurs naturally through small gaps and
cracks between a wall and foundation, around windows and doors, and through
utility penetrations between conditioned and unconditioned spaces, can be a big
source for energy loss. Air infiltration can draw in humidity during the cooling
season, and create uncomfortable drafts during the heating season. To improve
comfort and reduce energy use created by air infiltration, our team caulked and
sealed all the air leaks of the house during the framing and finishing process of
construction.
Taken together the energy conservation techniques utilized in the UT solar
decathlon house provided an energy efficient design with a ratio of 933 ft2
(86.7 m2) of space per ton of air conditioning.
3 Material systems
The UT Solar D Team has chosen to think beyond the competition requirements
of solar power and energy efficiency by embracing the full spectrum of
sustainable design. This strategy includes resource efficiency and the use of
recyclable, recycled, reused, and local underutilized materials. Recyclable
materials include the house’s exterior zinc siding, the galvalume roofing, the
stainless steel trim and the structural steel foundation rails. Building materials
made from recycled materials include, the exterior decking, which is made from
recycled plastic and wood scrap, the bathroom tile, which is made from recycled
class and granite scrap, the bathroom wall panels made of Ecoresin recycled
plastic and the redwood trellis rain screen made from reclaimed redwood.
Examples of reused materials include aluminum shingles, which are reused
newspaper litho plates from our school newspaper the Daily Texan. Local and
underutilized green materials are also used as well. These include the use of
mesquite wood flooring, cabinets made from MDF agricultural waste straw fiber
and trim made from local reclaimed cypress. In addition to using green materials
to construct the house the team recycled all the jobsite construction wastes.
Structural Insulated Panels (SIPs) are an innovative green-engineered material
system used to construct the UT Solar D House. SIPs replace conventional stud
or “stick frame” construction. They were made in a factory and shipped to our
job site where they were connected together to frame the walls, floor and roof of
the house.
A SIP consists of an engineered sandwich or laminate with a solid expanded
polystyrene foam core 6” thick and structural galvalume facing on each side. The
facing is glued to the foam core and the panel is pressed in a vacuum to bond the
sheathing and core together. SIPs structural characteristics are similar to a steel
I-beam. The skins act like the flanges of an I-beam, and the rigid core provides
the web of the I-beam configuration. This composite assembly yields stiffness,
strength, and predictable performance
Figure 4: Metals USA SIP wall and floor panels.
The greatest advantage of these panels is that they provide superior and
uniform insulation in comparison to more common methods of house
construction. SIP walls are superior to conventional walls in a number of ways.
SIPs combine a high insulation R-value with speed and ease of construction. The
solid foam core eliminates air movement within the walls and minimizes thermal
bridges through wood studs. Together, all these reduce air infiltration, and make
a tightly sealed/easy to build structure. This makes the building more
comfortable, energy-efficient, and quieter.
Figure 5: Metals USA SIP panels.
In regard to Fire safety, SIPs have performed well in combustion tests. When
the interior of the SIP is covered with a fire-rated material such as gypsum board,
the fire resistance of gypsum board protects the SIP facing and foam long
enough to give building occupants a good measure of escape time.
4 Process conclusions
To provide for a pedagogical method to link architectural theory to practice, the
hands on experience of the solar decathlon gave architecture students proper
grounding in action and immediate experience and argues in favor of experiential
knowledge over ungrounded abstract knowledge.
This experience allowed students to develop the knowledge of how to apply
and test out their ideas and theories on sustainable design. This kind of
knowledge is rooted in the realms of value. And these kinds of values and
consequences are acquired through the actual building experience. In this way
the students are able to evaluate the performance of design decisions. Hands-on
learning seeks to re-establish the continuity and inter-relationship between the
processes of conceiving, making, and using buildings. In architect Samuel
Mockbee’s words, “its the importance of making and thinking at the same time.”
The “hands-on” process fosters a pedagogical approach that encourages
faculty and students to discover how buildings really work as they are
constructed and occupied. Through observation, simulation, and data gained by
designing and then building the design, students discover lessons on the success
and failure of different design approaches. Analysis of the material observed in
the field, along with comparisons to values derived by model studies, computer
simulation and calculations, gives students an opportunity to assess whether the
stated design intent has been achieved and to understand and describe the variety
of ways occupants actually experience a building.
This level of understanding involves both disciplinary and interdisciplinary
learning. It is this area that the solar decathlon experience is especially potent as
the forum in which disciplinary knowledge and interdisciplinary understanding
take place.
References
[1] Rating System For Pilot Demonstration of LEED ® for Homes Program
US Green Building Council, Washington D.C., 2004.
[2] NAHB Green Home Building Guidelines User Guide NAHB MODEL
GREEN HOME BUILDING GUIDELINES, Part Two, Washington D.C.,
2005.
[3] Sustainable Building Sourcebook: by Austin Energy Green Building
Program, Austin, Texas, 2003.
[4] Solar Decathlon 2002: The Event in Review, by Mark Eastment, Sheila
Hayter, Ruby Nathan, Byran Stafford and Cecile Warner, National
Renewable Energy Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy, Washington,
D.C. 2002.
[5] Building Envelope, by Randall Stout and Michael Garrison, National
Council of Architectural Registration Boards, Washington D.C., 2004.
Fractal geometry and architecture:

some interesting connections
N. Sala
Accademia di Architettura, Università della Svizzera italiana,
Mendrisio, Switzerland
Abstract
Some man-made objects are geometrically simple in that they resemble idealized
forms such as lines, planes, cubes, or polyhedra. Ever since Euclid invented
geometry, people have been content with the idea that all objects can be
classified as compositions of regular geometric shapes. The architecture found
inspiration by the Euclidean geometry and by the properties of the symmetry.
The analogy between natural and architectural forms sometimes catches us
profound impressions. Some architectural styles, for example the Baroque, found
inspiration in nature, and it is not possible to describe nature using simple lines
and curves. Nature is manifestly irregular and fractal-like. So perhaps we should
not be so surprised to find fractal components in architecture. As we shall
demonstrate, fractal geometry appears in architecture because it permits one to
reproduce the complex patterns and the irregular forms present in nature. The
aim of this paper is to present a fractal analysis applied to different architectural
styles. We shall also introduce the fractal geometry applied in the large scale,
describing some examples in the African and in the Oriental settlement
architecture.
Keywords: fractals, architecture, self-similarity, urban organisation.
1 Introduction
In architecture it is usual to search the presence of geometrical and mathematical
components. For example, the Euclidean geometry, the golden ratio, the
Fibonacci’s sequence, and the symmetry [1–7]. We can also observe the
architecture using a different point of view, for example to find some complex or
doi:10.2495/ARC060171
fractal components that are present in the buildings or in the urban

planning [8–11].
The fractal geometry appears in architecture because it helps to reproduce the
• on a small scale analysis (e.g., to determine the fractal components in a

forms present in nature. Our fractal analysis has been divided in two parts:
• on a large scale analysis (e.g., to study the urban organisation).

building);
• the building's self-similarity (e.g., a building’s component which repeats

In the small scale analysis we observed:
• the Iterative Function Systems, IFS, (e.g., iterative fractal processes present
itself in different scales),
in architecture).
• the self-similarity in the settlement architecture,

In the large scale analysis we observed:
• the fractal components present in the urban tissue.

Fractal components are present in different Gothic buildings, for example in
the “Fractal” Venice [12], in the Gothic Cathedrals, and in the Baroque
Churches, for example in the church of San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane (Rome),
conceived by the Swiss architect Francesco Borromini (1599-1667). In this paper
we present our analysis applied to different architectural styles. We shall also
introduce the fractal geometry applied in the large scale describing some
examples present in African settlement architecture (e.g., Mokoulek, Cameroon)
and in the Oriental settlement architecture (e.g., Borobudur, Indonesia).
2 Fractal geometry
Fractal geometry is one of the most exciting frontiers in the fusion between
mathematics and information technology. A fractal could be defined as a rough
or fragmented geometric shape that can be subdivided in parts, each of which is
approximately a reduced-size copy of the whole. The term fractal was coined by
the Polish-born French mathematician Benoit B. Mandelbrot (b. 1924) from the
Latin verb frangere, “to break”, and from the related adjective fractus,
“fragmented and irregular”. This term was created to differentiate pure geometric
figures from other types of figures that defy such simple classification. The
acceptance of the word “fractal” was dated in 1975. When Mandelbrot presented
the list of publications between 1951 and 1975, date when the French version of
his book was published. The people were surprised by the variety of the studied
fields: noise on telephone lines, linguistics, cosmology, economy, games theory,
turbulence. The multiplicity of the fields of application has played a central role
to the diffusion of Mandelbrot’s discovery. Fractals are generally self-similar on
multiple scales. So, all fractals have a built-in form of recursion. Sometimes the
recursion is visible in how the fractal is constructed. For example, Cantor set,
Sierpinski triangle, Koch snowflakes are generated using simple recursive rules.
2.1 The self-similarity
The self-similarity is a property by which an object contains smaller copies of

itself at arbitrary scales. A fractal object is self-similar if it has undergone a
transformation whereby the dimensions of the structure were all modified by the
same scaling factor. The new shape may be smaller, larger, translated, and/or
rotated. “Similar” means that the relative proportions of the shapes’ sides and
internal angles remain the same. As described by Mandelbrot [13], this property
is ubiquitous in the natural world [13]. Oppenheimer [14] used the term “fractal”
exchanging it with self-similarity, and affirmed: “The geometric notion of self-
similarity became a paradigm for structure in the natural world. Nowhere is this
principle more evident than in the world of botany”.
Self-similarity appears in objects as diverse as leaves, mountain ranges,
clouds, and galaxies. Figure 1(a) shows a Koch curve, created using simple
geometric rules. In the figure 1(b) is reproduced a broccoli (Brassica oleracea)
which is an example of self-similarity in nature.
a) b)
Figure 1: Koch curve (a) and the broccoli (b) are fractals.
2.2 The Iterated Function System
Iterated Function System (IFS) is another fractal that can be applied in the
architecture. Barnsley [15, p. 80] defined the Iterated Function System as follow:
“A (hyperbolic) iterated function system consists of a complete metric space (X,
d) together with a finite set of contraction mappings wn: X→ X with respective
“iterated function system”. The notation for the IFS just announced is { X, wn, n
contractivity factor sn, for n = 1, 2,.., N. The abbreviation “IFS” is used for
= 1, 2,.., N} and its contractivity factor is s = max {sn : n = 1, 2, …, N}.”

Barnsley put the word “hyperbolic” in parentheses because it is sometimes
He also defined the following theorem [15, p. 81]: “Let {X, wn, n = 1, 2, …, N}
dropped in practice.
transformation W: H(X) → H(X) defined by:

be a hyperbolic iterated function system with contractivity factor s. Then the
W ( B ) = ∪ nn =1 w n ( B ) (1)
For all B∈ H(X), is a contraction mapping on the complete metric space (H(X),
h(d)) with contractivity factor s. That is:
H(W(B), W(C)) ≤ s⋅h(B,C) (2)
for all B, C ∈ H(X). Its unique fixed point, A ∈ H(X), obeys

A = W ( A) = ∪ nn=1 wn ( A) (3)
and is given by A = lim n→∞ Won (B) for any B ∈ H(X).”

The fixed point A ∈ H(X), described in the theorem by Barnsley is called the
“attractor of the IFS” or “invariant set”.
Bogomolny [16] affirms that two problems arise. One is to determine the
fixed point of a given IFS, and it is solved by what is known as the
“deterministic algorithm”.
The second problem is the inverse of the first: for a given set A∈H(X), find
an iterated function system that has A as its fixed point [16]. This is solved
approximately by the Collage Theorem [15, p. 94].
L∈H(X) be given, and let ε ≥ o be given. Choose an IFS (or IFS with
The Collage Theorem states: “Let (X, d), be a complete metric space. Let
condensation) {X, (wn), w1, w2,…, wn} with contractivity factor 0 ≤ s ≤ 1, so that
h( L,∪ nn =1 wn ( L )) ≤ ε
( n =0)
(4)
where h(d) is the Hausdorff metric. Then

ε
h( L, A) ≤
1− s
(5)
where A is the attractor of the IFS. Equivalently,
h ( L , A ) ≤ (1 − s ) − 1 h ( L , ∪ n =1 w n ( L )) (6)
(n=0)
for all L∈H(X).”

The Collage Theorem describes how to find an Iterated Function System
whose attractor is “close to” a given set, one must endeavour to find a set of
transformations such that the union, or collage, of the images of the given set
under transformations is near to the given set.
Next figure 2(a) shows a fern created using the IFS. The IFS is produced by
polygons that are put in one another and show a high degree of similarity to
nature. The polygons in this case are triangles.
Figure 2(b) illustrates the Collage Theorem applied to a region bounded by a
polygonalized leaf boundary [15, p. 96].
(a) (b)
Figure 2: Fern created using the IFS (a). Collage Theorem applied to a region
bounded by a polygonalized leaf boundary (b).
3 Fractal geometry in architecture

A discussion of fractal geometry applied in architecture can lead to ambiguous
territory [17–19]. It is worthwhile mentioning that an architectural element is
only approximately fractal, since it cannot have details that are infinitely small;
thus, we prefer not to speak of “fractal architecture,” but rather of architecture
“with fractal components.” This is in agreement with other studies [20].
3.1 Self-similarity in architecture
When we write about the presence of the self-similarity in architecture, we refer

of a same shape repeated in different scales more than four times. We can
• unintentional, when the fractal quality has been chosen for an aesthetic sense
classify the presence of the self-similarity in architecture in two different ways:
• intentional, when the fractal component is, in every case, the result of a
(e.g., in the Hindu architecture);
specific and conscious act of design (e.g., in the modern architecture).

It is interesting to analyze the self-similarity in different cultures and in
different architectural styles (e.g., Hindu, and Gothic styles) and in different
cultures (e.g., African and Oriental cultures).
Hindu temples present a fractal structure. The temple is the most
characteristic artistic expression of Hinduism. The temple reflects the ideals and
way of life of those who built it and for whom it was intended to operate a link
between the world of man and that of the gods. In order to understand the
architectural forms of the Hindu temple it is necessary to investigate the origins
and development of the civilization that produced it. In older cultures the
mountains prefigure the sacred sanctuaries around the world. In the Hindu
experience the idea of the archetypal mountain of existence is mythologized in
the cosmic mountain named Meru, the mythological center or navel of the
universe. George Mitchell (1988) writes: “In the superstructure of the Hindu
temple, perhaps its most characteristic feature, the identification of the temple
with the mountain is specific, and the superstructure itself is known as a
“mountain peak” or “crest” (shikhara). The curved contours of some temple
superstructures and their tiered arrangements owe much to a desire to suggest the
visual effect of a mountain peak” [21, p. 69]. Figure 3(a) shows an Indian
temple, which presents fractal components.
In the Western architecture we can find the oldest handmade fractal object in
the Cathedral of Anagni (Italy). Inside the cathedral, built in the year 1104, there
is a floor, which is adorned with dozens of mosaics, each in the form of a
Sierpinski gasket fractal.
The self-similarity is also present in the Gothic Cathedrals, as shown in
figure 3(b). The Gothic is a style developed in northern France that spread
throughout Europe between the 12th and 16th centuries. The term “Gothic” was
first used during the later Renaissance by the Italian artist Giorgio Vasari
(1511-1574), as a term of contempt. He wrote: “Then arose new architects who
after the manner of their barbarous nations erected buildings in that style, which
we call Gothic”. Fulcanelli, the 20th century most enigmatic alchemist, gave
another explication of the term Gothic, which is connected to the language of the
alchemy [18, p. 84].
(a) (b)
Figure 3: Hindu temple (a) and Gothic Cathedral (b) show the self-similarity.
The fractal geometry is present in the African culture. Ron Eglash, in his
book entitled African Fractals (1998), presents a wealth of examples of fractals
in African architecture, and design. Eglash points out that the African
architecture reflects both the social and religious structure of the settlement. All
the architectural examples exhibit fractal components as a consequence of some
structural or organisational feature of the settlement. From a political
perspective, Eglash writes: “Thus fractal architecture was used as colonial proof
of primitivism. This debate over the urban status of non-Euclidean settlements
continues in the postcolonial era” [22, p. 196].
He suggests that European settlers considered most African settlements to be
large villages instead of cities, because instead of the Euclidean arrangements of
European cities, they found complicated fractal arrangements. Figure 4(a) shows
an aerial photograph of Ba-ila settlement, before 1944, situated in the Southern
Zambia (Africa) [22, p. 27]. The settlement as a whole has the same shape: it is a
ring of rings. Each extended family’s home is a ring-shaped livestock pen, with a
gate on one end. Progressing around the ring, the buildings become progressively
larger dwellings, until the largest, the father’s house, is opposite the gate (hence
at the back of the pen). Figure 4(b) illustrates its fractal generation [22, p. 27].
Self-similar organisations are present in Mokoulek (Cameroon), one of the
Mofou settlement, and in some Senegalese settlements.
Fractal components are also present in the Buddhist temples. Borobudur, the
great Buddhist stupa on Java (Indonesia), built and decorated perhaps before
800AD, should be on anybody’s list of the ten greatest art-complexes in the
world for its size, quality, sophistication and excellent state of preservation.
The structure, composed of 55,000 square meters of lava-rock, is erected on a
hill in the form of a stepped-pyramid of six rectangular storeys, three circular
terraces and a central stupa forming the summit. The whole structure is in the
form of a lotus, the sacred flower of Buddha.
The temple at Borobudur shows some fractal components, in particular the
self-similarity (figure 5(a)). It is certainly the world’s largest mandala. Mandalas
are sacred circular diagrams from the Tibetan tradition; an example is shown in
figure 5(b).
(a) (b)
Figure 4: Ba-ila settlement (a) and its fractal organisation (b).
(a) (b)
Figure 5: Borobudur (a) and the mandala (b) show the self-similarity.
3.2 Iterated Function System in architecture
Gothic architecture can be observed using the iterative function system.

Figure 6(a) illustrates an attempt to find an IFS which could generate the ideal
Gothic Church conceived by Eugène-Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc (1814-1879).
Figure 6(b) shows a fern generated by the computer using algorithms based on
IFS.
(a) (b)
Figure 6: Ideal Gothic church (a), and the fern (b) could be generated
using IFS.
The Duomo (1386-1577, Milano), shown in figure 7(a), is the biggest and
greatest late gothic architecture in Italy. The cathedral is white marble, over a
brick core, and has a cruciform plan. One of the largest cathedrals in the world
(14,000 square yards) it was designed to accommodate 40,000 worshippers.
Figure 7(b) shows a Celosia Plumosa, which has the same fractal-like
organisation of the facade of the Duomo.
(a) (b)
Figure 7: Duomo (Milano, Italy) (a), Celosia Plumosa (b) show the same
fractal-like organisation.
Figure 8: Santa Croce (Florence, Italy) an attempt to find the IFS.
Santa Croce, the church of the Franciscans in Florence, is one of the finest
examples of Italian Gothic architecture. It was begun in 1294, in the period that
served as the transition from Medieval times to the Renaissance. It was designed
by Arnolfo di Cambio (1240-1302), and it was finished in 1442, with the
exception of the 19th century Gothic Revival facade and campanile. The church
is simple basilica style with a nave and two isles. Figure 8 illustrates the west
facade of Santa Croce, and an attempt to dissect it in triangles to find the IFS
connected to the church.
The iterated function system applied to the Gothic cathedrals could help us to
understand the generative processes of these complex buildings.
4 Conclusions
In the field of architecture, the fractal geometry is used in many ways:
unintentionally and intentionally. In architectural design is important to provide
harmony between old and new. Fractal geometry can be used in the process of
supporting creativity in the ideation of new forms and for testing harmony
between old and new. It is helping to define new architectural models and an
aesthetic that has always lain beneath the changing artistic ideas of different
periods, schools and cultures [9, 10, 17–20, 23–25].
The use of the iterated function system (IFS) for generating town-like patterns
has been described by Woloszyn [26], who illustrates how the iteration of a
simple substitution rule from an initial and basic pattern leads to an image that
looks like an urban structure.
Recent studies introduce a genetic-like approach, allowing interpolation,
alteration and fusion of different urban models, and leading to global or local
synthesis of new shapes. These studies reveal that the IFS could help to create
new pseudo urban models based on fractal algorithms [27]. Thus, it could be
possible to encode simplified 2D½ city models using an IFS compression
technique.
References
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1984.
[2] Hargittai, I. & Hargittai, M., Symmetry: A Unifying Concept, Random
House, New York, 1996.
[3] Williams, K. (ed.), Nexus 1, Mathematics and Architecture, Edizione
dell’Erba, Fucecchio, 1998.
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dell’Erba, Fucecchio, 2000.
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Nell’Architettura, Franco Angeli, Milano, 2003.
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Scientific, Singapore, 1998.
[8] Venturi, R., Complexity and contradiction in architecture, The Museum
of Modern Art, New York, 1992.
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Singapore, pp. 273-283, 2002.
[12] Fivaz, R., L’ordre et la volupté, Press Polytechniques Romandes,
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from: http://www.cut-the-knot.org/ctk/ifs.shtml
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Connections Between Architecture and Fractal Geometry, Nexus Network
Journal, vol. 3, no. 1 (Winter 2001), http://www.nexusjournal.com
/Ostwald-Fractal.html
[18] Sala, N. & Cappellato, G., Architetture della complessità, Franco Angeli,
Milano, 2004.
[19] Bovill, C., Fractal Geometry in Architecture and Design, Birkhäuser,
Boston, 1996.
[20] Capo, D., The Fractal Nature of the Architectural Orders, Nexus Network
Journal, vol. 6 no. 1 (Spring 2004), http://www.nexusjournal.com/
Capo.html
[21] Mitchell, G., The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning and
Forms, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1988.
[22] Eglash, R., African Fractals, Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick,
1999.
[23] Jencks, C., The New Paradigm in Architecture. The Language of
Postmodernism, Yale University Press, New Haven, USA, 2002.
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Art 2005 Proceedings, pp. 11-24.
[25] Salingaros, N., Fractals in the New Architecture, Archimagazine, (2001),
http://www.archimagazine.com/afrattae.htm
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architecturales et urbaines, Thèse, Laboratoire CERMA, Nantes, 1998.
[27] Marsault, X., Generation of textures and geometric pseudo-urban models
with the aid of IFS, Chaos and Complexity Letters, vol. 1, n.3, Sala N.
(ed.), Special issue dedicated to the Chaos and Complexity in Arts and
Architecture, 2005, pp. 109-126 (in print).
Symbols, metaphors, analogues: seeding,

modelling and achieving sustainable design
R. J. Koester
Ball State University, USA
Abstract
This paper describes the role of abstraction in providing informational structure
to the complex tasks of the design-for-sustainability process and the use of that
abstraction in facilitating the participation of the many players needed to assure
the successful execution of projects. The distinction is made between “seeding”
and “modelling” as parts of an iterative function in service to
design-for-sustainability. Distinctions are drawn between the trappings of the
labelling and symbology associated with systems used to index sustainable
performance (such as the US Green Building Council LEED Rating System), the
role of both computer-based and hands-on simulation/emulation tools used to
quantify sustainable performance, and the inspirational evidence to be found in
nature as exemplary embodiments of sustainable performance—all of which can
contribute support to the integrative process needed to assure the effective
pursuit of design-for-sustainability. Specifically, discussion is provided of the
distinctions between symbol, metaphor, and analogue. In addition, critique is
made of Ecological Design and Open Building Design as used to promote
sustainable design. Only by clarification of the respective distinctions and with a
thorough understanding of the strengths and weaknesses of each of these, as a
tool, can we be prepared as designers to seed and model—and thereby
effectively achieve—a sustainable architecture.
Keywords: symbol, metaphor, analogue, modelling, design process, green
design, ecological design, open building, sustainable design.
1 Introduction
In the face of the pervasive social concern for environmental, social and
economic sustainability and the need to find ways to integrate this content into
doi:10.2495/ARC060181
the design, delivery and operation of sustainable facilities, numerous ideas are
put forward; terms of definition are invoked and references are made to describe
the complexity of this challenge. Nonetheless, confusion readily occurs. Terms
such as green design, sustainable design, and ecological design are used
interchangeably. Well-intentioned rating methods such as LEED, Green Globes,
and BREEAM equally can serve to cloud the conversation.
As designers, our first response to the confusion is to find ways to gain
control over the overwhelming nature of this information. The use of design
guidelines, lists of issues, performance diagrams and singular terminology all
reflect an effort to gain that control. This paper examines this landscape to
propose a specific, rather simplified means by which conceptual abstractions can
serve to clarify and give informational structure to this otherwise confounding
new field. More specifically, the interest is to preserve the useful operation,
intent and understandings of the traditional design activity so as to leverage the
proposed abstraction as a service to the looming goal of design-for-sustainability.
1.1 Abstraction as Informational Structure
The most common operational tool used by architects and allied design
professionals to give structure to complexity is the infamous “back of the
envelope” diagram. Such a diagram often illustrates proposed performance and
employs what are best described as “smart” arrows. The illustration typically
patterns the flow of environmental forces in desirable ways but is not necessarily
derivative of an actual mapping of the true effect of the built-form-influence on
such environmental force flow. In addition to the diagram of course, design
professionals frequently use the “back of the envelope” label which seeks to
capture core ideas not only for talking with clients and consultants, but also to
‘spirit’ the project by painting a mental image to which participants can aspire.
In either case, whether using a diagram or label—or even a sentence or
paragraph imagining of the design intent—the purpose is to give structure to
information. The challenge to design-for-sustainability is to systematize the
conventions of abstraction so as to better support the design process; and
especially to assure the clarity of roles, and active participation, by all players.
1.2 Sustainable design in all its complexity
Sustainability as a topic and the design of sustainable facilities as a task allude to

a complexity that exceeds the fundamental understandings of building
construction; this is true as well in landscape design. Quite separate from the
complexities of material choice, assembly and operation, which comprise the
standard accountability in facility or landscape design, the invocation of the
sustainability mantra necessitates even more careful monitoring of the metrics—
with specific attention to the expected behaviour of day-to-day, life-long
operational performance. This necessary obsession with tracking flows and
balances so as to assure sustainability, frequently involves the use of computer
software modelling and/or hands-on simulation techniques by which the
predictability of operational behaviour is given some sense of certainty.
Such complexification of the process demands evermore clarity in the

informational abstraction and organizational structure used to affect the process
of design and the delivery of a fully functioning final project. This is
exacerbated even further when considering the need to move from the more
sequenced (asynchronous) contribution by the players to the more simultaneous
(synchronous) interaction of the many allied professionals.
1.3 Early participation by all
The sequence of conventional design service delivery which aggregates activity

in phases from site selection and analysis, to programming, to schematic design,
to design development, to construction documentation, to bid supervision and
even post-occupancy evaluation necessitates a new look when faced with the
complexities of sustainability. A more appropriate approach recognizes that all
participants should be at the table from Day 1 so that the overlapping influence
of concerns on the wholeness of the project can be examined, debated, and
cyclically edited in an expansionist/contractionist charette process. This needed
participation by all players throughout the process emphasizes the utility of
simplified abstraction in giving structure to the communication of interaction.
2 Narrative
In many ways the challenge we face in seeking to design sustainable facilities is
the challenge of picking a starting point in the process. The conventions of
design practice and the staged sequencing of design development as mentioned
above typically point toward the use of checklists to enrich the standard model of
design service delivery while not changing it fundamentally. But the integrated
nature of sustainable performance argues in favour of changing the process; the
sections which follow present the means by which such change can occur.
2.1 Seeding is not modelling
The starting point for any design is a ‘seeding’ exercise; that is to say one must
have some notion of organizational purpose, diagrammatic arrangement, material
selection, and/or mandate from the client that sets in place a first definition of the
fixed and the variable in the decision making tree. ‘Seeding’, however, is not the
same as ‘modelling’ and it is important to get at the distinction between the two.
They are linked, even closely aligned; but, they are radically different. For
purposes of this paper, ‘seeding’ is defined as having to do with ordering ideas
and ‘modelling’ is defined as having to do with operational behaviour.
2.1.1 Seeding
Many stories are available regarding the beginning point of design. Architects
have been known to start with a building (as a type) that they have designed
before and to look toward modifying its plans and sections as a new fit in a new
circumstance (client, context, site, etc.). This approach reflects a kind of
artificial structuring of problem complexity in that the imposition of the seeding
idea although seeming somewhat arbitrary intentionally begins as a “bad” fit (in
detailed terms) so as to make it possible to enter the complexity of the problem
space at a high level of organizational control—thereby leading to the
meaningful genesis of a subsequent “good” (more sophisticated) design fit. The
blessing of such approach is that one starts quickly; the accompanying curse is
that one may lose the histories of rationalization embedded in the seeding idea.
Nonetheless, this is a tremendously useful technique to kick-start a new project.
Many stories can be told. In tracing the work of any great architect we can
see in subsequent work the seeds of design ideas embedded from prior projects.
These show up often in literal terms—in the plan and/or section footprints of the
buildings, the choice of materials, the proportionalities of space, the geometries
of alignment and/or the placements of the buildings on the land. Often these
reflect a continually evolving basis by which specific responses to environmental
forces are made.
2.1.2 Modelling
In contrast, the modelling of problem solutions and ramifications of design
decision-making can be carried out using accepted “tools of the trade” such as
checklists, design guidelines, code-based mandates, strictures for established best
practices, and/or computer software. In these cases, the modelling is actually a
projection of expected operational performance based on the known behaviour of
the pre-existing proven design. A consultant, who applies this approach as an
energy-system modeller, for example, will frequently start with a go-to model of
a known building (by type) and simply ‘tweak’ it to approximate a proposed
design; informing and challenging the conversation about the engineering of
force flows and the management of systems behaviour.
The point to be made involves the distinction between ‘seeding’ as a real-time
action meant to precipitate real-time behaviour of participants in the design
process and ‘modelling’ as a virtual-time emulation (or mimicking) of the
expected real-time behaviour of the building. It is important also to discuss how
the design process can be driven by a visionary inspiration.
2.2 Inspirational evidence in nature
Nature herself is one of the best teachers regarding the visualization of design
process and the interactive characteristic of limits and expression. We could
discuss the inspirational aspect of nature by connecting the potentiation of DNA
to expressions of cellular (read built) growth in response to environmental
constraint. We could expand this to include a Darwinian observation regarding
the development of species (read building type) and the differentiation of each of
these relative to their respective operational islands (read biomes, climates, and
building sites). More generally though, the invocation of nature is helpful in
talking about operational principles.
2.2.1 Location, form, metabolism

Nature teaches that animals and plants function in response to environmental
force by modifying location, form and/or metabolism. Animals, for example,
migrate from point A to point B to escape the less favourable, or to enjoin the
more favourable conditions; both animals and plants differentiate form to expand
or contract exposure to the elements; and animals activate metabolic function to
compensate for environmental stress. These rather straightforward teachings are
found in the migrations of birds or butterflies from winter to summer seasons;
the form (and size) of Elephant ears used to promote thermal exchange; the
on-the-spot shivering by animals as a metabolic activity in direct response to the
environmental constraint.
2.2.2 Form, operation, appearance

These factual aspects of physiologic fit of a species to environment can be
contrasted also against the more poetic inspirational evidence in nature. It is not
uncommon for designers to invoke themes of form, operation, and/or appearance
in that regard. The bird-wing quality of the Milwaukee Art Museum by
Calatrava (Aldersley-Williams [1]), the differentiation of the skin of the Phoenix
Public Library by Bruder (Wigginton and Harris [2]), or the physical form of the
Fish Dance Restaurant by Gehry (Aldersley-Williams [3]), exemplify this point.
3 Trappings
The conventions of practice as referenced in the introduction yield a kind of trap
for the designer; when burdened by the labels and symbols invoked.
3.1 Labelling
One example of labelling, established as a formal evaluative system, is the US

Green Building Council Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design
(LEED) scoring technique. With this method, one can obtain designation for a
building as operating at levels of performance meriting the ratings of certified,
silver, gold, or platinum. Proponents of the system even argue in favour of
“exceeding LEED” by achieving living building performance. The simplified
scoring system which involves a substantial interactive review process reflects a
disassociation of actual performance and operational behaviour at the level of
content and supplants that measured performance with the simplified
terminology of the label itself. In fact, the most recent literature is reporting that
some of the LEED certified buildings are not performing as intended
(Schendler [4]); in part because some have achieved their scores while paying
minimal attention to energy flows—an important element of sustainability.
3.2 Symbology
In contrast to the scoring method and the trappings of the certification labels,
there is a latent symbology embedded in popular design terms such as green,
ecological, sustainable and even regenerative design. These are used often in
overlapping and interchangeable ways and lack clear agreed-upon definitions. Is
a green building a sustainable building or is a sustainable building green? Can a
living machine alone make a building green? Is a building green only when
measured in terms of materials or is it green because of its energy behaviour? Is

a sustainable building only sustainable because of the sourcing of material or
because of its operational performance? The confusions aggregate quickly.
The point to be made is that we must guard against the trappings of language
and we must be careful not to invoke symbology as a substitute for content when
faced with the tasks of design-for-sustainability. One of the most tried and true
examples of symbolic invocation is the use of the sun path diagram on a building
plan or section. The minute one puts this on the sheet, the building is ‘labelled’ a
solar building and the presumption is that it will perform at some level of
accepted best practice. What the labelling does not do is explain in any detail
what the 8760 hour track of performance will be during a typical meteorological
year, nor does it get at the interaction of the various systems or design strategies
used to assure some level of expected operational performance.
4 Tools
There is a wide range of computer software on the market by which one can
simulate the behaviour of intended building performance. This includes energy,
lighting, acoustics, finances and the life-cycle evaluation of material impacts.
4.1 Thermal
The most robust energy modelling tool in the United States is DOE-2 which
requires a complex description of building energy components; it uses
sophisticated thermal network modelling to mimic the trade-off of energy gains
and losses in the capacitance of a building’s spaces and materials over the course
of days, weeks, and months—as influenced by the dynamic occupant and climate
loads. Other tools, such as Energy Plus, Energy-10, Energy Scheming (a more
qualitative inferencing tool), and Eco-Tec all utilize similar network modelling
of energy flows as thermal capacitance trade-offs. Nonetheless, even the most
sophisticated application of these modelling tools does not yield absolute
assurance of final performance. The tools simply put a design idea “in the
ballpark”; more importantly they give reasonable assurance that the system
choices made have a mutual, internal integrity of performance as they interact.
4.2 Luminous
The most prominent tool in lighting simulation is Radiance which is used to

create pictorial imaging of rendered computer models with a back-up technical
accounting of performance metrics. The software offers effective visualizations
of expected final appearance of light behaviour in a space based on known
reflectivity and co-efficiencies of absorption for materials selected as room
surface finishes. Factored into such models are fairly accurate predictions
regarding the influence or impact of hard light from the sun and the
inter-reflective light from the sky-vault. The sophistication of these rendering
capabilities, however, falls short of the need for quick iterative feedback during
the process of design. As a result, many lighting designers use more immediate
modelling techniques such as Heliodon and/or Sky Chamber Daylight emulators

which enable the participants to work in real time to make quick decisions and
test options ‘on the fly’. Most importantly, these modelling tools are useful in
feeding and/or otherwise supporting conversation among the allied professionals
contributing to the work, since all of them can be at the table at the same time.
4.3 Acoustic
A popular software tool for acoustical evaluation is CATT-Acoustic, which

calculates the reverberation effect and inter-reflective accumulation of wave
phenomena in a physical space based on material choices, space geometry and
contained air volume. The tool is quite helpful in emulating the acoustical
quality and can lead to an understanding of the expected technical regimes for
reverberation and the noise deadening effects of materials and space geometry.
Nonetheless, in the end, acoustical spaces are only able to be fine-tuned
(perfected) using more empirical trial-and-error methodologies in the field;
“sparking” a point signal, measuring actual reverberation time and profiling the
frequency response of a space can only be made on location in real-time.
4.4 Financial
Numerous tools are available for doing life-cycle cost (LCC) analysis and/or
day-to-day return on investment (ROI) profiling using assumptions about capital
costs, discount rates, longevity of the project, annual operating expenses, and
other variables of influence. These financial models can be used to track the
trade-off of higher front end costs against lower operational costs yielding a
cost-benefit over time. Interestingly, these modelling tools enable the capture of
the interactive nature of system design; buildings that score LEED Silver often
cost less to effect than those meeting Certified rating. The internal trade-offs and
multiplying effects of the conservation efforts accumulate with the greater level
of sophistication indicated by the higher performance rating.
4.5 Life Cycle
In contrast to costs, tools are available for determining a Life Cycle Assessment
(LCA). These measure the net environmental impact of materials as tracked
from the point of sourcing through manufacture to delivery and operation. The
more notable software tool on the market that engages this kind of profiling is
that of the Athena Software Group. Life Cycle Assessment also looks at
operational use in place and tries to establish the benchmarks for replacement or
repair needed during the ongoing maintenance and operation of a facility. Both
of these involve a sophistication that exceeds conventional architectural service.
5 Discussion: a wilful simplification

In the light of the discussion above, there is need for clarity of conceptual
structure. The three terms discussed below are offered as that device. They
comprise a kind of graded invocation of understandings that distinguish the

trappings, inspirations, and metrics of design ideation—especially as these
involve all contributing parties working in service to design-for-sustainability.
5.1 Symbol
For sake of definition, the symbol is seen as iconographic; a signal of intent, a

marker of content, but is not itself considered operational. As described above,
the symbol “stands for” operational performance as a measure of sustainability.
The LEED rating system, the sun-path diagram, or even the labelling of a plan
and/or building cross-section with so-called smart arrows, tend more to be “calls
for” intended performance rather than measurable predictions. Such symbols
need to be qualified for what they are to distinguish their more superficial level
of information structuring from those which are more penetrating.
5.2 Metaphor
For the sake of definition, the metaphor is seen as an allusion and is used to
establish a spirit for the project. A building can be imagined to be “as a bird on a
nest”; or seen to be structured “as a spider’s web”, or could have experiential
qualities “as in the space of a cave”. Metaphors allude to a qualitative feel as
well as an organizational inference, but do not talk to specific operational
practice or expected (let alone, measured) performance.
5.3 Analogue
By contrast, the term analogue is used to talk about the operational aspects of
models—especially those in nature—that can be used to inform design.
Analogues are those physical performances that can be mimicked in built form.
The chimney-effect ventilation of a tall building as analogous to the natural
stack-effect ventilation of the termite mound is a profound example.
6 Critique
The proposal herein is to use the three terms above to describe, interpret, and/or
otherwise employ the widely-available labels, diagrams and tools of
design-for-sustainability. Moreover, the goal is to leverage other bodies of
architectural work and schools of thought whose origins and/or histories do, or
do not, have an immediate connection. To emphasize this point, the following
two critiques are made of Ecological Design and Open Building, respectively.
6.1 Ecological design
Much of the concern for sustainability in architecture and allied design fields
operates under the rubric of ecological design. A simple web search yields all
manner of definitions and/or interpretations of the term. There are numerous
practicing professional groups and individuals that weave this into the titling of
their company; design-build and professional schools of architecture throughout

the world invoke the term as part of their curricular descriptions, if not degree
titles; and various manufacturers invoke the term to describe their products.
Organizations, institutes and centers use this term as well; one of the most
notable is The Ecological Design Institute (Van der Ryn [5]) which offers name-
sake guidelines: (1) Solutions grow from place (2) Make nature visible,
(3) Design with nature, (4) Ecological accounting informs design, and
(5) Everyone is a designer. Another checklist example comes from Malcolm
Wells, the so-called underground architect whose work predated much of the
contemporary concern for environmental, economic and social equity formalized
as the sustainability interest; Wells compiled an intriguing matrix by which
designers could score their projects—whether buildings or landscapes. The list
provides a simple polarity of qualitative measures regarding how a design
“contributes” to the creation of pure air or destroys it, “creates” pure water or
destroys it, etc. (SBSE [6]). A forest landscape, of course, merits a perfect score.
6.2 Open building
Of the many schools of thought that have bearing on the process of facility
delivery as well as use, Open Building is perhaps one of the more internationally
recognized in the literature. Open Building aggregates design decisions in time
and space on five levels — urban structure, urban tissue, base building, fit-out,
and furnishings. And between each of these, defines the territorial units of
town, neighbourhood, functional areas (or departments), and rooms. The
concepts grow from the early writings of Habraken [7] regarding supports and
infill as a means of conceiving elements of a building which have differing
physical lives. Open Building aligns itself with the idea that since base buildings
and urban infrastructure have the longest lives of the systems, they can be
designed and evaluated using a 100 year life-cycle.
The literature on Open Building is well developed, but the integration of
sustainability factors is not fully developed or well refined (Koester et al. [8, 9]).
The categorizations of symbol, metaphor and analogue can help Open Building
designers address more effectively the issues of environmental fit at each of the
levels, and appropriately import the resource materials needed to support the
nested levels of decision-making.
7 Conclusion
In the face of the sustainability concerns, the challenge is to find ways to bring
all players to the table using a language of categorization by which discussion
can be anchored. The proposal in this paper is to use the simple hierarchy of
symbol, metaphor, and analogue as a way to stimulate kinds of discussion,
categorize available resources, identify design process activities, and inventory
design documentation. The simplicity of the terms and the clarity of their
definition will promote dialog and establish a hierarchy of appreciation for the
complexity of the task of achieving sustainable design.
References
[1] Aldersey-Williams, H. Zoomoorphic: a new animal architecture. Harper-
Collins: London, pp. 50-51, 2003.
[2] Wigginton, M and Harris, J., Intelligent skins. Elsevier, Amsterdam,
pp.99-102, 2002
[3] Aldersey-Williams, H. Zoomoorphic: a new animal architecture. Harper-
Collins: London, pp. 47, 2003.
[4] Schendler, A and Udall, R., LEED is broken; let’s fix it., 2005
http://www.grist.org/comments/soapbox/2005/10/26/leed/index1.html.
[5] Van DerRyn, Sim., The ecological design institute., 2005
http://www.ecodesign.org/.
[6] SBSE, A regeneration-based checklist for design and construction., 2005
http://www.sbse.org/resources/index.htm.
[7] Habraken, N.J. The structure of the ordinary: form and control in the built
environment. MIT Press: Cambridge, pp. 1-100, 9999, 1998.
[8] Koester, R., Open building and community harvest: new definitions of
what can comprise a base building. Proceedings of the 2005 World
Sustainable Building Conference, Tokyo, pp. 2976-2982, 2005.
[9] Koester, R., Dettbarn, D., and Riegle, E., Tectonic constraint: harvesting
material(s) -- and building(s) -- to seed sustainable architecture.
Proceedings of the 21st International Conference Passive and Low Energy
Architecture (PLEA), Eindhoven, pp. 571-576, 2004.
A methodology for sustainable design analysis

of large scale buildings
R. Richarde1 & R. Ibrahim2
1
Department of Architecture, California Polytechnic State University,
USA
2
Construction Engineering & Management Program,
Stanford University, USA
Abstract
Long-term sustainability—including maintenance, operation, and life cycle cost
analysis—should start during the concept design stage where most critical
decisions are determined. This paper provides advice for owners, facility
managers, and designers to optimize sustainable design options. Furthermore, by
front ending the costs for implementing those design options, owners return on
their investments are likely to be long term, they are likely to have reduced
operational maintenance costs, and are likely to have an increase in global
energy conservation. This paper proposes how to formalize a “Sustainable
Methodology” (SM) to facilitate effective contributions by decision makers
during the early concept design stage of a facility development project. The SM
framework has five phases: input, evaluation, summarization, synthesizing, and
output. These phases are initiated by the owner’s preliminary architectural
program and sustainable design goals, starting with site planning. The site
planning elements are climate (macro- and micro-climate), orientation, use,
function, shape/form, and surrounding (landscaping and buildings). The SM
framework evaluates planning elements and suggests implementation options in
harmony with environmental sustainability objectives.
In addition, this paper describes how the SM framework was tested on a
multi-story mixed-use development project during its site planning. Further
studies can extend the SM framework to include other aspects of facility design
such as envelope, structure, services, and space planning.
Keywords: concepts, elements, phases, layers, components, scenario, strategy.
doi:10.2495/ARC060191
1 Introduction
According to Knowles [1], given that a building has a forty years life span, the
cost of the design process usually is about 10% of the initial budget cost, the cost
of construction is 30-40% of that budget, and the remaining 60% is usually spent
on maintenance and operations.
Large scale buildings contribute significantly to resource consumption, as
well as to other environmental impacts, such as air emissions and solid waste
generation and 17% of the total year-2000 US primary energy consumption [2].
Fossil fuel production has already peaked, and it is generally agreed that we are
now in an era of declining oil production. With the resultant higher fuel costs,
and the uncertainty surrounding energy sources, the need for energy conservation
will be a key issue for making economic decisions. In particular, it is reasonable
to assume that an objective of building design is to create the best possible
facility for a given level of expenditure that utilizes the least amount of
embodied and life cycle energy.
The objective during the initial development stage of a project should be to
establish an effective set of design guidelines. Therefore, if a particular design
constraint is essential to the proposed facility, such as incorporating
sustainability issues, then the issues surrounding that constraint must be
identified and provided to the designer prior to the initiation of building design.
Fig.1 shows in general terms the extent to which the influence of design
decisions diminishes as the building project moves forward in time. Obviously,
some degree of iteration occurs during all design and construction phases but the
impact of design and construction changes decreases dramatically the closer the
project moves to the bidding cycle. After bidding and during construction only
minor changes can occur.
Figure 1: Time influence on design decisions.
In order to demonstrate the importance of these design guidelines, this paper

proposed an organization of a knowledge base “Sustainable Methodology” (SM)
for dealing with the green design and sustainable principals. The primary
concept is to provide design strategies directed to minimize future energy
consumption and environmental impact. In addition, another reason for such
organization is to simplify the way the design concepts are formed and
generated.
This study uses Stewart’s [3] model of concepts as a framework for
evaluating various components of a building design. In this study, the paper
builds upon a methodology using the five layers, with each layer called a
concept, with elements representing different components. However, in
application it suggests first to consider the site concept as the key to the
successful use of the other concepts. Below are the five concepts and their
elements, to be considered as tools for sustainable design in preliminary stage for
multi-use building:
Site: climate, orientation/solar access, shape/form, size, use, and function.
Envelope: glazing, heat gain, heat loss, insulation, roof, energy efficiency,
and apertures/windows, skylights, atriums.
Structure: types, materials and its use, longevity, and recycled content vs.
waste.
Services: mechanical HVAC systems, electrical, pluming, lighting,
passive heating and cooling.
Space Plan (Interior): interior layout of floors, ceilings, walls, movable
furnishings, and finishes.
2 Overview of the Sustainable Methodology (SM)

The SM is divided into five phases: Input, Evaluation, Summarizing,
Synthesizing, and Output. Each phase provides data input for the succeeding
phase, which eventually will provide the final recommendations for appropriate
design options in the Output Phase, fig.2. Following is an overview for the five
phases:
Phase I – Input Phase: This phase identifies an owner’s initial project
idea. It introduces a preliminary architectural program at the pre-design
phase that leads to prioritizing the owner’s design goals in regards to
sustainability. This process usually leads to identifying a specific site
that may meet the above goals, and specific guidelines to consider for
sustainable site development and evaluation.
Phase II – Evaluation Phase: After a site has been selected, the
evaluation of all available options for envelope, structure, services, and
space planning elements follow. This evaluation is based on sustainable
design options and the choice of the elements refers to the original
sustainable design goals.
Phase III – Summarizing Phase: This phase involves summarizing the
evaluations of available options, and performing a prioritization process
based on sustainable design goals. The product of this phase is a

ranking of the options that were evaluated from Phase II.
Phase IV – Synthesizing Phase: This phase involves using the most
appropriate combined and ranked interchangeable elements from the
Summary Phase, then identifying synergetic elements that enable
optimized design and producing strategies for envelope, structure,
services, and space planning concepts.
Phase V – Output Phase: In this phase, the user selects the final
strategies and produces formal sustainable design recommendations that
are most appropriate to the client’s goals and priorities.
Figure 2: Overview of the SM Framework.
3 The site concept

The primary Site concept is measured, formalized, and tested because it is
considered the basis on which a design will develop. The selection of the proper
site and facility can make a valuable contribution to a project’s profitability. Real
estate costs are a business expense, and as such affect profit. Therefore, it is vital
that real estate needs are carefully analyzed to determine what is needed and not
needed in terms of, use of site, physical facility requirements, physical site
requirements, and regional/local considerations. In order to optimize integrations
with natural ecosystems, the SM site analysis will focus on the following site
elements: climate, orientation, shape/form, size, use, function, and surroundings.
When selecting a site, it is important to consider the impact on the community

planning and the environment, such as contaminated sites, agricultural sites, and
conservation of environmentally sensitive sites. The object of the site analysis is
to guide the creation of the shape, structure, geometry, and scale of the building
so that it can maintain equilibrium under the stress of the cyclic changes of
nature (seasons change, precipitation, insolation, etc.). In addition, when site
elements are considered and evaluated, the site analysis will guide the conception
of a building of multiple components, including envelope, structure, services,
and space planning, which determine the building longevity, life cycle,
maintenance, and operations. Furthermore, each one of those site elements
enables the selection of appropriate components. For example, once a site
location and climate consideration with solar access is identified, then form and
orientation can be established, which then lead to use and function, fig. 3.
Figure 3: Overview of sustainable methodology.
4 Case study
This paper investigates the decision process and key criteria owners and facility
planners use to assess the pre-design phase, when given a preliminary program
and a set of design goals. The proposed sustainable methodology (SM) for pre-
design analysis of large scale buildings is tested at a student housing project at
one of the CalPoly campuses in Central California. The SM case study provides
advice to minimize environmental impact, increase energy conservation and
resource efficiency, and reduce cost over the life cycle of the project.
4.1 Background
The CalPoly student housing project will provide apartment units, parking and a
village centre with recreation and retail facilities for 2,700 students. The project
will be comprised of 902 one, two and four-bedroom apartments and adjoining
2,000 parking spaces. This will be the largest student housing project ever built
on a public California university campus.
4.1.1 Research methodology

This research is a case study research that has the following three objectives.
First, to map out the decision process that occurred during the pre-design phase
of SHN; second, to identify points in the decision making process where the SM
can be useful; and third, to attempt to use the SM at those points and reinterpret
the results as if the questions in the SM were seriously applied. The first author
interviewed seven of the major space planning decision makers that had
authority over the development of the CalPoly student housing project. The data
of each interview were entered in a table that presented thirteen questions and
answers. The results were defined by comparing the responses and by looking
for internal contradictions and consistencies. Then a strategy was developed
based on the client’s goals and priorities for the project, as well as the
interviewer’s responses and comment (Transcribed Interviews). Finally, an
assessment was made on how that strategy, fits into the proposed SM.
4.2 Recommendations
4.2.1 Identification of SM intervention

There is a significant difference between the client’s early design process and
goals, and the SM. The client’s priorities emphasized barbecues and attractive
design versus those of SM, which emphasized human preference and energy
efficiency. As shown in fig.4, when the SM was inserted in the pre-design
process of the housing project, it had the potential to provide an improved
process and improved results.
Figure 4: Identification of SM intervention.
4.2.2 Orientation
After careful review of the project’s site plan, it has been shown through light
studies and solar analysis that the orientation of this development is rather poor.
According to Haggard and Niles [4], cost savings of about 70% might occur with
proper calculations for building orientation and thermal mass. In order to achieve
such savings the following are the guidelines for natural heating and cooling:
Building oriented toward the equator with a maximum deviation
allowed of + or - 20 degrees.
12 to 20% of floor area in south glass.
If low e glass is used it must be receiving low e Hard coat (U>.33
and solar heat gain coefficient >.65) for the south window.
This south glass should be shared by approximately a 2’-6”
overhang to allow summer shading while allowing winter sun in.
Provide 10 square feet of any combination of the following thermal
mass options for each square foot of south glass:
o Interior masonry wall 2 inches or more in thickness.
o Exposed concrete floor slab with a non insulting finish
such as plain or colored concrete, tile, or directly applied
wood or bamboo parquet.
o 9 inch thick water tank directly exposed to the south light
in the winter.
o Double 5/8 inch thick drywall counts one-half.
Ability to cross ventilate all major rooms at night with at least
4 square feet of opening on two sides per 100 square feet of floor
area in order to cool the thermal mass in the summer.
The above proposed 70% cost savings would make economic sense with
2,700 residents. Another advantage to proper solar orientation comes from
reduced heat gains. Less heat entering the building envelope reduces the need for
cooling. Natural light also reduces the need for artificial lighting, therefore it is
proposed by the same report and guidelines mentioned above to have windows,
skylight, or roof light tube within at least 15 feet of each other. In addition, to
have all the major spaces must have natural light from two different directions.
4.2.3 Climate
The climate analysis for the housing project’s location, fig.5, was based on a
spreadsheet by Pena [5]. The spreadsheet creates a matrix of temperatures for the
year, giving the average temperatures for two-hour intervals for each month. The
spreadsheet allows a user to input temperature data, the average high and low
temperature for each month, and uses these data to estimate the temperature for
two-hour intervals between these high and low temperatures. The temperatures
which are colored in, indicating the closed heating mode in winter, open
“sailing” (no mechanical systems in operation) in spring and fall, and closed
cooling periods in summer, based on assumptions for a building that has a
balance point temperature of 55 degrees and a closed cooling temperature of
75 degrees. The average percent of the yellow area is 10%, blue is 45%, and
white is 45%. This concludes that the climate in Central Coast area of California
allows the buildings to operate without any mechanical systems almost 50-60%
of the times in terms of cooling and heating.
Figure 5: Climate analysis.
4.2.4 Circulation
Parking and a consequence of it, vehicular circulation are the main factors in
energy use and pollution, per the San Luis Obispo Air Pollution Control District.
In many cases, circulation contributes more to environmental degradation than
inadequate building orientation. Circulation choices – e.g., the availability of
attractive non-motorized modes (such as bicycling, pedestrian roads, and public
transportation) – also enhance social equity.
The university project’s Environmental Impact Report executed in summer of
2003, does not primarily think of alternative transportation or a shuttle bus but
emphasizes an abundance of wide roads. The proposed alternative would
enhance a non-motorized transportation and allows for a direct shuttle bus from
the housing project to the Campus Market, campus core, and points further
south. Pedestrian and bicycle paths, fully separated from roads, are proposed.
This solution can easily be developed in phases, where the first phase is much
less expensive than the current road concept.
4.2.5 Parking
The university housing project’s site plans have proposed two main parking
structures; one is at the north side of the site and the other at the south side of the
site. For 2,700 beds, a full 2,000 parking spaces are now being designed, which
means 0.7 parking spaces per bed. It is proposed, a first phase of 300 spaces
would be ample; if demand exists, more spaces could be built later. Furthermore,
this research proposes to create a single parking structure with three levels of
60,000 square feet each, for a total of 670 spaces at a ratio of 0.25 spaces per
bed. The structure will be located uphill from the SHN development, partially
underground (cut into the hillside) to avoid blocking views or creating an
eyesore. It will be accessible from the one-way perimeter road around the
complex. If this structure were to embrace the contours of the hill of the north
side, then a solar roof could be devised to capture energy, shade the cars, and
produce electricity for night-time street and parking structure lighting.
Eventually, electricity may be used locally or sold back to Pacific Gas &
Electricity for net metering, and the power may be used to charge a fleet of
electric vehicles, which would encourage the use of electric cars around the
campus and reduce pollution and the use of fossil fuel (energy efficiency).
5 Conclusions
The SM for sustainable design was developed to help owners, facility managers,
and designers contribute effectively during the pre-design analysis stage where
most decisions are determined for the performance and life cycle of the building.
It was concluded that by adopting this pre-design SM tool, positive financial
profits may be generated throughout the building’s life cycle, in particular
through a reduction in its operations and maintenance costs. Furthermore, the
framework was successfully tested on a large-scale public California university
housing project development during the pre-design analysis stage of the site. It
was quite difficult to perform the pre-design analysis prior to the official
expiration deadlines of the grants and funds because of many politics and
bureaucracy restrictions. When comparing the CalPoly process and the SM
process, this research concluded that if the university’s system had used the SM,
it would have saved the decision-makers time and unneeded battles between the
campus planning committee and the facility planers and developer. In addition, it
would have provided the opportunity to design and rethink the traditional
designs, using sustainable alternatives. This research proposes that this SM be
tested on more campus projects and non-campus facilities (corporates, health
care, schools, etc.) this will further enable the determination of the measure of
success of the methodology at the pre-design phase. The SM framework could be
used to evaluate other building design components, such as envelope, structure,
services, and space planning. Future studies could enhance the SM in allowing
owners to evaluate the design options before committing to a site.
Finally, there is a need for a further development of the SM framework into a
computational tool to provide more detailed project guidelines and
recommendations. This study has defined the groundwork for more
implementation of sustainable design. This may help professionals who are not
as familiar with sustainable design principles and an easy way to add sustainable
elements into their building designs.
References
[1] Knowles, R., Energy and Form, MIT: Cambridge, 1974.
[2] US Green Building Council. Leadership in Energy & Environmental
Design, Rating System V.2.1. Washington: USGBC, 2002.
www.usgbc.org.
[3] Brand, S., How Buildings Learn, Penguin: New York, 1995.
[4] Haggard, K. & Niles, R., Passive Solar Hand Book, California: State
Energy Commission, 1980.
[5] Pena, R. Personal communication, 23 January 2005, Professor of

Architecture, California Polytechnic Institute, San Luis Obispo,
California, USA.
Developing designs in balance with nature

A. J. Anselm
School of Architecture and Urban Planning,
Huazhong University of Science and Technology,
Wuhan, People’s Republic of China
Abstract
Recent developments especially in the areas of ecology and architecture have
identified an unhealthy relationship between the built environment and nature.
The breakthroughs in science and technology through the late 18th century saw
an explosion in the trends/types of architectures that are presently characterized
by their polluted, machine-dominated, dehumanizing, and environmentally
unfriendly natures. This trend which in collaboration with other environmental
defiant practices also contribute in the fast depleting, explosion-threatened world
that is even now disintegrating and disappearing before our eyes. Time is quickly
running out for our society to rethink the way we plan for development of the
remaining open spaces.
The main objective here is to confer ideas aimed at creating environmentally
friendly, energy-efficient buildings developed by effectively managing natural
resources. This entails passively and actively harnessing solar energy and using
materials which, in their manufacture, application, and disposal, do the least
possible damage to nature’s ‘free resources’; water, ground, and air. This
involves identifying factors that affect a healthy natural environment such as
choice of building site, orientation, choice of building materials (in other words,
let where it is be where it is made of) and methods of combining these building
materials in order to achieve balance.
Keywords: designing with nature, eco-architecture, ecological designs, building
with nature, sustainable designs, resource efficient design, energy efficient
designs, harmonization with nature, design.
doi:10.2495/ARC060201
1 Introduction
A pure natural environment is the epitome of health and vice versa, a condition
that is the primary desire of all that exists within it. The earth is an emotional
entity and nature, the result of its emotions. Man made and natural disasters are
the means of expression of sadness or pain that the earth feels, thus when the
earth hurts, nature cries, likewise when the earth is in health, nature smiles.
Man’s activities through time produce adverse effects to the health of the
earth and its expression through nature, and since we are all property of the earth
and not left out when nature cries, it is then mandatory for man to learn means of
appeasing the earth by means of harmonizing his activities with earth’s most
cherished progeny… nature.
The quest for an ecological understanding and approach in all of man’s
endeavours and activities, has become a challenge to all that care about nature as
it is obviously a systematic method of restoration back to nature, hence a more
healthy earth. It is a call that should be answered totally by all professional
disciplines, as one un-ecological activity can prove retrogressive to the efforts of
so many. Since architecture contribute in making the built environment, ecology
should then be employed as one of its vital tools or element of architectural
designs. Our design and construction trend, has witnessed changes and
transformations from industrialization to machinism, a trend which in recent
times is characterized as unfriendly to nature. Designing and building with or in
harmony with nature is the one efficient concept which works towards
integrating the elements of balance between the built environment and nature.
2 Understanding the natural environment

The surface of the Earth as a whole is an Ecosystem, called the Biosphere.
The Biosphere or the surface of the Earth constitutes nature’s ‘free resources’
air, water, and land, where living things exist.
The Biosphere with a structure of smaller units called Ecosystems includes all
the Organisms and the Nonliving Environment found in a particular place, and
this also includes our built environment, an area that needs to be integrated into
the ecosystem without negatively affecting the balance in the ecosystem itself.
Understanding the natural environment is the first step towards achieving a
nature integral design. It entails understanding nature’s environmental activities,
the Ecosystem and its actions and reactions that will relate to building designs.
The constant use of such analytical processes that determine and define functions
of building designs and its corresponding effect to the immediate and distant
environment should not be neglected. These procedures like the environmental
conservation, environmental impact assessment, integrated assessment etc,
which are normally undertaken for individual projects such as dams, motorways,
airports or factories should be broadened to include damage assessment,
ecological replacement systems or ecology integration solution for smaller
project designs like commercial and residential buildings.
Figure 1: The ecosystem structure.
2.1 Traditional approach; ecology integration solution
An argument once arose that the one way to protect the environment is for
society to place a monetary value on it, and then sue any firm or individual that
damages it. But how can society measure the economic damage caused by
environmental injury? The ecological replacement solution is an idea that
discusses ecological solutions in a small or larger scale for the restoration of
damages or injury caused by tampering with the natural (green) environment in
the intent of building development. This idea has been utilized in the past based
on local knowledge or unconscious attempts to balance the immediate natural
environment around the built environment. Such local knowledge, usually
acquired through experience and oral transmission, often accounts for the inter-
relationships among animals, plants, humans and the environment, resembling
in some aspects ecological concepts held by scientists (Berkes et al., [3]). Thus,
local ecological knowledge is an important keystone to the design and structure
of natural resource management strategies. In nature there is no waste, the
byproduct of one organism becomes the food for another. In other words, natural
systems are made of closed loops. By working with living processes, we respect
the needs of all species. Engaging processes that regenerate rather than deplete,
we become more alive. Making natural cycles and processes visibly brings the
designed environment back to life
Building designs and construction take up natural foliage spaces or natural
landforms. These natural landforms or foliage that supports some useful
ecological organisms should be replaced systematically in order to ensure
resuscitation of displaced plants and organisms which are also necessary for an
ecological balance. The percentage of replacement may depend on the function
of the structure or architecture and also on the construction techniques employed

as shown in figure 2 below. Such replacements, enhances the energy efficiency
and overall thermal and environmental comfort of the area involved.
Figure 2: Example of the traditional concept on ecological replacement as

seen in the traditional Turf (grass covered) houses in Iceland (1),
and the modern approach as expressed in the designs of architect
Emilio Ambasz (2) and (3).
3 Managing the natural environment and resources

Designing with nature entails managing the three basic nature-resources of air,
land and water. This also involves utilizing design elements and ideas that will
make best use of these nature-resources and their extended influences that may
be human friendly or otherwise. Careful consideration is needed in the choice of
topography and terrain, and the management of climate and energy.
3.1 Orientation and choice of building site
A building site is the closest environment to any proposed building plan; it forms
the immediate atmosphere for the occupants of such a building and it is expected
to satisfy the desires of the proposed occupants as well as satisfying the
environment that will host it. Designing with nature begins with an intimate
understanding of place. With active sensitivity to the nuances of place, we can
inhabit without destroying it, be it a plain, undulating or steeply terrain, the
landform is to be carried along in the design concept. A careful design plan and
construction technique will see to less damage to the topographical structure of
the building site. Understanding place helps determine design practices such as
solar orientation of a building on the site, designing with existing topography
pattern and finally the preservation of the natural environment, whether the
design site is a building in the inner city or in a more natural setting, connecting
with nature brings the designed environment back to life. Effective design helps
inform us of our place within nature.
Regional climatic conditions or local climate which define the choices of
building orientation when rightly managed and effectively considered in building
design and orientation forms a source of energy conservation and management.
Advanced climatic research identifies that most tropical building designs gain
more in energy conservation by the use of the south/north or north-east/south-
west orientation as against the east/west orientation for purposes of better wind
flow, ventilation and sun shading, likewise temperate designs with the
south/north alternative for the major purposes of winter heat gains. A survey
indicates that most residential buildings with an elongated east-west orientation,
built virtually anywhere in the United States, will experience a 10% reduction in
energy consumption compared to a square building, and a 20% reduction
compared to a north-south building. This then indicates that choice of building
orientation can make best use of the natural conditions of a place to achieve the
desired thermal comfort with or without a combined use of other sustainable
energy sources like the solar photovoltaic or the wind energy generators.
3.2 Climate integrated design
Climate is an inevitable member of nature and its effects some times are
unpredictable. The Sun, land, and water interact in complicated ways throughout
each day and throughout the year, and the result is what we commonly refer to as
weather. These interactions produce daily as well as seasonal temperature,
humidity, and wind patterns that can vary substantially between locations in
close geographic proximity. A Climate-integrated design is a strategy that seeks
to take advantage of the positive climate attributes of a particular location, while
minimizing the effects of attributes that may impair comfort or increase energy
requirements. A climate-integrated design should consider the following points.
1. Understand climate zones and microclimates
2. Understand the basic physiology of human thermal comfort
3. Control the sun to reduce loads and enhance visual comfort
4. Use thermal mass to improve comfort and efficiency
5. Utilize the local winds and breezes as much as can be harnessed for improved
comfort.
6. Finally, effective choice of material and design technique for optimized
results.
The microclimate of a building site can make or break a climate responsive
design, for instance to better harness the solar rays for a passive design or a solar
energy design, the solar path needs to be evaluated, as shadows cast by nearby
buildings, trees, or hills are important considerations in orienting a solar collector
or designing a passive solar building. The proper study of the solar path can also
effectively provide options of building materials or techniques for better sun
shading or solar access. The Figure below shows the behavior of the sun through
the seasons and the effects produced which utilized effectively can satisfy the
solar requirements in a building design.
Figure 3: Showing seasonal solar paths and shadow patterns, the major
factors that may affect the orientation of a solar collector and
design of a passive solar building.
Table 1: Design implication for varying climatic conditions.
Climate zone Characteristics Design implication
-High humidity with a -Employ lightweight (low mass) construction.

degree of “dry season”. -Maximize external wall areas (plans with one
TROPICAL -High temperatures year room depth are ideal especially for
Hot and humid round. residential units) to encourage movement of
-Minimum seasonal breezes through the building (i.e. cross
temperature variation. ventilation).
-Lowest diurnal (day/night) -Shade whole building; consider using fly-roof
temperature range. and landscaping trees.
-Use reflective insulation and vapor barriers.
-Ventilate roof spaces if possible for optimized
results.
-Consider high or raked ceilings
-Provide screened, shaded outdoor living
areas, also creating sleep-out spaces (for
residential).
-Design and build against windy conditions
and hazards.
-Most essentially, design for a greener
environment.
-High humidity with a -Use lightweight construction where diurnal

definite “dry season”. (day/night) temperature range is low and
SUB- -Hot to very hot summers include thermal mass where diurnal range is
TROPICAL with mild winters. significant.
Warm and -Distinct summer and winter -Maximize external wall areas (plans with one
humid seasons. room depth are ideal especially for
-Moderate to low diurnal residential units) to encourage movement of
(day/night) temperature breezes through the building (i.e. cross
range. This can vary ventilation).
significantly between -Shade whole building where possible in
regions too e.g. inland to summer and allow passive solar access in
coastal winter months only.
-Avoid auxiliary air conditioning, good design
techniques does it all.
-Provide screened, shaded outdoor living
areas.
-Most essentially, design for a greener
environment.
-Distinct wet and dry -Use passive solar design and insulated
seasons. thermal mass for the external walls.
SUB- -Low rainfall and low -Maximize cross ventilation
TROPICAL humidity. -Utilize convective (stack) ventilation, which
Hot and -No extreme cold but can be vents rising hot air while drawing in cooler
dry/warm cool in winter. air.
winter -Hot to very hot summers. -Allow for solar access and exposure to cooling
-Significant diurnal breezes
(day/night) range. -Shade all east and west windows for summer
and build screened, shaded summer outdoor
living areas that allow winter sun
penetration.
-Use trees, garden ponds and water features to
provide evaporative cooling during summers.
Table 1: Continued.
Climate zone Characteristics Design implication

-Low humidity year round. -Use passive solar principles with well
-High diurnal (day/night) insulated thermal mass
temperature range. -Maximize night time cooling in summer.
HOT ARID -At least two and usually -Consider convective (stack) ventilation, which
Hot and dry four distinct seasons with vents rising hot air and draws in cooler air.
cold winter low rainfall, very hot -Build more compact shaped buildings with
summers, cold winters and good cross ventilation for summer while
hot dry winds in summer. maximizing solar access, exposure to cooling
With cool to cold dry breezes or cool air drainage, and protection
winds in winter. from strong winter (cold) and summer winds.
-Use renewable energy sources for auxiliary
heating in extreme climates
-Use trees, garden ponds and water features to
provide evaporative cooling during summers.
-Low diurnal temperature -Use passive solar principles with well
range coast to high diurnal insulated thermal mass.
TEMPERATE range inland. -Minimize external wall areas especially east
Warm -Four distinct seasons. and west.
temperate Summer and winter can -Use cross-ventilation and passive cooling in
exceed human comfort summer as well as convective ventilation.
range. Spring and autumn -Allow for solar access, exposure to cooling
are ideal for human breezes and protection from cold winds.
comfort and mild to cool -Seal thoroughly and use entry airlocks
winters with low humidity. -Avoid auxiliary heating, good design
-Hot to very hot summers techniques does it all.
with moderate humidity. -Use trees, garden ponds and water features to
provide evaporative cooling during summers
-Low humidity. -Use passive solar principles with well

TEMPERATE -High diurnal range. insulated high thermal mass.
Cool -Four distinct seasons. -Maximize north facing walls, especially in
temperate Summer and winter exceed living areas with passive solar access.
human comfort range -Minimize south facing windows.
-Cold to very cold winters -Minimize external wall areas especially east
with majority of rainfall. and west.
-Hot dry summers. -Use cross-ventilation and passive cooling in
-Variable spring and autumn summer as well as convective ventilation.
conditions. -Allow for solar access, exposure to cooling
breezes and protection from cold winds.
-Seal thoroughly and use entry airlocks
-Use renewable energy sources for auxiliary
heating in extreme climates.
4 Utilizing nature in building designs

In the study of nature and design, a vast literature exists. When the two areas are
connected, they are mainly referenced under bioclimatic design or vernacular
designs with emphasis on basic, good design principles. The Bioclimatic design
literature is on the whole more technical and scientific in nature, while
Vernacular architecture address issues of culture, tradition and aesthetics as well
as comfort. These two vital concepts are important in understanding the basic
ideas of a nature integrated design.
Table 2: Showing a nature-positive design scheme.
Nature Resource Building fabric Service
factor implication
Free air Facade and roof Heat energy
-Natural ventilation -Light weight or massed -Solar thermal
Air -Wind force façade. system
-Energy content Stack -Planted surfaces -Wind energy
effect -Rainwater collectors generator
-Solar energy, diffuse -Day light collectors and
radiation Shades
-Solar energy, direct -Passive solar absorber
radiation -Night cooling by outside air.
-Evaporative cooling
Construction
-Courtyards.
Groundwater Green zones Natural

-Cold energy -Planted surfaces. landscaping
Soil -Heat energy Ground services
Earth/rock -Passive solar energy -Permaculture
-Geothermal cooling -Passive cooling energy -Pools and ponds
-Heat energy
Lake Pure water

Water -Pump water or -Public supply (drinking, Mains supply.
greywater cooking)
-Heat/Cold energy Greywater Self supply.
River -Waste water (condenser -Bore holes
-Pump water or water, flushing, cleaning)
greywater Rainwater
-Heat/Cold energy -Flushing, cleaning, cooling
Sea
-Pump water or
greywater
-Heat/Cold energy
4.1 Resuscitating architecture’s endangered species
Recent studies identify the sustainable properties vernacular architecture and

vernacular design principles hold in sustainable building. Although most of the
original appearance of vernacular architectures disappeared through the renewals
since the ideas of new developments in cities and cultures, there is still a lot of
building substance that could be rediscovered as old and historic. There are many
wonderful building styles from all over the world that can inform us with their
shapes, materials, arrangements, decorations, concepts for heating and cooling,
etc. Vernacular architecture has been loosing ground over the last couple of
centuries, as modern methods prevail. This is unfortunate since many of the old
ways employ natural materials and simple concepts that are energy efficient.
Also the buildings themselves are often beautiful and enhance simple live styles
which are advantageous to the issue of environmental protection and health.
As the basic principles that outline a nature-positive design are all innate in
the vernacular design concept, vernacular building design ideas should then be
encouraged and improved in order to achieve sustainable and healthy nature
integrated designs, making use of the local landscape, local materials,
orientation, sustainable techniques of recycling and permaculture, local climate
and the conscious idea of balance with nature.
5 Conclusion
Finally, designs that will be produced using this scheme will be identified as
modern vernacular type. Its buildings make best use of sun, wind and rainfall to
supply energy and water needs of occupants, be it the tropical or African
vernacular type or the temperate vernacular architectures. In the case of multi-
storey that maximizes the land available for green space, the design should be
generally Resource Efficient;
• Energy Efficiency (sustainably harnessed energy).
• Pollution Prevention (including indoor air quality/sustainable material use).
• Harmonization with Environment (including ecological integration, bioclimatic
considerations and environmental assessment).
References
[1] Bailey, K.D., Methods of Social Research. The Free Press, Macmillan
Publishers, New York, 1982.
[2] Berkes, F., Sacred Ecology-Traditional Ecological Knowledge and
Resource Management. Taylor & Francis, Philadelphia, 1999.
[3] Berkes, F., Kislalioglu, M., Folke, C., Gadgil, M., Exploring the basic
ecological unit: ecosystem-like concepts in traditional societies.
Ecosystems, pp. 1, 409– 415, 1998.
[4] Gadgil, M., Berkes, F., Folke, C., Indigenous knowledge for biodiversity
conservation. Ambio, pp. 22, 151– 156, 1993.
[5] E. Cofaign, J. Olley, and J. Lewis, The Climatic Dwelling: An
introduction to climate-responsive residential architecture, www.jxj.com,
London, 1996.
[6] Koenigsberger, O., Manual of Tropical Housing and Building Design,
Longman Group United Kingdom, 1974.
[7] CIBS Guide A2 - Weather and Solar Data, Chartered Institution of
Building Services Engineers, London, 1984.
[8] Watson, D. and Labs, K., Climatic Design: Energy-efficient Building
Principles and Practices, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1983.
[9] Hui, S. C. M. and Cheung, K. P., Climatic data for building energy design
in Hong Kong and Mainland China, In Proc. of the CIBSE National
Conference 1997, 5-7 October 1997, London (paper for CIBSE Virtual
Conference) 1997.
[10] Energy Design Resources by Architectural Energy Corporation, Boulder,
CO., www.energydesignresources.com.
Outdoor residential landscape design in

an arid natural conservation area:
Bahía de Los Ángeles, México
R. Rojas-Caldelas, G. Bojórquez-Morales, A. Luna-León,
E. Corona-Zambrano & J. Ochoa-Corrales
Faculty of Architecture,
Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, México
Abstract
The designing of outdoor residential landscapes in a natural conservation area
becomes crucial due to the restrictive use of natural resources, disturbance of
habitat, and visual impact of man-made buildings. Therefore to integrate
architecture and landscape design and to promote a better environment becomes
a challenge. This is the reason why this paper focuses on the contributions of
landscape design of outdoors in order to achieve sustainable architecture. This
project is set in a small coastal rural village known as Bahia de Los Ángeles,
municipality of Ensenada in the Mexican state of Baja California, which is
located in the Flora and Fauna Natural Conservation Area of Valle de los Cirios,
in the Sonoran Desert. Project development deals with four areas of
environmental design of the outdoors in arid places: Firstly, the modification of
micro climatic conditions. Secondly, the protection of ecological landscape
features. Thirdly, the assessment of aesthetic and cultural values of arid
landscapes and indigenous flora. Fourthly, the utilization of natural materials for
landscaping. Lastly, some conclusions are set confronting the aesthetic and
ecological values of deserts against preference of other ecosystems, as well as
cultural and economic obstacles faced by sustainable development of rural
housing projects.
Keywords: sustainable landscape design, landscape architecture, desert garden
design, participative landscape design, arid landscape values.
doi:10.2495/ARC060211
1 Introduction
Doing sustainable housing projects is not new. There are numerous examples
reported in practice as well as in literature. The same can be said with sustainable
resource management on issues like water, energy, vegetation, landscape and
solid waste among others. Most of the projects are mainly experimental or
isolated and work under controlled environments or conditions, but then, a
question arises: Is major audience acceptance missing? It could be that many
people, theoretically, are in favour of sustainable development and think of it as
a good idea for the environment and future generations; however, not all agree
that it is a way of life for the present. Unfortunately our society has been
conquered by spending and comfort patterns offered by the free market
economy, and not many people are able to change.
Sustainable development and sustainable architecture remain then as an
alternative approach, among others, for making projects. What we are sure of, is
that there is a good foundation to build this way to sustainability supported by
laws, construction codes, and public policies oriented to make a more efficient
use of resources and to develop more friendly environmental technologies. This
is what we have found in the housing project for single family household in a
rural area in Baja California. Sustainable projects have many obstacles to surpass
from the point of view of social acceptance, availability of financial resources for
construction and maintenance, ecological constraints on the use of natural
resources for building and to merge all of them in a specific time period.
Sustainable development also implies an ample competence on various subjects,
one of them being the integration of a group of experts that do not necessarily
share the same sustainable development framework. So the challenge focuses on
a comprehensive proposal capable to integrate sustainable principles in
architecture and landscape architecture as a design problem.
Therefore this work has a double purpose in mind; on the one hand, to
present a sustainable housing project where architecture and outdoor landscape
design are integrated, underlying sustainable landscape design and, on the other,
to assess the feasibility of sustainable development projects on wildlife
protection areas like Valle de los Cirios in México.
In a broad sense, sustainable principles are the same when they are applied
to landscape or architectural design. They deal with social, economic and
ecological factors. Regarding social aspects, they are translated into social and
cultural patterns of people, indoor and outdoor use of space, family and social
values, aesthetic preferences, education levels, knowledge and management of
technologies, interactions between man with the natural and man-made
environment and participation in decision-making process. In the second aspect,
economic factors are related to employment, income, cost of living, taxes and
public or private financial resources for housing or productive programs.
Regarding ecological factors, there are natural resources; implying inputs and
outputs of materials, energy and information necessary to sustain man, plants and
animals. So they provide us with resources for nourishment, clothing,
medications, building materials and energy production, but their quality and
quantity depend on their resilience. Resource management in both disciplines has

tried to address several problems such as conservation on the long-term scenario
or strategic approach; reduction, reuse and recycle of materials and energy within
a system; and rational and efficient use of resources and the mitigation of
environmental impacts.
2 Methodology
The housing project was designed keeping in mind that it is located in an
extreme arid region, where it is crucial to manage scarce water resources, in
aspects such as: temperature, wind, humidity, rainfall and underground water, as
well as energy generation by solar and wind technologies. Another critical
resource to preserve is biodiversity and landscape character, due to the fact that
the site resides in a wildlife reserve containing ecosystems with high fragility
index. The extraction of materials for building or mining is also restricted to
certain places as well as the use of soft technologies. All of these shortcomings
have demanded a project that mostly relies on the use of climatic passive
principles for indoor and outdoor design spaces. Outdoor landscape design has
also implied work over the concept of xeroscape Weinstein [1]. That is, centred
in a wise management of available water resources, to promote the use of native
plants to enhance biodiversity and the beauty of forms and colours of arid
ecosystems. Native plants have suitable attributes compared to those induced
plants; among them are their resistance to climatic stress, long periods of
drought, high winds, control of soil erosion and their tolerance to salinity. The
purpose of all of them is to reduce, reuse and recycle water, energy and
materials, avoid disturbance of natural ecosystems and reduction of visual and
aesthetic impacts over the landscape.
This paper underlines landscape contributions to architectural design in two
stages: in the first one, it has been taken into account a description of regional
landscape features to understand its physical nature and aesthetical values, as
well as the essence to preserve its character, aspects that have been taken as
inputs for outdoor design. In the second stage, there has been an interest to
design a microenvironment around the house, considering the fundamentals of
bioclimatic design and xeroscape. Achieving micro climatic adaptation of places
has been done though the use of plants and other materials to provide shading
over vertical and horizontal surfaces, as well as filtration or reduction of light
over transitional places and wind management. Ecologically, a minimum
removal of natural vegetation and topographic changes was proposed in order to
preserve landscape features. Besides, native plants of the region for gardening
were used and some of them were relocated on the terrain. Their use was thought
to contribute towards minimizing water consumption and erosion. Aesthetically,
spaces were designed integrating attributes such as: form, colour, texture, and
diversity of plants; complementing the cultural preferences of the household in
relation to scale and proportion of spaces, views, and significance of landscape
marks. Natural elements, such as sand, gravel, pebbles, rocks, shells, and dead
woods, were selected as materials for landscape purposes of pavement, fences,

and partial shadings, depending on their availability in the region.
3 Results
Bahía de Los Ángeles is a small coastal town fig. 1with a population of about
698 inhabitants INEGI [2], located by the Sea of Cortez in Baja California,
Mexico (28o 55’ north latitude and 113o 36’ west longitude). It also belongs to
the Sonoran desert region and it is immersed in a flora and fauna wildlife reserve
called Valle de los Cirios. The reserve is characterized by dominant and gigantic
plant species: Pachycereus pringlei (Cardon) and Fouquieria columnaris (Cirio),
and in addition, there are other 56 endemic plant species, 67 types of mammals,
86 types of birds and 52 types of snakes and lizards CONANP [3]. The climate
has been considered among the hottest and driest places in the world, with an
annual average rainfall of 40.4 mm, with summer temperatures above 45o C and
under 5o C in winter. Evapotranspiration varies annually from 600 to 1200 mm.
There are just a few watercourses, most of them are dry all year long, and main
water sources are underground. In town, there is a spring with a limited capacity
not enough to cater the needs of the population. In order to cover the deficit,
water is brought by a pipeline coming from Agua Amarga, a subterranean
reservoir located 30 km away. Water extraction is controlled by the National
Water Commission CONANP-UABC [4]. Thus, water is a limitation to
population growth and promotion of economic activities. However, there is
always the chance to desalinate seawater to improve those conditions. The region
has an enormous solar potential for energy production and a moderate one for
wind. Actually, energy is partially provided by a diesel plant that works around
12 hours a day. Some people in town have solar panels to cover the daily deficit,
but low-income households do not.
3.1 Landscape assessment
Sometimes in landscape assessment in wildlife areas, the ecological values are

prioritized over cultural and aesthetic aspects, this project tries to establish a
balance between those aspects. This is why; this section deals with the being-at-
the-desert experience, as an important input for design. Valle de los Cirios is
characterized by bare plains and gentle slopes; landscapes contrasting the blue,
clean and bright skies; prevailing horizontal planes over vertical ones, and
creating an atmosphere of infinite open space, unprotected, profound and distant
from civilization. Vertical elements like hills and mountains have been
developed as landmarks over the landscape, as well as green patches of desert
trees and shrubs, showing the impact of dampness on the air or the existence of
subterranean water. At plain sight, vegetation seems to be quite monotonous,
mainly composed of small shrubs in shades of grey, usually with thorns and in
low density; communicating the idea of dryness, thus, creating a distorted
illusion associated to sensations of high temperatures and sandy soils. Contrary
to this idea of poverty and lack of diversity, the desert has an outstanding beauty
and a rich hidden world of living plants, animals and cultural heritage such as
cave paintings that most of the time are not apparent at plain sight. Richness is
present in small areas within great regions: in coastal beaches, small water
springs, canyons, creeks and valleys, most of them are places of great
biodiversity, where grasses, cactus and trees are the tallest. Colours, textures and
forms are unusual and in a scale of monumental proportions. Therefore, deserts
have a natural order and aesthetic values that have to be discovered and
understood by foreigners in order to design and preserve the environment.
Figure 1: Aerial view of Bahía de Los Ángeles
Figure 2: Site project and surrounding views to the mountains, sea and islands
3.2 Site
Bahía de Los Ángeles is a protected bay, surrounded by small mountain ridges,

full of contrasts in colours and textures. The bay is a quiet and silent pond with
great views to the islands of the Sea of Cortez fig. 2. The site is located over a
moderate slope, full of big pieces of granite rocks, surrounded by two small
creeks, streaming down from the top of the alluvial fan, limiting the North and
South sides of the plot of land. Compared to other places in town, there are many
desert plants and grasses like small size Pachycereus pringlei, Opuntia sp.,
Fouquieria peninsularis, Bursera microphylla, Lophocereus schotti, Cercidium
microphyllum, Olneya tesota, Encelia farinosa, Ferocactus, Pedilanthus
macrocarpus, Agave desertii, Larrea tridentata, Simondsia chinensis, Ambrosia
dumosa INEGI [5] all of them useful for gardening. The natural conditions of
the terrain have offered us resources for design. The project has been developed
over terraces with nice views to the bay, mountains and islands. Creeks were
preserved and integrated as natural borders of the plot of land in order to allow
the water to flow down during the rainy season. In addition, some rocks were
pilled to enclose the backyard and others were put in small groups making
ornamental islands over the terrain.
3.3 Household
The household consists of a young couple with a dog and no children, and both
are very concerned about preservation of the environment because their daily
living depends on it. Roberto is a fisherman and usually goes sailing in the Sea
of Cortez. Sometimes, he is hired as a tourist guide or by marine researchers,
supporting them in reconnaissance surveys of whales, dolphins, whale sharks
and sea turtles. Isabel is a biologist working for the Secretariat of Environment
and Natural Resources in Bahía de Los Ángeles, where she is responsible of
safeguarding natural resources of the islands of the Sea of Cortez. As we have
seen, both share the same environmental interests and they are active people
involved in many community activities to improve their own town. Their
background was relevant to us because they were sensitive to accept the design
of an alternative housing project, understanding that the construction would be
progressive or in stages because of the lack of financial resources to do it in a
short period of time. The land belongs to Roberto and they would like to have a
house open to the views of the bay, mountains and islands, but at the same time
they want to feel protected from the outside. Both have agreed to have native
plants for gardening in order to satisfy aesthetic and medicinal values and the use
of local materials. In addition, they would like to have a terrace in the upper floor
for multiple uses such as a place to sleep outside in summer protected from any
kind of animals, or as a place to rest or entertain friends and relatives. Roberto
also needs a place where he can clean and fillet fish and a parking space for his
pickup truck and the boat.
3.4 Design criteria
Outdoor design is going to have slight perimeter limits to allow visual contact
with landscape, taking advantage of creeks, small size shrubs, fences and trees.
There are two types of views to be promoted: close and distant, the first one has
to be rich in forms, colours and textures. The second one has to capture natural
landscapes from around the site. Transitional areas are designed as a way for
passing from sunny to shaded spaces. Architectural design is going to be
organized around a patio concept, taken from Mexican colonial houses.
Architectural design is based on low energy passive strategies and the use of
solar panels for water heating and energy production. Shades from volumes, man
made shades and trees are also important in the provision of comfortable open
spaces. Recycled water is going to be used for gardening. There will be a place
to dispose organic waste. Criteria that has been applied in the housing project fig.
3, 4 and table 1.
Figure 3: Garden layout; 1 backdoor entrance, 2 contemplative patio,

3 contemplative landscape views, 4 Indoor patio, 5 ornamental main
entrance.
South-East Façade
North-East Façade
Figure 4: Façades showing plant arrangement of landscape outdoors with

native plants.
Table 1: Environmental functions of landscape elements.
Space and Vegetation Pavements Furniture and

function Utilities
1. Patio Pebbles Partial

Back door entrance, horizontal
transitional space shading made
for clothesline of cardon dead
woods
clothesline.
2.Contemplative Creation of a microclimatic Wood and Rocks
patio from the space: shaded by trees over the compacted sand Slope driven to
studio west façade: rich in textures, the centre of
forms and colours: Cercidium space to
microphyllum, Prosopis capture rainfall
glandulosa, Lophocereus
schotti Machaerocereus
gummosus, Simmondsia
chinensis, different cactus
species and rocks
3. Contemplative Island arrangements made with Specific spots of Slope driven to
views from kitchen, desert plants, rocks and annual sand, gravel and the centre of
dinning and living flowers (Abronia villosa, wood the plot to
room Eschscholtzia mexicana, capture rainfall
Beloperone californica ,
Encelia farinose).
4. Indoor patio: Wood, squares of Small fountain
Contemplative pebbles and as a water
Shaded compacted sand reservoir
Ventilation Big size rocks
Natural lightning Recycled
water
5. Main entrance, One side is limited by a line of Pathway to the Recycled
ornamental Agave desertii, Opuntia entrance, sand and water and
violacea, Opuntia cholla. and wood. Slope driven to
Burcera microphyla. On the the centre of
other side Burcera microphyla, space to
Fouquieria columnaris and capture rainfall
splendens, Pachycereus
pringlei, Opuntia fulgida,
Opuntia englemanni,
Pedilanthus macrocarpus and
different cactus species
Porch, transitional Partial horizontal Compacted
space, as an outside shading made of sand and wood
living room in cardon dead woods
summer Small walls made of
sand sacs plastered
with cement and
some outdoor
furniture or a
hammock.
Parking space for Perimetral fence made of Partial horizontal Levelled and
the pickup truck living sticks of Fouquieria shading made of compacted soil
and the boat splendens cardon dead wood
4 Discussion
At the beginning of the project we were very enthusiastic trying to make a
sustainable housing project and it was easy to do it on paper and maybe as
experimental work; but our doubts began when someone asked us what could
happen if a major demand of this prototype or any other in this community were
requested. We would face the problem of environmental destruction, which
would be critical in a natural protected area such as this one. That has made us
think about other questions that need to be answered in order to promote
sustainable buildings in this kind of areas:
1. People are conscious about the value of natural resources and cultural
heritage for preservation purposes. They also look at sustainable
development as a tool for improving their quality of life, but they
disagree with the great amount of regulations and the high cost they
represent, like permits and licences. That means that only wealthy
households will be able to comply with the requirements.
2. Many people in Bahía de Los Ángeles agreed that sustainable
development is a good thing for the environment and future generations,
but they see this proposal far from their own reality because they are
low income households, as the young couple that we have been working
with.
3. Housing projects for low-income people in Mexico have to be seen as
life projects to be built up in stages though a long period of time.
Therefore, sustainable projects are not feasible for short term
completion.
4. Wildlife protected areas have many regulations over the use of
resources; in fact, it is easier to import technology, materials, and even
labour force to build a project or to live in a mobile home like many
retired Americans do. That has resulted in a negative visual impact, in
creating pollution, and in a lack of identity with local architecture,
culture, and landscape, instead of promoting endogenous development
with ad hoc technologies, using local materials and labour force.
5. Sustainable houses will demand materials such as wood for building
and shading; rocks, sand, gravel, insulation sheets, pipes, steel, and
water reduction accessories; solar and wind technologies for energy
production, water heating, water desalination, and water pumping
accessories; safe disposal of batteries; specialized labour force; water
treatment plants; and native plants production in nurseries for
gardening. Therefore, it is necessary to promote the creation of “green
enterprises” oriented to cater local needs to contribute to local
development.
6. It is impossible to achieve comfort with passive design strategies in
extreme climatic regions; thus it is necessary to use active systems for
cooling. Natural landscapes are valuable resources for most of people
and therefore they have a positive attitude towards them, such as
forests, mountains, lakes, rivers, and beaches. However, for the layman,
deserts are considered terrible places to visit because not everyone likes
being hot, dry, full of dust, and might consider them dangerous and
without trees. This is a negative cultural image that has been created
over the years about deserts, when deserts are just simply different
ecosystems with other aesthetical values.
5 Conclusions
Despite the fact that there are people able to put into practice sustainable
development, there are short term obstacles, such as financial constraints and
regulations. Therefore, sustainable projects have to be seen as projects with a
series of stages to be completed in a long term plan.
When projects are designed integrally and in a collaborative way, they have
better environmental responses, but this is not enough to get them to work.
Sustainable development projects are much more than making a simple design
because it implies deep changes in cultural patterns of spending, clean
production, and the development of local community capacities and technology.
References
[1] Weinstein, Gayle (1999). Xeriscape handbook: a how-to guide to natural
resource-wise gardening, Fulcrum Publishing, p 142.
[2] INEGI (2001). XII Censo de población y vivienda 2000, Instituto Nacional
de Estadística, Geografía e Informática, México.
[3] CONANP (2003). Programa de Conservación y Manejo del Área de
Protección de Flora y Fauna Valle de los Cirios, borrador de trabajo,
http://www.conanp.gob.mx/anp/cirios/PCM_VC_270803A.doc
[4] CONANP-UABC (2004). Diseño participativo de una estrategia de
desarrollo rural sustentable para la comunidad de Bahía de Los Ángeles,
Baja California, México, informe técnico presentado a la Comisión Nacional
de Áreas Naturales Protegidas-SEMARNAT, p. 182.
[5] INEGI (2001). Síntesis de Información Geográfica del Estado de Baja
California, Instituto Nacional de Estadística, Geografía e Informática,
México.
The house by the lake

C. A. Brebbia1 & J. Gorst2
1
2
James Gorst Architects, UK
Abstract
This paper describes the proposed building of an Ecohouse located alongside a
small lake and against a steep slope. Managed woodland surrounds the site,
which is accessed by existing driveways.
The design of the landscape accepts the land in this existing state and does not
propose any formal area requiring additional work.
The whole design is in harmony with its surroundings. The philosophy of the
design is to produce a low energy eco-friendly house which is as
environmentally aware as it is architecturally distinguished. As such, it will
serve as an example for the country house of the 21st century.
1 Introduction
The brief was to design a house for the first author and his wife that responds to
his academic needs as well as being a functional home. It is also a statement of
their commitment to creating a type of architecture which is environmentally
friendly and in harmony with its surroundings.
The shared objective of the team was to design and build a low-energy,
sustainable home of distinguished architecture [1].
James Gorst Architects led the team which included the eminent
environmental engineer, Max Fordham, ecologists and landscape architects, as
well as consulting engineers and planners. Their aim was to design an eco-
friendly house which can be a model for the future.
This paper describes the main aspects of the new design, i.e.:
• The Design Guidelines: How the proposed site is ideally situated to the
design of an eco-house and how the proposal relates to the new UK
Planning Policy guidelines known as PPS7.
doi:10.2495/ARC060221
• The Design Philosophy: Setting up the requirements of the owners and
•
in particular, their commitment to commission an eco-friendly house.
Environmental Engineering: The guideline was to produce an energy
efficient building that can achieve a carbon neutral rating and consume
•
as little energy as possible from non-renewable sources.
The Structure: The aim was to design a light structure with minimum
impact on its environment. The contractor was to use vernacular
materials.
The proposal, which has recently been rejected by the New Forest planners, is
now under appeal and it is hoped that the Inspector in charge of the hearing will
exhibit a more open-minded attitude to this important project.
2 The design guidelines

The house would be built in part of the nearly 20 hectares surrounding the
existing Burley Hill House. The land is located on high ground and consists of
mature woodlands. Burley Hill House is sited north-west of Burley, a popular
and picturesque village in the heart of the New Forest.
The site of the proposed new house is an existing clearing in the deciduous
woodland. The clearing is located on a south east facing slope some 15m below
Burley Hill House and 15m in height above the centre of Burley village. The
clearing contains a small lake on a leveled area within the overall slope, and is
open-style grassland. The whole land has been improved under the supervision
of The Forestry Commission. All woodlands at Burley Hill are managed in
accordance with the plan of operations approved by The Commission. This
includes thinning, replanting, species selection, habitat, diversification and
management of all rides.
The Burley Hill estate lies within the settlement of Burley and is included
within that conservation area. The village centre, with its full range of facilities
and shops is only 700m away. Thus, for an isolated house, the need to travel is
much less than for the case of other country houses.
Planning permission was sought within the guidelines of the Special Planning
Policy called PPS7, published in 2004. PPS7 encourages innovative design and
its paragraph II summarizes the terms that need to be applied to any project. i.e.:
•
•
Single house.
•
Isolated location.
•
Exceptional quality of design and engineering.
Innovative and groundbreaking in design, materials and methods of
construction, as well as in protection and enhancement of the
•
environment.
•
Significantly enhances the immediate setting.
Sensitivity to the characteristics of local areas.
Burley Hill House, east view.

Figure 1:
Figure 2: Interior view.
3 The design philosophy
The owners of the proposed house required suitable accommodation for an

academic and his wife as well as visiting family and guests. The brief was to
develop a design in harmony with its environment in order to make a statement
and point out a way towards a sustainable future. Hence the house is a
demonstration of the commitment of the occupier to environmental and
ecological issues [2].
Throughout the design, the environmental requirements are dominant. The
house sits lightly on the land, not cutting into the slopes or scarring the terrain.
Its construction exploits the vernacular of the New Forest, cob walls with clay
extracted from the site, locally sourced timber for the structure and for cladding
the facades.
The philosophy of a low energy, lightweight, bioretrogradable and
demountable building means that the use of concrete has been excluded from the
design. The complex facetted roof is covered in an eco-friendly recyclable
membrane and dangerous chemicals have been avoided throughout the design.
The structure of the scheme has been developed by Alan Baxter Associates
Consulting Engineers and the environmental strategy with Max Fordham, both
eminent consultants. Similarly, the ecological aspect of the building has been
assessed by Ecohomes Scheme [3] and the landscaping proposal set up by Hilary
Martin of Integrated Design.
Upper level plan.

Figure 3:
The design of the house presents ample space for well-lit offices and a library.
Particular attention has been paid to the orientation of the rooms in order to
maximize solar heating and ventilation.
4 Environmental engineering
The design proposal by Max Fordham was to produce an ecology-efficient

building.
Their prime concern was to achieve a low energy building by reducing energy
delivery inefficiencies. To this end they have proposed:
• To avoid gas and oil-fired heating through super insulation and
•
maximizing useful solar gain.
To avoid the need for space cooling through careful consideration of
•
building orientation, fabric design and effective natural ventilation.
Generate sufficient electricity on site from photovoltaic cells to meet
•
the demands of the building.
•
Generate solar-heated hot water from roof-mounted panels.
To use rainwater for WC flushing to minimize potable water
•
consumption.
To treat wastewater on site as far as practicable.
4.1 Temperature control in the winter
The house is expected to have a heat loss in the order of 20,000kWh/annum. The
majority of the space heating will be provided through useful solar gains
(approximately 16,000kWh/annum over the South and South West orientations).
Heat gains from occupants (in the order of 1,000kWh/annum) and other internal
gains from white goods etc. (in the order of 2,500kWh/annum).
In extreme weather conditions, some supplementary heating may be required.
In order to avoid gas or oil-fired heating, which would directly produce CO2 and
NOx as well as requiring significant infrastructure to the site, the use of a Ground
Source Heat Pump (GSHP) is preferred.
A properly designed GSHP installation would be expected to produce
approximately half of the CO2 emissions of a similar gas-fired, condensing
boiler. A typical Coefficient of Performance (COP) is 3 to 4 meaning that for a
2.5kW electrical input, 7.5–10kW of heat energy is produced. This is compared
to a best COP of 0.9 for a gas-fired boiler. Electrical energy used to power the
heat pump will be offset by that generated on-site by the photovoltaic cells.
The heat pump works on the principle of moving heat energy from a heat
source to a heat sink, it being more efficient to transfer existing heat energy than
to generate new.
Lower level plan.

Figure 4:
A refrigeration circuit in the heat pump transfers low grade heat at the ‘source’
(typically 5–10o C) to a higher grade heat (typically 35–45oC) for use in the heat
‘sink’.
In the case of the Burley Hill House, the heat ‘source’ will be the lake and the
‘sink’, the house. By using the lake, the ground source heat pump efficiency is
increased since ground with a high moisture content offers superior heat transfer.
Pipework loops will be installed on the bottom of the lake meaning they can be
easily removed if decommissioning the house. As the lake has an approximate
volume of 600m3, the heat pump is of insufficient size to alter the temperature of
the water significantly.
GSHP installations operate best with underfloor heating installations, since
the water temperatures are far lower than those used in traditional ‘radiator’
systems. Underfloor systems also offer the advantage of heating the surfaces,
rather than the air above the occupied zone, offering a reduction in heat input
requirements. Underfloor heating will be installed throughout the building, but
its use is expected to be minimal.
Wood stoves located within communal living areas will provide a focal point
to the room. They will also offer a carbon neutral method of heating as the fuel
will be supplied from the woodland trimmings from the surrounding estate, as
part of the existing forestry maintenance scheme. Furthermore, by specifying
units with integral heat exchangers, we plan to preheat the domestic hot water
installations when the stoves are in use.
Space temperature control will be optimized by an intelligent Building
Energy Management System (BEMS) which will include weather compensation,
optimum start/stop and night/holiday set back.
Guest rooms will be maintained at 12oC when not in use through winter to
prevent condensation. The BEMS will ensure that useful solar and internal heat
gains are maximized before operating the heat pump.
4.2 Temperature control in the summer
The architectural design ensures that the building form does not cause
uncomfortable summer time temperatures, a problem which is becoming more
common with modern building construction. A shadowing strategy has been
adopted to cut out the direct radiant component of the higher summer sun.
Shading has been carefully designed so that whilst it avoids solar gain during the
summer, it does not prohibit useful solar gain when the sun is at a lower altitude
during the winter months. We anticipate that the surrounding deciduous trees
will also help in this respect. High performance glazing will be installed to
further reduce heat gains to the space from diffuse solar radiation.
Ventilation will play a key part in maintaining a comfortable summer
environment. Passive stack ventilation will be employed where a useful height
differential exists to exploit the properties of warm, buoyant air. Elsewhere, the
window design will offer sufficient area for good single-sided or cross flow
ventilation of rooms.
Generally, natural ventilation of all rooms will be encouraged, however where
activities resulting in high moisture output take place (such as shower rooms and
the kitchen) supplementary rapid extraction will be provided. In these locations,

fans will operate on a humidity sensor to minimize operating time.
4.3 Generation of electricity
Although renewable wind technologies offer the potential to produce greater

quantities of electrical energy, they would not be appropriate in this particular
location. The visual appearance and the impact on the local environment would
not be in keeping with the ethos of this project.
Therefore, solar photovoltaic panels were selected to generate on-site energy.
Approximately 22m2 of photovoltaic cells will be installed on the roof of Burley
Hill House, the orientation and mounting angle selected in order to optimize
solar gain. We anticipate the solar panels will generate a peak output of 2kW
giving an annual output in the order of 1,650kWh, which is the estimated annual
demand for the house. This will save 710kg of CO2 when compared to the same
quantity of electrical energy supplied from the national grid, and effectively
make the house carbon neutral.
When energy generation exceeds demand in the summer, electricity will be
sold back to the grid, using the grid as a ‘battery’ for times of little or no sun and
when artificial lighting is required at night. In order to facilitate this, an electrical
supply is unavoidable. The cable route will be carefully traced to avoid
disturbance to the local environment as far as possible.
Natural daylight will be maximized throughout the building in order to reduce
the reliance of the occupants on artificial lighting. Low-energy light fittings will
be selected throughout, with appropriate control strategies employed to avoid
unnecessary use.
4.4 Solar hot water heating
Roof-mounted, high efficiency solar water heating panels will be installed in

order to provide domestic hot water to the house. During the summer, all of the
hot water requirements of showering etc. will easily be met by the solar panels.
When the sky is overcast, some solar radiation will still be present and this will
be used to ‘pre-heat’ the hot water cylinder. Further water heating will be
provided by the wood-fired stoves when they are in use.
By installing 2m2 of solar panels, 2,000kWh of heat output per annum will be
produced, representing over 50% of the hot water requirement.
4.5 Water conservation
Rainwater harvesting and storage will be provided to flush all WCs. On average,
a typical two-person dwelling consumes over 28,000 litres of water per year, just
to flush WC pans. Preliminary calculations suggest we could collect over
100,000 litres of rain per year, negating the need to flush potable water through a
toilet.
It may be possible to investigate using spring water for drinking purposes. At
present, a mains supply will be required. However, low flow fittings will be
specified throughout to reduce demand, and as stated above, mains water will not
normally be used to flush WCs.
4.6 Waste water
Because of the isolated location, there are no public sewers to which we could
discharge sewage and waste water. Common practice is to either provide a
cesspit (which requires frequent emptying by road tanker) or by septic tank
coupled with a soak away. As the soil type is predominately clay, a drainage
soak away is not feasible.
Sewage treatment will be provided on site by coupling a septic tank with a
purpose made, horizontal reed bed. In this way, waste water can be treated to a
safe level, allowing it to be discharged into the lake after passing through the
reed bed. Reed bed installations are increasingly common and provide a natural
means of treating water, reducing the burden on sewage treatment plants.
Although the septic tank will require de-sludging on a four year basis, the
environmental impact of such a scheme is small.
Natural evaporation of the lake should regulate its level throughout the year.
However, sometimes it ‘overflows’ to a drainage ditch, which in turn, discharges
into a local river. Dialogue has been established with the local offices of the
Environment Agency to ensure the compliance of the scheme.
5 The structure
The proposed new building will be of lightweight construction with a timber
frame. It is therefore, planned that the foundations will need to support point
loads from the posts in the timber frame.
The key factors influencing the design of the foundations were the need to
minimize construction in the ground, the desire to avoid using concrete, the
relatively light point loads to be supported and the nature of the ground.
The Structural Engineers proposed the use of galvanized steel screw piles to
respond to all these concerns.
These comprise steel augers which are screwed into the ground to a depth
determined by detailed consideration of the soil properties. The principle is
similar to that by which in-situ concrete piles are formed, except that the auger is
not extracted and replaced with concrete. The auger is left in the ground and the
loads from the new structure are applied to the shaft of the auger once the
machinery for screwing it into the ground has been removed. It is possible to
remove the piles by simply reversing the machinery and unscrewing them. The
selection of a diameter and working length for a pile is a matter for the detailed
design stage, but is it expected that screws with a diameter of 200–300mm will
be selected.
The impact on the ground is minimal. The piles are conventionally installed
with rotating machinery that is attached to the back-acter of a light wheeled
tractor. The whole system has been used successfully elsewhere in
environmentally sensitive situations.
6 Conclusions
This paper describes the design for an eco-house put forward by James Gorst
Architects on behalf of the owner of the site, Professor Carlos Brebbia, both
co-authors of this paper.
The brief was to design an outstanding piece of architecture that satisfies the
requirements of the owner. Equally important was, for the building to be energy
efficient and to harmonize with its environment.
The proposed design has been the result of a team effort involving planning
consultants, landscape architects, ecologists, environmental and structural
engineers as well as the architect himself.
Close collaboration between the different partners as well as the owner was
required to achieve all the requirements.
The authors believe that an optimal solution has been found of outstanding
architectural and engineering merit. Designs like this are essential to point the
way to the future.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge the contributions of other members of
the design team, in particular:
Hilary Martin, Landscape Architect.
Ian Smith, of Max Fordham LLP.
Chris Corcoran, Southern Planning Practice Ltd.
Robert Bowler of Alex Baxters and Associates.
Their close collaboration with James Gorst Architects has resulted in the design
described in this paper.
References
[1] McCloud, K “Grand Designs Abroad. Building your team.” Collins,
London, 2004.
[2] Roaf, S. “Closing the Loop. Benchmarks for Sustainable Buildings”.
RIBA Enterprises, London 2004.
[3] Ecohomes Scheme, British Research Establishment, Watford, 2005.
[4] Wilhide, I., 'Eco' Quadrille Publishing, London, 2002.
[5] Roaf, S., 'Ecohouse 2: A Design Guide' Elsevier, Amsterdam, 2003.
Indicators for the ecological planning

of buildings
C. Seyler, C. Stoy, I. Lützelschwab & S. Kytzia

Department of Civil, Environmental and Geomatic Engineering,
Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich, Switzerland
Abstract
Until now, ecological assessments of buildings have been focussing on the use
phase, such as the consumption of operating energy or the emission of in-house
pollutants. So far, little emphasis has been placed on the construction and
disposal phase of buildings. As the use phase is getting more and more
optimised, environmental impacts caused by the construction phase are gaining
in importance. To optimise the ecological performance of a building information
is needed in the early design phases when there is still a wide scope for decision.
This paper presents a method, based on cumulative energy indicators, which
allows assessing the environmental impacts of a building when only a little
information is known.
Keywords: life cycle, indicator, early design phase, building material,
environmental impact assessment.
1 Introduction
In the last years the main focus of environmentally friendly buildings has been
laying on the use phase. Large efforts have been put, e.g., on the optimisation of
operation energy and the prevention of indoor pollutant emission. Those
environmental impacts have become more and more optimised, e.g., by using
better insulation, the use of energy saving machines or by the substitution of
critical materials in housing spaces. As a result, the other phases in the building’s
life cycle, such as the construction phase or the disposal phase, have gained in
importance. Recent LCA studies have clearly shown a shift of the main
environmental impacts from the use phase towards the construction phase for
doi:10.2495/ARC060231
ecologically optimised buildings [1]. Thus, to get further environmental

improvements in a building’s performance planners and architects should now
concentrate on the construction phase.
To include the environmental impacts of the construction phase in the
planning of a building several instruments have been developed in the German-
speaking region in the last years, e.g. [2, 3, 4, 5]. Those instruments are used in
different planning and design stages and they require information on different
levels of detail. Of special interest are instruments which can be used in an early
design phase as they allow for decisions at a stage when there is still a wide
scope for decisions. Such instruments exist, but they usually work on a
qualitative basis, e.g., on checklist or recommendations [4, 5]. No method which
allows for a quantitative assessment of the environmental impacts of buildings in
early design stages exists today.
We have developed an instrument which can be used for a quantitative
estimation of the environmental impacts of the construction phase of a building
in early design stages. Our method works in analogue to the principle of
quantitative cost estimation of buildings in early design phases [6, 7]. We
provide indicators which base on the cumulative energy demand of the material
composition of the building. Those indicators are derived from reference
buildings and are listed in a reference building catalogue. To make an
environmental assessment of a building, a reference building from the catalogue
is chosen and the corresponding indicators are multiplied with reference
quantities of the building under study such as the gross floor area or the gross
volume. Cumulative energy demand as a measure for the environmental impact
is chosen because it is known to architects and because it allows for a direct
comparison with other energy consumptions of the building, e.g., the operating
energy. In this paper we present how our cumulative energy indicators are
calculated from reference buildings and how they are applied.
2 Calculating the cumulative energy indicators
2.1 Method: from accounting documents to indicators
The cumulative energy indicators are developed in analogue to economic

indicators which are used for estimation of building construction costs in early
design phases [6, 7]. Figure 1 shows the proceeding for developing such
indicators. The basis for calculating the indicators are accounting documents of
already existing buildings. Those accounting documents, which contain
information on the building process, the type and dimensions of the materials
used and the arising costs, are evaluated systematically. First, every documented
work is assigned to an element group according to the standard for cost
calculation [8, 9]. The standard for cost calculation classifies the costs of all
works of a building into different cost groups. The classification bases on the
different components and parts of a building (so-called element groups) and can
be done on different levels.
Accounting Planning Accounting Planning

Accounting
documents of Planning
documents Accounting
documents of Planning
documents
documents
existing of
buildings ofdocuments
buildings documents
existing of
buildings ofdocuments
buildings
existing buildings of buildings existing buildings of buildings
Conversion
ofConversion
building
of building
process
process
information
information
into material
into material
information
information
Calculation
ofCalculation
material
ofmass
material
mass
Linking of
Linking of
materials
materials
with
with
environ-
environ-
mental
mental
assessment
assessment
method
method
Assignment Assignment
Assignment
of works Assignment
of works
to of works
element to of works
element
to element
group to element
group
group group
Aggregation
Aggregation Aggregation
of environ-
Aggregation Determination of environ- Determination
of costs Determination mental Determination
of costs of areas/ mental of areas/
within of areas/ impacts of areas/
within volumes impacts volumes
element volumes within volumes
element
group within
Element
group Element
group
group
Economic indicators Cumulative energy indicators

Economic Cumulative energy indicators
per referenceindicators
quantity per reference quantity
per reference quantity per reference quantity
Figure 1: Scheme of the proceeding for calculating economic indicators (left

hand side) and ecological indicators (right hand side).
For calculating the indicators, for example a work such as „putting down and
compressing of a gravel layer“ would be assigned to the element group
“foundations”. In the next step, all arising costs (or environmental impacts for
the ecological indicators) within one element group are summed up to yield the
total costs per element group. Such an aggregation can be done on different
building levels according to the standard for cost calculation. In parallel, the
reference quantities such as areas or volumes of the element groups are
determined from the planning documents [10]. Such reference quantities are,
e.g., the external wall area or the excavation volume. In the last step the
aggregated costs (or environmental impacts) are divided by their belonging
reference quantity. The result is an indicator which indicates how much, e.g.,
1 m2 of external wall area costs.
For calculating ecological indicators, the information from the accounting
documents has first to be converted into ecological relevant information (see
Figure 1, grey arrows on right hand side). This is done by first converting the
information on the building process into information on the building material.
E.g., information such as “putting down and compressing of a gravel layer” is
converted into the material information “gravel”. Or the building process
information “installation of boarding panel with timber framework” is assigned
to the material “wood”. In the next step the mass of the materials is calculated.
Usually enough information on the dimension of the building components can be
found in the accounting documents. Together with the material density, which is
taken from literature, the mass of the used material can be calculated.
When the material masses are known, they can be linked with an
environmental impact assessment method. In principal, any assessment method
can be chosen, e.g., the Eco-indicator 99 [11] or CO2-equivalents [12]. For the
reason explained above, we chose the cumulative energy demand as assessment
method [13]. Values for the specific cumulative energy demand for different
building materials can be taken from literature or electronic databases. As our
indicators have been calculated for Switzerland, values have been taken from
Swiss literature [14]. By multiplying the material mass with its specific
environmental impact, the total environmental impact of a building component
can be calculated. Taking the gravel example from above and considering a
surface of the gravel layer of 190 m2 and a thickness of 15 cm, the mass amounts
to 51300 kg (assuming a gravel density of 1800 kg/m3). By liking the mass to the
specific cumulative energy demand of gravel, which is 0.03 kWh/kg, the
cumulative energy demand of the gravel layer is calculated to be 1540 kWh.
Then, again, this ecological information is assigned to the element group
according to the standard for cost calculation and aggregated within this element
group. At the end, these aggregated values are divided by their belonging
reference quantity. The results are cumulative energy indicators per, e.g., m2 of
external wall area or m2 of gross floor area of the reference building.
2.2 Results: cumulative energy indicators for 20 buildings
Until now, 20 buildings have been evaluated and cumulative energy indicators
have been calculated [15]. Two indicators are provided on the level of the overall
building, one based on the gross floor area and one based on the gross volume of
the building. A second set of indicators have been calculated on the level of so-
called macro elements. On the macro level a building is divided into large
element groups such as foundation, external walls, internal walls, floors and
ceilings, roofs [8]. These are element groups which are very appropriate for the
use of indicators as their approximate measures are known already in early
design stages [1]. Note that the service installations have not been included in
our survey although they usually have a large contribution to the ecological
performance of a building. The indicators on the macro level refer to the
reference quantity according to the standard for cost calculation, e.g., the
external wall area [10]. In Figure 2 the cumulative energy indicators for two
examples are shown.
Apartment building (6 apartments) Office building

Type: Brickwork building Type: Steel structure
Year of construction: 1995 Year of construction: 1995
Gross floor area: 904 m2 Gross floor area: 7345 m2
Gross volume: 2685 m3 Gross volume: 26073 m3
Cumulative energy indicators: Cumulative energy indicators:

Gross floor area: 718 kWh/m2 GFA Gross floor area: 1221 kWh/m2 GFA
Gross volume: 242 kWh/m3 GV Gross volume: 344 kWh/m3 GV
Foundations: 435 kWh/m2 FA Foundations: 1443 kWh/m2 FA
External walls: 266 kWh/m2 EWA External walls: 572 kWh/m2 EWA
Internal walls: 99 kWh/m2 IWA Internal walls: 231 kWh/m2 IWA
Floors and ceilings: 285 kWh/m2 FCA Floors and ceilings: 382 kWh/m2 FCA
Roofs: 245 kWh/m2 RA Roofs: 625 kWh/m2 RA
Figure 2: Cumulative energy indicators for an apartment building and an

office building. GFA: Gross floor area of building, GV: Gross
volume of building, FA: Area of foundation, EWA: External wall
area, IWA: Internal wall area, FCA: Floor and ceiling area, RA:
Roof area.
The first example is an apartment building constructed in brickwork. The

house has a gross floor area of 904 m2 and a gross volume of 2685 m3. The
calculated cumulative energy indicator based on the gross floor area amounts to
718 kWh/m2, the one basing on the gross volume amounts to 242 kWh/m2.
Compared with the building on the right hand side, which is an office building in
steel structure, it can be seen that the indicators for the apartment house are
lower. This means that the specific environmental impact (per m2 gross floor
area or m3 gross volume) is lower than for the office building. The second set of
indicators is the one for the macro elements. For the apartment building it’s the
foundation which has the highest impact per reference area (435 kWh/m2 FA),
the lowest specific impact comes from the internal walls (99 kWh/m2 IWA).
Note that these values cannot be compared each other as they have a different
reference quantity.
3 Application of the cumulative energy indicators
3.1 Estimating the environmental impact of a building
To estimate the environmental impact of a building at an early design stage first

a reference building or a reference macro element has to be chosen from the
reference building catalogue. In the reference building catalogue cumulative
energy indicators for two building levels are listed: one on the overall building
level and five on the macro element level. The choice of a suitable reference
building bases on different aspects such as the function of a building (e.g.
apartment house, warehouse, office building), the construction type (e.g.
steelwork, brickwork, timber frame), the specific materials for building
components (e.g. wooden or aluminium window frames) or the realisation
standard of the building (average, high). In the second step, the dimensions of
the planned building or macro elements are taken from the sketch. The
environmental impact for the overall building is then calculated as follows:
Environmental impactbuilding = Area (Volume)building * Indicatorbuilding (1)
or in the case of calculating a macro element:
Environmental impactmacro element = Areamacro element * Indicatormacro element (2)
The lower the resulting value, the lower is the environmental impact for the
building under study. Note that a building which has a low cumulative energy
indicator not necessarily has a low environmental impact. If the building has a
large gross floor area it can even be worse than a comparable building with a
higher cumulative energy indicator.
3.2 Calculating a theoretical case study
To illustrate the application of the cumulative energy indicators a theoretical case

study is calculated. We assume that an architect plans to build a three family row
house. Figure 3 shows a sketch of a model which is under discussion. The
building is built in timber frame and the planned gross floor area amounts to
645 m2. For doing an early estimation on the ecological performance of the
planned building the architect chooses a reference building from the reference
building catalogue (see Figure 3 right hand side).
Figure 3: Sketch of a possible model for a three familiy row house in timber
frame (left hand side) and a possible reference building from the
reference building catalogue (right hand side).
The ecological indicator for the reference building is 769 kWh/m2 GFA.
Thus, the environmental impact for the planned house results in 496000 kWh
cumulative energy demand. This value can now be used to benchmark, e.g., to
compare the chosen model with instructions or reference values from the tender
documents. The value can also be compared with values resulting from an
evaluation of the energy consumption from the operating phase of the building.
As the architect is still at a very early stage of the planning process he or she can
easily adapt the sketch if necessary.
3.3 Adapting the cumulative energy indicators to personal needs
The ecological indicators can also be adapted to personal needs. The user might
for example want to use another environmental impact assessment method
instead of the cumulative energy demand. This is possible by linking the material
masses of the reference buildings to another assessment method as described in
section 2.1. There exists a variety of databases which allow a direct linking of
building materials with their environmental impacts, such as e.g. GEMIS in
Germany [16] or Ecoinvent in Switzerland [17]. The environmental impacts of
materials and energies can show great variations depending on their production
location (example: aluminium production with hydro power versus production
with fossil fuels). Therefore, it is important to consider the geographical region
where the building under study is located and use a database which covers the
region.
Another aspect which the architect might want to integrate into his or her
calculation is the different life span of the building components. When the whole
life cycle of a building is looked at one has to take into account that there usually
is a replacement of different building components. For example windows and
window frames are normally replaced several times during the life span of a
building. To integrate the environmental impacts caused by the replacement of
building components new material masses can be calculated by considering the
life span. The new material mass (also called life time mass [1]) is calculated by
multiplying the mass with the factor lifetimebuilding/lifetimematerial. The cumulative
energy indicators are then re-calculated considering the new mass.
3.4 Quality of the results
For the interpretation of the results obtained by using cumulative energy

indicators an uncertainty discussion is recommended. Such an uncertainty
discussion, which can be qualitative or quantitative, should be done by
identifying and weighing all uncertain information encountered during the
calculation and application of the indicators. Only by carrying out such a
discussion the user can draw sound conclusions on the results.
Uncertainties which arise during the calculation of the cumulative energy
indicators should be estimated by experts. Such an uncertainty analysis should
comprise aspects on both model uncertainty and data uncertainty [18]. Till now,
we have made an identification of uncertainties in the different steps conducted
for calculating cumulative energy indicators. The results are shown in Table 1. A
first estimation on the grade of the uncertainty is given and can be used for a
qualitative assessment.
Table 1: Source of uncertainty and grade of uncertainty for different steps in

the calculation process of the cumulative energy indicators.
Source of uncertainty Grade of uncertainty

Determination of materials
- Conversion of building process information into medium
material information
- Calculation of material mass low
- Linking of materials with environmental impact
assessment method medium
Environmental impact assessment method
- System boarders of process chains medium
- Data survey for material production medium - high
Determination of indicators
- Determination of reference quantities low
Three sources of uncertainty have been identified for the determination of

materials from the accounting documents. First there can be an uncertainty when
assigning the building process information to one material, e.g. a door can
consist of both wood and glass. Second, when calculating the material mass there
can be a lack of clarity on the dimensions of a component. And third, there might
be “non-fittings” between the material used in the building and the material list
of the environmental assessment method, e.g. there might not be the same type
of concrete. There are further uncertainties which come from the use of an
environmental impact assessment method. Those uncertainties, which sometimes
can be quite large, include e.g. the data survey for the production of the building
material and the system boarders which are chosen for the production process
chain. For further information on this subject the reader is referred to literature,
e.g., [18]. A lower grade of uncertainty comes from the determination of the
reference quantities from the planning documents.
For a quantitative uncertainty analysis the grade of uncertainty must be

quantified. This would then allow calculating an uncertainty range on the
cumulative energy indicators by using quantitative assessment methods such as
e.g. Monte Carlo simulation.
Uncertainties during the application of the cumulative energy indicators arise
especially from the choice of a suitable reference building. This drawback can be
overcome by using different similar reference buildings in the sense of a
sensitivity analysis. A clear improvement will be reached when the selection of
buildings is extended by enlarging the catalogue of reference buildings.
4 Discussion and outlook

We have shown that an estimation of environmental impacts of buildings is
possible already at an early design phase. The presented cumulative energy
indicators can be used for a quick estimation at a planning stage where there is
only rough information on the dimension of the building and the used materials.
The result can then be compared with other buildings or with a reference value
laid down by the client. If the result does not satisfy the needs, the sketch can be
adapted or different materials can be chosen. Such changes can be done easily
because the information on the environmental impact is available at a very early
design stage. The indicators presented in this paper refer to the building
construction only. Service installations are not included in our survey. However,
as service installations usually have a significant contribution to the
environmental impact of a building they should be looked at separately.
Today, the database on reference buildings comprises 20 buildings. This is a
beginning but to get a use of the cumulative energy indicators as wide spread as
the use of economic indicators the reference building catalogue has to be
enlarged. This will be one of our main efforts. For this purpose we have access to
the building database from the Baukosteninformationszentrum Deutscher
Architektenkammern containing the accounting information of more than
1000 buildings. Nevertheless, although the principle of calculating the indicators
follows a simple procedure, the work is time consuming. An electronic
evaluation of the database will therefore be evaluated.
Another focus of our future work will be put on the uncertainty analysis. For
a sound application of the developed indicators statements on the quality of the
results are imperative. The aim is to provide cumulative energy indicators with
an uncertainty range. Therefore, the next step will be to continue the uncertainty
analysis by quantifying the grades of uncertainties which until now have been
described qualitatively. Then the indicators are re-calculated integrating the
ranges of uncertainty for every uncertainty source.
References
[1] Lalive d’Epinay, A., Die Umweltverträglichkeit als eine Determinante des
architektonischen Entwurfs, Doctoral Thesis No. 13610 at the Swiss
Federal Institute of Technology, Zürich, 2000.
[2] OGIP, Optimierung der Gesamtanforderungen (Kosten/Energie/Umwelt)

– ein Instrument für die integrale Planung, http://www.ogip.ch.
[3] Vitruvius, Vitruvius – Das Kostenplanungs-, Bewertungs- und
Immobilienanalysesystem. http://www.vitruvius.ch.
[4] SIA D 0123, Hochbaukonstruktionen nach ökologischen Gesichtspunkten,
Schweizer Ingenieur- und Architekten-Verein: Zürich, 1995.
[5] SNARC, Systematik zu Beurteilung der Nachhaltigkeit von
Architekturprojekten für den Bereich Umwelt, sia-Dokumentation D 0200,
Schweizer Ingenieur- und Architekten-Verein: Zürich, 2004.
[6] BKI Baukosteninformationszentrum Deutscher Architektenkammern, BKI
Objekte – Kosten abgerechneter Bauwerke, BKI: Stuttgart, 1998.
[7] CRB Schweizerische Zentralstelle für Baurationalisierung,
Baukostenkennwerte-Katalog BKK, CRB: Zürich, 1995.
[8] DIN-Norm, DIN 276 Kosten im Hochbau, DIN Deutsches Institut für
Normung e.V. 1993.
[9] CRB Schweizerische Zentralstelle für Baurationalisierung, Kostenplanung
mit der Elementmethode – Hochbau, CRB: Zürich, 1995.
[10] DIN-Norm, DIN 277-3 Grundflächen und Rauminhalte von Bauwerken im
Hochbau, Teil 3: Mengen und Bezugseinheiten, DIN Deutsches Institut
für Normung e.V. 1998.
[11] Goedkoop, M. & Spriensma, R., The Eco-Indicator 99 – A damage
oriented method for life cycle assessment: Methodology report, Pré
Consultants bv: Amersfoort, 1999.
[12] IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on climate change, http://www.ipcc.ch.
[13] VDI Verein Deutscher Ingenieure, Kumulierter Energieaufwand –
Begriffe, Definitionen, Berechnungsmethoden, VDI, 1997.
[14] Kasser, U. & Pöll, M., Graue Energie von Baustoffen – Daten zu
Baustoffen, Bauchemikalien, Verarbeitungs- und Transportprozessen mit
Erläuterungen und Empfehlungen für die Baupraxis, 2nd edition.
Econum: St. Gallen, 1998.
[15] Kytzia, S., Seyler, C., Stoy, C., Lützelschwab, I., Primary energy
indicators for the environmental assessment of buildings. In preparation.
[16] GEMIS, Globales Emissions-Modell integrierter Systeme. Öko-Institut
e.V., http://www.oeko.de/service/gemis/de/index.htm.
[17] Ecoinvent, ecoinvent 2000, Swiss Centre for Life Cycle Inventories,
http://ecoinvent.ch.
[18] Huijbregts, M.A.J., Application of Uncertainty and Variability in LCA –
A General Framework for the Analysis of Uncertainty and Variability in
Life Cycle Assessment. International journal of Life Cycle Assessment,
3(1), pp.36-42, 1998.
Sustainable building design in Australia

C. McCabe
Cundall, Melbourne, Australia
Abstract
The building and construction industry in Australia has taken significant steps
forward in the last 3–5 years to improve their environmental performance. This
improvement has been in response to increased focus of local/state government
policies regarding Ecological Sustainable Development (ESD), as well as the
availability of holistic environmental rating tools such as the Green Building
Council of Australia’s Green Star rating tools.
However the unique climatic conditions of Australia, which range from hot
arid to cool temperate combined with its expansiveness generate considerable
challenges to building designers in achieving environmentally responsive and
sustainable buildings.
In addition, designers are increasingly being engaged to contractually meet
minimum environmental performance requirements that extend beyond energy
conservation/greenhouse performance to cover issues such as water
conservation, environmentally credible material selection, indoor environmental
quality, transport, ecology and pollution as well as on-going environmental
management of facilities.
This paper will provide an overview through the combined use of case studies
of how designers in Australia are innovatively tackling the demand and
contractual requirement for environmentally responsive buildings.
Keywords: climate, environmentally responsive buildings, ESD, Australia,
environmental design.
1 Introduction
The adoption and integration of sound ESD design principles within the
Australian construction industry has taken considerable steps forward in the last
three to five years. The historic lip service approach to ESD is being steadily
doi:10.2495/ARC060241
overtaken by an emphasis on accountability of a building’s environmental

performance.
This change in attitude has come from a number of directions including the
combined drive from local and state government to embrace ESD, as well as the
advent of a number of environmental assessment methods which are gaining
acceptable within the construction industry.
To provide context to the case studies and examples outlined, a brief
overview is provided into the design considerations of climate, rating systems
and regulatory requirements that building designers are being challenged with to
achieve successful environmentally responsive building design outcomes.
2 Understanding the climate of Australia

Climatic conditions in Australia vary considerably and offer significantly
different opportunities and constraints in respect to the design of
environmentally responsive buildings. Each state offers quite different climatic
conditions and seasonal variations that the building designer must respond in
order to ensure year round environmental responsiveness and comfort.
To assist designers, and in particular allow for energy benchmarking of
different building classifications (residential; aged care; office or laboratory or
clinic; shop or shopping centre; theatre or cinema; and school), the Building
Code of Australia (BCA), the governing national regulatory body, has broken
Australia down into eight different climate zones. The eight climate zones range
from Zone 1, which reflects a high humidity summer and warm winter, through
to Zone 8, alpine. The basis of these zones is shown in table 1 [1]:
Table 1: Table 1: Basis for BCA energy efficiency climate zones.

Climate Description Average 3 pm Average January Average July Average annual
Zones January water maximum mean Heating degree
vapour pressure temperature temperature days
1 High humidity summer, warm winter ≥ 2.1kPa ≥ 30oC - -
2 Warm humid summer, mild winter ≥ 2.1kPa < 30oC - -
3 Hot dry summer, warm winter < 2.1kPa ≥ 30oC ≥ 14oC -
4 Hot dry summer, cool winter < 2.1kPa ≥ 30 C
o
< 14oC -
5 Warm temperate < 2.1kPa < 30oC - < 1,000
6 Mild temperate < 2.1kPa < 30oC - 1,000 to 1,999
7 Cool temperate < 2.1kPa < 30oC - 2,000 to Alpine
8 BCA Alpine areas
The extent of each climate zone is visually depicted in the figure 1 [1].
While these do assist building designers to understand the prevailing climate
of particular locations, the boundary lines between the climate zones has had to
be simplified by aligning boundaries between zones with local government areas
to ease administration. This simplification however does lead to some
discrepancies with certain locations being linked to an unrepresentative climate
zone for its prevailing climate.
Figure 1: Climate zones for thermal design.
Therefore, while the BCA climate zones provides a rough guide to a locations
prevailing climate, building designers require a more detailed understanding to
enable full advantage of a locations prevailing climate to be captured in a
buildings design response. However, to do so more representative climate must
be found.
Unfortunately there are limited locations in Australia where hourly weather
data (i.e. Test Reference Year (TRY) weather data) for use in performance
assessment (i.e. computer simulation) of active and passive solar energy systems,
annual energy consumption and indoor climate calculations. For example the
two most populous states of Victoria and New South Wales covers
1,028,058 km2 have only 17 sites, most of which are in the city of Melbourne
and Sydney. Less populous states and territories have even less, with the
Northern Territory having only 3 sites to cover 1,349,129 km2.
In consideration of this designers must determine the most representative
TRY weather site for locations outside of these limited locations having full
24 hour weather data. One approach is to compare the climates averages (i.e.
temperature, humidity, rainfall, sunshine hours, wind speed and direction) of
possible representative TRY weather sites with the desired location without full
hourly weather data [3].
An example of one such comparison to determine the most representative or

best fit site with full 24 hour data for a regional site of Ellinbank which has only
9am and 3pm weather data available, is shown in figure 2.
30
25
Air Temperature (Deg C Dry Bulb)
20
15
10
0
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
'Ellinbank' 'East Sale'
Figure 2: Mean daily maximum comparison between Alice Springs (Climate

Zone 3), Mount Isa (Climate Zone 3) and Charleville (Climate
Zone 4).
Another important consideration is to obtain local knowledge as it can be both

useful and sometimes essential. For example Melbourne although considered to
have a ‘Mild Temperate’ prevailing climate typically experiences two weeks in
summer where air temperatures are the high 30’s and it is not uncommon for it to
reach 42 – 44oC.
Using the same means of comparison but re-ordering summer and winter
months to that of the northern hemisphere, it was interesting to note that the
climate of Seville [4] Spain is similar to that of Cashmere Downs - Western
Australia and the climate of Coruna [4] Spain is similar to that of Warrnambool -
Victoria. Thus suggesting that similar building design strategies used to
maximise environmental performance could be applied in either location.
3 Regulatory requirements
3.1 Building Code of Australia (BCA)
The BCA [5] is a uniform set of technical provisions for the design and
construction of buildings and other structures throughout Australia, which allows
for variations in climate and geological or geographic conditions. The goals of
the BCA are to enable the achievement and maintenance of acceptable standards
of structural sufficiency, safety (including safety from fire), health and amenity
for the benefit of the community now and in the future.
The code goes through regular review introducing amendments and

improvements following agreement between the Australian Government and
each State and Territory Government. One such amendment is the introduction
of minimum energy efficiency requirements and targets for residential
development including with the aim of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by
efficiently using energy, which comes into effect May 2005.
Similar energy efficiency requirements and energy performance targets are
scheduled to come into effect May 2006 for the other Class of Building (aged
care facilities, offices, laboratories, clinics, shops or shopping centres café or
restaurants, theatres or cinemas and schools).
3.2 Melbourne Docklands ESD Guide
As part of the Melbourne Docklands commitment to and recognition of its role in

the development of it has developed an Ecological Sustainable Development
(ESD) Guide [6] which sets a minimum ESD performance for development
approval while encouraging endeavour towards world’s best practice. The
purpose of the ESD guide is to inform all stakeholders about the principles and
practices that currently guide the approach to ESD in Melbourne Docklands, as
well as outline current environmental policies, plans and systems and explain the
performance indicators that will be used to assess the relative ESD design
performance for each building in the Docklands.
The performance indicators attribute points in respect to different areas based
on the developments ESD design response. The ESD design elements covering
Outdoor Space, the Site; Atmosphere; Water Cycle and Wastewater; Transport;
Energy; Building Materials; Indoor Environmental Quality; Waste; and
Innovation.
Depending on the developments score, a performance level is achieved from
ESD Certificate of Achievement, ESD Award of Merit or a ESD Award of
Excellence. The guide covers both residential and commercial development
within the docklands and the performance rating of each building is primarily by
self assessment with submission to the Docklands Authority for approval. The
ESD design response is independently reviewed at each design against the
Docklands ESD Guide Performance Indicators. The process is proving to be a
success as it is rigorously enforced with all designs being audited at each design
stage, resulting in both improved awareness within the development community
and design professionals as well as credible and tangible ESD outcomes.
4 Industry and national rating systems

Over recent years there has been considerable expansion in the number of
energy, greenhouse and environmental assessment tools being applied within the
marketplace. Some are used to achieve market recognition others are used by
government and planning authorities to stipulate minimum energy and
environmental performance requirements.
4.1 National House Energy Rating Software (NatHERS)
The NatHERS [7] software was developed by CSIRO on behalf of the Australian
and New Zealand governments to provide a simulation tool for assessing the
energy requirement in houses and apartments. The NatHERS ratings being used
to both assist designers to improve a dwellings energy performance and provide
a mechanism to set minimum energy performance requirements.
The software assesses the energy requirement (MJ/m2/a) of a dwelling based
on the passive solar / thermal design of the building fabric and orientation. The
resulting performance is then rated from zero to five stars. The software has led
to the evolution of accredited state specific assessment tools such as FirstRate in
Victoria and is currently going through an evolution phase with a new national
software called AccuRate expected later this year.
4.2 Green Building Council of Australia’s Green Star rating systems
The Green Star [8] rating systems are a voluntary environmental rating system
that provides an appraisal of a building overall environmental performance. The
building is assessed under the categories of Management, Energy Use, Health
and Well-being, Pollution, Transport, Land Use, Ecology, Materials and Water,
to calculate its overall weighted score, which then determines its respective star
or performance rating. Current rating tools evaluate new, refurbished and
existing office designs with further rating tools under development for other
building types such as residential, retail, assembly spaces and industrial
buildings.
The Green Building Council’s objective is to promote sustainable
development and the transition of the property industry to implementing green
building programs, technologies, design practice and operations. Although only
in its second year the Star Rating systems are being embraced by industry and
are being used to provide market differential to developers and building owners.
4.3 Australian Building Greenhouse Rating (ABGR) scheme
The Australian Building Greenhouse Rating (ABGR) scheme [9] provides an

accredited means of benchmarking an office buildings greenhouse performance.
It is a voluntary program for office buildings, designed to enable Base Building
(central services), a Tenancy or for the Whole Building performance to be
assessed. Providing building owners, managers and tenants to get market
recognition for superior greenhouse performance and identify ways in which
greenhouse performance can be improved.
Ratings can be carried out for existing office buildings based on actual
metered energy consumption and new buildings based on energy consumption
determined using their validation protocol for computer simulations. The
respective greenhouse performance of an office is rated from one to five stars in
incremental and ½ star steps. With a 1-Star reflecting a building with poor
energy management or outdated systems, though to a 5-Star which represents a
building that is as good as it gets, due to its integrated design, operation,

management and fuel choice.
5 Case studies and examples

The following provides a brief introduction and overview of a selection of case
studies which provides insight into sustainable buildings are being delivered in
Australia, which will be expanded and elaborated on in the formal presentation.
5.1 30 The Bond, Bovis Lend Lease headquarters
Recently completed headquarters for Bovis Lend Lease, which took a strong and
integrated environmentally focused approach to its design. The building
comprises approximately 18,700 m2 of office space, a 600 m2 communal atrium
and basement parking for 113 cars.
Selected Sustainable Design Features

• Australia’s first predicted 5-star ABGR
greenhouse performance rated office building.
• 5-Star Green Star pilot rated design.
• First large scale use of active chilled beams in an
office development.
• Operable external shading on western façade that
deploys progressively during the day to maximise
views and minimise solar heat penetration.
• Maximised useful penetration of daylight into the
building via the perimeter and atrium.
• Distributed naturally ventilated sunrooms on each
floor taking advantage of Sydney’s climate.
Figure 3: 30 The Bond, Bovis Lend Lease headquarters.
5.2 Modernisation of DNRE Regional Institutes
Modernisation of the Department of Natural Resources and Environment Dairy

Research Institute at Ellinbank, Regional Offices at Horsham and Regional
Tatura Offices. The integration of environmentally responsive design principles
was a key requirement and client objective for each project and led to highly
innovative design solutions. Independent review of the environmental design
solutions, were also a key client driven requirement of the project.
5.3 Monash Science Centre
The new Monash Science Centre will serve as common ground to bring research
scientists and primary / secondary students as well as the general public together,
encouraging their interaction and promoting an exchange of ideas and

information. Sited on a green field site, the building comprises of two main
pods: a classroom wing and exhibition hall.
Selected Sustainable Design Features

• Non-refrigerative air conditioning through the
combination of a thermal labyrinth and creek
water storage system in Ellinbank.
• Thermal labyrinth to pre-condition incoming
outside air for Link Building at Horsham.
• Particularly strong emphasis on water
conservation, rainwater harvesting for re-use and
process water collection, treatment and re-use.
• Integration of free daylighting, natural
ventilation, night-purge strategies.
Figure 4: Modernisation of DNRE Regional Institutes.
Sustainable Design Features

• Hydronic underfloor heating is used throughout,
below the timber floor for winter comfort control.
• Heating requirements provided by a geothermal
field within an adjacent permanent retard basin.
• Summertime comfort control in the exhibition
hall is achieved through combined cross flow
ventilation / stack ventilation and both single and
cross ventilation in the classrooms.
• Diffuse daylight throughout classrooms via
carefully configured glazing and light shelves.
• Environmentally credible material selections.
Figure 5: Monash Science Centre.
6 Conclusions
Australia has taken considerable steps forward from an ESD perspective,
achieved through the combined push for the introduction of regulatory
requirements and targets, as well as the recent presence of independent
greenhouse and environmental rating tools. Increasingly ESD is becoming an
inherent consideration in the design of buildings. The construction industry is
being challenged to take an integrated design approach and to date is striving to

meet this challenge.
Although the climatic conditions in Australia vary considerably from State to
State requiring different design approaches and solutions, there is considerable
potential within Australia to take advantage of its climate to achieve strong
environmentally responsive outcome. However, considering the strong
similarities between the climate of Australia and Spain, it would have been
interesting from a building design perspective if it had been colonised by a more
Southern European country such as Spain.
References
[1] Energy Efficiency BCA 2005 Volume One – Regulation Document,
Proposal for Class 5-9 Buildings, RD 2004-01, November 2004, p 5.
[2] BCA 2005 Volume One – Class 2 to Class 9 Buildings, pp 22 - 24.
[3] Australian Government, Bureau of Meteorology, website,
www.bom.gov.au.
[4] Spanish Weather Data, website, www.bbc.co.uk/weather/world/
city_guides.
[5] Building Code of Australia (BCA) 2005 Volume One and Volume Two
[6] Melbourne Docklands, ESD Guide, downloadable from
www.docklands.com/docklands/about/publications/esd/index.shtml.
[7] National House Energy Rating Scheme (NatHERS), www.energysmart.
com.au/les/Displaypage.asp?flash=-1&t=2005453&PageID=309.
[8] Green Building Council of Australia (GBCA), Green Star rating systems
downloadable from www.gbcaus.org/greenstar.
[9] Australian Building Greenhouse Rating (ABGR) Scheme, website
www.abgr.com.au.
Design and construction: changing the role

P. Rossi
DiPSA: Department for Project and Study of Architecture,
Roma Tre University, Italy
Abstract
Since the seventies many experiences have gone towards alternative or soft
technologies, architecture for the poor, etc. In all of these the design was in
answer to a need. Is it possible to consider building as an opportunity? Certainly,
when the architecture is used, some functions or needs can be satisfied. But the
building process itself represents a way to knowledge, a research field, a social
event, a door opened on the future (while the need is a result of the past).
Within this area we could try to involve groups of non-experts in the design
and construction process, which allows one to have a direct interface between
individual needs and production. Specifically, during two workshops in
secondary schools in central and southern Italy, the pupils have built from
recycled material a theater stage in the first case and the stands for a little market
in the second one. Some university students have guided the secondary students
in the construction process using newspapers, cardboards, tetrapak and cables. A
third project, larger than the others, consists of a modular shell, made by a folded
wire mesh, covered with cement, sand, paper or fabric to self-build (thanks to the
direct help of the university students) a family house for sick children in Kenya.
Decomposing design and building process in single phases is in accordance
with the segmentation of industrial and economical processes of our
contemporary world. Generally, nowadays architects are frustrated about this
situation where they can’t be the only “art director” anymore. On the other hand,
if well managed, this segmentation can be the opportunity to receive at each step
all those virtuous inputs, which can arrive from a widespread knowledge even if
not structured and specialized in any way or from disposable resources like
recycled materials, free work, etc.
Keywords: lightness, environment, shell, low cost, self-construction, innovation,
technological transfer.
doi:10.2495/ARC060251
1 Introduction
I don’t believe that the pattern of advanced countries can be the same to help the
poor regions in their development processes. Specifically in the last period the
basic technologies of the so-called western countries (or better, productive
system) have been producing a growing distance between rich and poor nations
in the world.
The way of forced industrialization means pollution, exploitation/exhaustion
of human and natural resources, social costs. The current performances of China
are exemplary. Even if the richness of the nation is growing up in a spectacular
way, the quality of the air in the cities is a danger for the health of people, there
aren’t any laws or measures to protect the environment, nor to guarantee old and
young workers. The damage will be paid by the next generations in a more than
proportional price.
The enormous slums around the cities in Africa, Southern America or Asia
are another dramatic manifestation of the uncontrolled contamination between
different social and economic systems. Burning metal sheets are used as roofs
under the African sun, dusty lands are full of houses without infrastructures,
quotidian needs thwart every poly-annual project.
As Amartya Sen has demonstrated, the best results can be obtained by
operating directly towards the culture of common people instead of waiting for
the development of productive structure [1, 2]. And the culture is not only
theoretical or humanistic. I work in the field of material culture and in this field I
look for a satisfactory result.
There are the evaluation criteria that change or should have to change in a
project, not only humanitarian, but also environmentally and socially sustainable.
While the advanced productive system needs a strengthening of infrastructures to
regain competitiveness, in the backward situations more useful are the proposals
with a low level of investments and capital. It’s not a question between bamboo
can and carbon fibre, but understand that hanger and famine have to be fought
with different weapons from those of commercial competition [3].
2 Working method
What is the difference between learning by doing and knowing by doing? While
learning is referred to something already known, which has to be reproduced,
knowing signs a direction, an aim towards which to proceed. So doing assumes
the role of the experimentation aimed to improve life and environmental quality.
To be coherent with this assumption, the objective of the design process can’t be
established at the beginning, but it can be discovered step by step, during the
experimentation. Before starting there are ties and opportunities that depend on
the disposable resources in terms of involved people, geographical context and
financial supports.
The ties assumed as the foundation of our experiments concern of:
Suitable technologies, referred to the buildings performances, the employed
technologies and the use of natural resources [4, 5, 6, 7, 8];
Light structures, referred to the employed materials (which should be possibly

renewable or recyclable), the structural morphologies and the industrial, manual
and conceptual processes they imply [9, 10, 11, 12];
Temporary architectures, referred to the function and the historical presence of
the buildings, which can exist during the lifetime of one or two generations or
just for the duration of a specific event.
These three criteria help us, and our specific working teams, to guide the
design towards a low environmental impact, a better social integration, and an
improvement of the natural and anthropic environment.
3 Young builders
The way of experimentation started some years ago at the Environmental Design
Course (Faculty of Architecture – Roma Tre University) where students
extracted the form, the structure or structural behavior and the use from the
matter/material. Obviously structures and materials are light to build envelopes
that improve the habitability of the places. Shells and membranes are designed
and verified mixing nets, cans, jute, threads or wires, some polymers, leafs,
cotton, and others.
The difference between the described selection work and a traditional design
process consists in the possibility to keep numerous variables for a same problem
and crystallize them step by step while the single problems get clearer without
never renouncing the starting criteria of suitability, lightness and temporarity
which guarantee in nuce environmentally and socially coping responses.
At the end of this phase, which can be defined as intersection point between
design and research, I have selected the best students’ proposals in terms of
practical feasibility, architectural and urban relevance, correspondence with the
demand of potential users. It’s mainly at this stage that the frontiers of
technological innovation confront themselves with the emerging human needs,
like those of the metropolitan disadvantage areas. But in this direction my efforts
haven’t produced any result.
To promote the culture of sustainability also out of University, my workgroup
could try to involve groups of non-experts in the design and the construction
process, with a direct interface between individual needs and
athropic/physical/economic environment. Symmetrically some secondary
schools have got in touch with the workgroup to be helped in their environmental
education projects. Recently we have completed a stage for a school in Aprilia,
close to Rome, using newspapers and boxes. Now we are engaged with a school
at Morano Calabro (south of Italy) in the building of a temporary market.
Looking at the experiments or proposals of students in the Environmental
Design course, some of the most interesting ones are based on the recycle of
paper or cardboard packs. They can design a shell more or less suitable to the
various opportunities that can arise to build these temporary architectures by
cutting, folding, stitching or gluing the sheets,
The implicit building technique is to go back from container to sheet, to shape
the sheet according to a geometrical law, to preview the resistant nervures, to
realise the double sweep surfaces, to complete, if necessary, with some cables in
order to stiffen and consolidate the shelter.
The commercial milk or juice containers loose immediately their
characteristics to assume the new designed identity. This building activity helps
to accept the traditional market, organized at the end of scholastic year to sell the
objects made by students at Morano Calabro. The paper shells are thought as
stands to show and sell the students production.
Moreover we are looking for jointing the paper or cardboard sheets with a
photovoltaic film to make the shells self-sufficient in terms of energetic
supplying for night lighting. The stratified origin of material used in packaging
seems to suggest a diversified use of each layer to solve specific needs as the
energetic autonomy.
Students pick up the containers for food or juice at home, neighbours or
shops. Besides the simplicity in manipulating this material, the choice is
motivated by the hope to compensate, even if in a small part, the waste produced
by consumerism. This satisfies the didactical objectives of the jointed initiative
to promote the environmental education. The aimed objectives are:
- educate the youths to take care of their environment developing a waste
reclamation activity;
- revaluate to the manual skills as a tool to transform the prime matter;
- relate the knowledge with the doing;
- discover the natural and anthropic environments, observing the characteristics
and the implications through the construction of a habitable envelope with own
form, resistance, stability, lightness.
Before building the market envelope, university students have organized two
workshops for secondary students, where they examined the geometrical law of
the construction and the conditions of structural stability or resistance.
Intuitively, if I transform food containers, I’ll obtain a polygonal module to
combine in the space. In this way I can realize a double curvature surface, but the
polygonal module and the connecting system have to be thought to permit an
angle between two close pieces. With the attention not to solve the problem
designing a lot of different polygons, because the young constructors can have
difficulties to follow too many complex instructions.
The CAD software easily permits to obtain a series of plane polygons from
every kind of surface, but then I have to number each piece and the relative
position on the surface. And this is not enough, because it becomes necessary to
cut the pieces with much precision. A slight approximation, repeated many
times, can make the building of the market envelope impossible.
The solution has been found by cutting the four corners in a particular way.
This permits to fold the sides of the sheet to obtain the veins of curved shell and
let the range of the polygons variation requested by the curvature.
So, the ninety per cent of the construction is made by the same piece, the rest
needs special connections, adapted in progress (by university students).
A clear design strategy and the right balance between technical experience,
figurative control and dilettantish spontaneity can concur to build sustainable and
aesthetical architectonical results.
4 Low cost technologies

Still now I have talked about building experiences that are between the play and
the research. But, once engaged in the self-construction field, new ways are
open, new aims become reachable.
A strong impulse to deepen the researches is derived from the meeting with a
NGO, called AINA that works in Kenya to offer better life conditions for
children. Now AINA is engaged to realize a family house for about twenty
youths, positives at the HIV test. When they come out from the hospital, the
local community tends to outcast these youths. So it was born the idea to
organize a self-sufficient group in a small structure based on agricultural
activities.
In the cooperation activities, architecture doesn’t represent the central aim of
the project. The humanitarian and economical objectives are the heart and the
soul of the activities. Architecture plays a secondary role, as it can be useful to
facilitate the objectives. The technology role can be different: introducing a new
criterion in the use of a prime matter, promoting conditions for the self-knowing
are qualified objectives in the cooperation activities [13, 14, 15].
So, when I’ve chosen poverty and cooperation as the theme of the university
design course, students’ work has left the traditional typologies or architectural
organism spontaneously. They prefer reasoning directly around surfaces that
separate an interior from an exterior to control climatic conditions, improve the
habitability of a site. In this kind of approach, the envelope substitutes the
functional distribution. The reference isn’t a commercial target, with its
consolidated preferences, habitudes, and behaviours. Facing poverty, the solution
has to be searched simplifying the problems, accepting a partial satisfaction for
more people than a better answer for few people.
The most interesting students proposals are based on three kinds of
constructive systems. Someone prefers working with the bamboo can that is
cheap and diffused in many poor countries. Some others prefer mud following
the traditions of the local contexts. But I’ve tried to valorize a third kind of
proposals, based on a new mix of materials that seems to be in conformity with
two priority aims. At first, working in the field of lightweight structures has a
better response to the environment (not only in the poor countries, but even in
the rich and developed ones). Secondly, it could be an important opportunity for
the local productive structure, compared with a different use of manual or
primitive operational tools, to introduce a new vision of technology [16, 17].
In fact, a recurrent objective of the cooperation projects is the technological
transfer towards the local enterprises. In this case the transfer isn’t referred to a
specific mechanical tool or manufacture that needs high investment, but shows
how many different ways can valorize natural and anthropic resources, beginning
from the human work that is easily disposable in the poor countries.
If the problem is organizing the work of about twenty university students to
build a family house at Igoji (Kenya), what can this workgroup make in two or
three weeks? What kind of materials are they able to manipulate? How are they
integrating with the local productive structure?
The definitive design of the family house has been based on some precise
points:
1. the wire mesh can be easily folded (by cutting and superposing the borders) to
obtain a shell with a double curvature. Since the wire mesh is sold in rolls 1
meter high and 25/30 meters long, the envelope has been divided in strips or
arcs, jointed together to form a sort of tunnel. This form becomes solid and
resistant with a jute fabric soaking with cement;
2. the comfort depends on ventilation more than on isolation. So the
discontinuity of the tunnel (changing the dimensions of the section) guarantees
the ventilation and there are enough local poor materials, like leaves, barks or
straw, mixed with cement and sand, to insulate the envelope;
3. the energetic autonomy can be helped by photovoltaic cells distributed on the
surface of the envelope.
Some parts of the family house have thought to be constructed by local
building contractors. Specifically the groundwork, the internal walls and the
hydric and electrical equipments are under the competence of some Kenyote
operators.
Despite the choices about manual skills and non-expert workers, the
architectural manufacture rising in my description has also a perfect feeling with
the simulation software. Specifically the shell in wire mesh can be virtually
constructed modeling the so-called NURBS (Non-Uniform Rational B-Splines)
and jointing the different sections of every metal net strip. In a Loft-NURBS the
arc on the border of the strip is smaller than in the centre, so we have a curved
section of the strip that covers the arc. Introducing a variation criterion we have
obtained a figurative performance of the envelope without modifying any other
characteristic (low cost, self-construction, etc.). We have designed a non-circular
arc, preferring a spiral section for the tunnel. If the spiral centre changes
progressively strip by strip, the architectural volume acquires a dynamic image,
following the recent aesthetic researches made by Miralles, Eiseman, Nox (just
to remember the most famous ones). Finding a role to calculate the progressive
differences of the distance between the folds that generate the double curvature
of the shell is enough.
The virtual model is also necessary to complete the structural calculus that
confirms how the shell form is resistant and stable with a thin thickness.
Before leaving for Kenya we have realized a prototype (about 5 x 2 x 3
meters) of the tunnel at the AINA courtyard in Rome. The first tests haven’t got
a good result because: the net had a too much large mesh; the discontinuity of the
curvature was a critic point during the assembly; the way to consolidate the shell
with the cement was wrong, etc. Finally the building system went on.
Pulling near the folds the curvature ray of shell decreases. A more convex
curvature offers a better resistance. Balancing the curvature of the arc and that of
strip (orthogonal at the arc) it can be possible to obtain the desired stability and
resistance. Immersing the jute fabric in a liquid mortar, the cement layer is
distributed on the wire mesh regularly, without any specialised manufacture or
workers. After the hardening, mesh, fabric and cement, become an only
integrated material, to shape a rigid shell. Combining two layers with an empty
space in the middle, the wall becomes aired in order to offer the best habitability
in wet and hot regions.
5 Conclusions
Today the technology innovation collides with the architecture. It’s organized
and produced in two operational areas: the productive system that promotes a
useful innovation in the increasing competitiveness, productivity, etc.; the
scientific institutions that develop research programmes directly or indirectly
oriented to consolidate the productive system. The architect role has a different
aim, because it’s closer to the coordination/control of operational tools (design
methods, equipments, building techniques) more than to the invention of new
technical tools. Specifically the self-construction is an argument without interest
for industries, craftsmen, research centres, even if, this has a direct relationship
with poverty, social outcasting, big geographical regions, most people in the
world.
The best individual or collective satisfaction generally motivates more or less
a radical renovation of the practice. But, because this happens, new tools or
solutions are often necessary and, once again, they need inventions or ideas. The
invention proceeds in a chaotic way, developing among many sectors and
coming from unpredictable circumstances, sites or times. The duty of design is to
manage the invention inside collective objectives, related to environment,
economy, culture, society, etc.
It’s difficult (and often useless) teaching or classifying the innovation,
because each piece of information can be at the same time revolutionary or
conservative. It depends on the context. For instance, many times the observation
of nature has inspired the technical or scientific innovations, but many other
times it has been the cause of ostracism towards the new approaches. It will be
more useful, maybe, to promote the practice of innovation, choosing to be active
subjects in an experimental research process, instead of limiting themselves to be
the consignee of solutions invented by others.
References
[1] Amartya Sen, Development as Freedom, Anchor, 2000.
[2] Amartya Sen, Commodities and Capabilities, Oxford University Press,
1999.
[3] Jeremy Rifkin, The European Dream: How Europe's Vision of the Future
Is Quietly Eclipsing the American Dream, Jeremy P. Tarcher, 2004.
[4] Bernard Rudofsky, Architecture Without Architects: A Short Introduction
to Non-Pedigreed Architecture, University of New Mexico Press, 1987.
[5] Paul Oliver, Dwellings, Phaidon Press, 2003.
[6] E. Komatsu, A. Steen & B. Steen, Built by Hand: Vernacular Buildings
Around the World, Gibbs Smith Publishers, 2004.
[7] Bob Easton & Lloyd Kahn, Shelter, Shelter Publications; 2000.
[8] Lloyd Kahn, Home Work: Handbuilt Shelter, Shelter Publications, 2004.
[9] E. Kullmann, W. Nachtigall, J. Shurig & other, IL 8: Nets in Nature and

Technics, Institute of Lightweight Structures (IL), University of Stuttgart,
1975.
[10] K. Dunkelberg & The Team of IL, IL 31: Bamboo, Institute of
Lightweight Structures (IL), University of Stuttgart, 1985.
[11] J. Schlaich & R. Bergermann, Light Structures, Prestel Books on
Architecture, München 2003.
[12] M. McQuaid, Shigeru Ban, Phaidon Press Limited, London 2003.
[13] United Nations Human Settlements Programme The Challenge of Slums:
Global Report on Human Settlements London and Sterling, VA:
Earthscan Publications, 2003.
[14] K. Tranberg Hansen & M. Vaa, Reconsidering Informality: Perspectives
from Urban Africa, Nordiska Afrikainstitutet, 2004.
[15] I. Imparato & J. Ruster Slum Upgrading and Participation: Lessons from
Latin America (Directions in Development), World Bank Publications,
2003.
[16] Stanley Abercrombie, Ferrocement: Building with cement, sand, and wire
mesh, Schocken Books, 1977.
[17] David Pearson, The New Natural House Book: Creating a Healthy,
Harmonious, and Ecologically Sound Home, Fireside; 1998.
Section 4
Assessment and selection of
materials
Natural materiality – the people’s choice

F. Stevenson
School of Architecture, University of Dundee, Scotland
Abstract
Despite the variety of toolkits, life cycle analysis, models, and other forms of
guidance on sustainable resource use in architecture, the amount of energy used
and waste created in the industry is going up on a global basis. The conventional
approach to promoting sustainable specification clearly isn’t working.
This paper offers a new approach based on a recent qualitative case study of
people’s attitudes, associations and understanding of key construction materials
in housing. The findings suggest that people have a deep tacit knowledge of
materiality which draws on the ecological “affordances” offered by materials and
are very clear about which materials they want, where, and why. These
affordances, identified in Gibson’s theory of ecological perception, transcend the
usual subject/object divide and challenge designers to do likewise.
This tacit knowledge appears uniquely related to people’s place of upbringing
as well as their occupation. It supports the notion that a bioregional approach
should be adopted for material and product specification which empowers users
to take more responsibility for the materiality of the buildings they live and work
in. The emotional “endearment” of materiality in architecture to the users is
argued as a key factor in potentially reducing maintenance costs and subsequent
resource impacts.
Currently, architecture is conceived primarily as the design of space using
construction resources. Reframing architecture as the design of resource use in
place, draws on users’ local knowledge and an implaced, more natural
materiality. Design and research are thus challenged to focus on a more limited
palette of materials, based on the findings of the study, and work to the edge of
technology in developing building elements related to these. This way of
working can then be closely linked into the eco-systemic processes which
underlie any sustainable design endeavour that aims to harmonise with nature.
Keywords: materiality, sustainable resource use, construction materials,
ecology, tacit knowledge, place, architecture.
doi:10.2495/ARC060261
1 Introduction
“Which material should I use for this element of my building?”
It’s a common enough question that all architects ask themselves at some point
in the design process. The answer depends on how much awareness and
understanding there is of the various design parameters involved and the skill
and knowledge available to select and integrate the chosen material within a
coherent design proposition. A quick list of these parameters would include:
functionality, aesthetics, symbolic value, availability and cost. Due to the current
economic de-coupling of resource reserves from true environmental cost, a later
addition to this list is the self-conscious concept of sustainability, with its triple
bottom line of environmental, economic and social concerns.
Whatever our definition of sustainability is, it is often framed as a question of
freedom .v. limits. Traditionally, buildings and the use of construction materials
evolved slowly over time with subtle innovation that responded to needs and
limits. Contemporary design is synonymous with relatively limitless innovation,
often for its own sake, largely because capitalist economies need to both meet
and create needs. Architects are wary of sustainability with its imperatives and
apparent limitations, seeing this, still, only as a necessary appendage to their
design process rather than an integrated part of it (Ryhaug [1]). Architecture as a
discipline is therefore not leading the way on the reality of sustainable
specification but has largely retreated into the spectacle of visual and spatial
innovation with materials.
The evidence for the need to design more prudently with our existing physical
resources has never been more compelling. Demand for oil is predicted to
outstrip supply as early as 2008 according to some estimates. The loss of these
supplies will potentially remove many oil-based construction materials in a
relatively short space of time. It is also estimated that we will need to reduce
physical resource use through efficiency gains by a factor of twenty if the
construction lifecycle is to remain sustainable (Kasteren et al. [2]). Despite this,
mainstream research to date has largely failed to adequately address the need for
appropriate evaluation of sustainable construction, often producing inaccurate
generic “tick-box” type information on sustainable specification
(Stevenson et al. [3]). The use of a more people and place-centred approach is
explored in this paper. This is a new approach to sustainable specification which
may yet engage the designer and user alike.
2 Approaches to sustainable resource use

Despite the huge variety of cultural responses towards materials, construction
science has developed a remarkably homogeneous and global approach towards
sustainability (Guy and Shove [4]). The leading players in the field of generic
specification are the USA and Europe, using mechanisms such as the ISO
standards worldwide, and the Eurocodes in Europe which promote energy-
intensive construction materials and products, whose added economic value is
ironically reflected in the number of transport miles they can clock up. They are
supported by the deductive reasoning of Life Cycle Analysis, and Eco-labelling,
whose testing regimes can marginalise local and relatively unprocessed materials
(Morton and Little [5]).
By contrast, traditional cultural approaches to material specification are
predicated on a sense of living with the earth, drawing on sustainable living
traditions and practices which provide a vehicle for passing on local knowledge
through deeply held beliefs and the teaching of skills (Ingold [6]). A number of
ecological architects have picked up on this knowledge through working with
relatively natural materials in their own locality. Biodiversity, environment-
economy integration and participation are automatic considerations in this
holistic approach to sustainable specification.
The question is; which of these approaches is delivering on key sustainable
construction targets? Energy costs and material consumption in construction are
still rising on a per capita basis, despite efforts to reduce these (Kibert et al. [7]).
In fact, generic specification makes it harder to re-use materials and privileges
energy-intensive recycling processes. Although various scientific tools and
checklists for sustainable construction are produced worldwide, their impact on
the industrial world is negligible and for the rest of the world non-existent
(Kohler [8]). This suggests researchers should be looking at other ways of
evaluating sustainable construction materials which are more inclusive.
3 The architectural discourse on materiality

One way of re-evaluating the sustainable specification of construction materials
is to expand the parameters of consideration. Whereas construction science is
strictly concerned with the physical properties of matter, materiality in its widest
sense is the understanding of how meaning is attached to matter through our
experience of it. There are few texts which deal specifically with the cultural
interpretation of construction materials as they are used in buildings, and
virtually none that examine sustainable materiality. One reason for this might be
because the tacit nature of materiality is built on the repetition of successful
design efforts and becomes a matter of habit (Leatherbarrow [9]). Examples
include the unquestioned use of standard details and materials despite the
excessive resource depletion involved, and their thoughtless transfer between
differing climates and cultures.
Such texts on materiality that do exist, tend to debate the “truth” of materials,
but any physical truths are continually subverted in architecture through
aesthetics desires which are seen as superior, thus presenting a dichotomy
between common sense and visual representation. Within architecture, formal
gestures towards sustainable materiality often visually copy the ecological
processes involved, without really understanding them, and thus undermine their
intrinsic truthfulness. Even avowed environmentalists within architecture can be
prone to supporting a misrepresentation: “What is important is the fact of a
material’s presence, not its readability. Wood may be painted to look like
aluminium, but the deception is harmless” (Hagan [10]). It will be argued here,
that such architectural misrepresentation of physical truth to materials is not only

harmful, but can be a matter of ecological survival in terms of evaluation. The
continuing disjunction between how architects and researchers choose to
evaluate materials and how these are actually functioning within situated
environments undermines ordinary people’s understanding of those
environments and their respective eco-systems to the detriment of both.
4 Tacit knowledge and affordance: re-evaluating sustainable

construction
A key aspect of evaluating materials is people’s perception of them. Ecological
psychologists have developed Gibson’s theory of “affordance”, which claims
that the value and meaning of things in the environment can be directly
apprehended through the body’s interaction with the environment. It is the
persisting surfaces of the environment which provide the framework of reality. If
a surface is horizontal, it “affords” support and can therefore be stood upon.
Equally, a material’s affordances can be perceived in terms of strength, comfort
or protection. Stone offers strength through resistance; wool offers comfort
through warmth and softness. These affordances are neither purely objective nor
subjective –they are both, and cut across the usual subject-object divide in
evaluation. They do not change as the need of the observer changes –the
affordances are always there, waiting to be perceived, in materials that are not
value-free, but value-rich as ecological objects (Gibson [11]). We draw on this
wide variety of inherent affordances according to our needs; the “warmth” of
wood for the intimacy of a home interior can, for example, be contrasted with its
relative “solidity” in a door for protection.
An essential part of Gibson’s theory is that things must look like what they
actually are to provide appropriate information for perception. Things which
don’t look like what they are provide environmental misinformation for the
perceiver. This is because people do not simply perceive good form; what is seen
are different opportunities to act, such walking, sitting, resting, climbing,
moving, or using, according to Vihma [12]. When this is applied to the
evaluation of construction materials, it is clear that they should express
affordances unambiguously in order to ensure a good match between users’
needs and their understanding of their construction environment.
While ecological psychology argues that the inherent meaning and value of
materials are discovered or detected, constructivists suggest that individuals also
impose value judgements on materials based on their personal beliefs, which are
tested over time for validity. Critical theorists add to this brew, by pointing out
that these value judgements are then socially prescribed by society which
legitimates certain judgements and not others. Thus, even where certain materials
may provide greater affordance for satisfying our needs, the construction
industry will continue to be able legitimise unsustainable substitutes as more
“normal” given the social requirements of capitalist reproduction. An example is
the substitution of natural wooden panelling with laminated wooden panelling
which pretends to be wooden but this is only as deep as the photographed image
of the wood on its surface. The glued laminate is also difficult to re-use, recycle
and is non-biodegradable. This is now legitimised as normal “wood” type
flooring.
It would seem then, that while materials offer certain natural meanings and
values, we also select what meanings and values to ascribe to them as a result of
our learning experiences and internalised normative processes. Some of these
influences are more tacit and others more explicit. Tacit knowledge of
construction materials is a personal appraisal based on an inarticulate set of
pre-suppositions that have been assimilated subconsciously over a lifetime from
various sources, including bodily experience, cultural normalisation and social
experience, according to need. These form an immense and subtle understanding
which we innately know how to draw on, comply with, and live by, without
specifiably knowing its content (Polanyi [13]). Arguably, any understanding and
accreditation of construction materiality, should therefore be coincident with the
particular tacit rules shared by the community of any particular place. This
notion was explored in a recent qualitative case study by Stevenson [14].
5 The case study: a people-centred approach to sustainable

materiality
The study considered two culturally distinct groups of people to see what role
place had in their understanding of materiality. The participants consisted of
twenty local residents who had grown up in a culturally and physically
homogenous region of NE Scotland, and a control group of twenty new residents
who had grown up in a range of other countries. They were interviewed in depth
using a technique called The Repertory Grid [15] which revealed their various
beliefs, or “constructs”, concerning various construction materials. Construing,
as opposed to conceptualising, is essentially a dynamic search for personal
understanding evolved through recognising similarities and differences in our
experiences, which are then stored as assumptions. A combination of Content
Analysis and Principle Component Analysis was then used to analyse the results
and identify the key themes. Nine common construction materials were
examined using deliberate mix of traditional and new as well as reflecting
different degrees of processing from raw resources: wood, stone, concrete, steel,
glass, clay brick, plastic, gypsum plaster and mud.
The key findings of the study were that each group differed significantly in
the way that they construed construction materials, suggesting that geographic
location plays a key role in determining people’s attitudes to materials. Stone
was generally the material of choice for the Scottish group, reflecting its
prevalence in their locality, but this was not the case for the control group.
Emotional feelings were used as the primary means of evaluation overall,
followed by construction function and purpose and whether a material was more
or less processed. Interestingly, the Scottish group appeared more concerned
with construction function and purpose, including durability, compared to the
control group.
There were also significant gender differences, with women appearing more
concerned than men with the social aspects of materials, including the
homeliness, warmth and comfort offered. Additionally, men related more to the
qualities of strength in a material, whereas women focussed on its “naturalness”
related to the degree of processing and sourcing from relatively natural
environments. There was an overwhelming preference in both groups for wood,
stone and glass, and a distinct antipathy towards concrete, plaster, mud and
plastic. Women, rather than men, related to glass as a “social” material, because
of its ability to provide visual connection. Individuals also demonstrated a
surprisingly sophisticated approach to evaluating materials using a wide range of
criteria and showing significant discrimination. Their occupation also influenced
the way in which they appraised materials, with those involved in craft and
design occupations, rather than administrative ones, tending to relate to the
materials in terms of what they could physically do with them.
For both groups, the appraisal of materials was primarily in terms of
subsistence, protection, identity and understanding their function. Virtually no
mention was made of energy efficiency or waste minimisation which suggests
that there is a poor connection between people’s ways of evaluating construction
materials and the way that the literature on sustainable construction
conventionally evaluates these materials. This does not necessarily mean that
people are unaware of these issues, given that they are at the forefront of
government publicity campaigns, but that they relate to materials more tacitly
and holistically on both a physical and metaphysical level. This finding presents
a fundamental challenge: how can the technical discourse on sustainable
construction resource use and materials meaningfully re-engage with issues of
locality and culture?
6 Materials with a sense of place means materials with

meaning
When individuals were asked about how their personal evaluations of
construction materials might best be promoted, several clear themes emerged.
These suggest a new way forward for the discourse on sustainable construction
resource use drawing on the relationship between people, materials and place.
Firstly, although 70% of all participants grew up in cities, there was a consistent
reference to the more natural environment of the region in which they had lived,
and the importance of understanding this in relation to the materials that
“belonged” there. Through their childhood upbringing, they had a special bond
with the relatively unprocessed materials associated with the more natural
environment of the region and a deep understanding of how these should be used
in relation to both climate and associated cultural traditions. There was also an
understanding that the local knowledge which embeds the use of materials in
their place of origin, through a deep understanding of local climate and topology,
must be handed on from person to person over time rather than reproduced in
abstract books. This tacit knowledge is arguably activated and developed through
people’s changing needs over time interacting with natural affordances.
The desire for a sense of identity and understanding in relation to construction

materials was again related to a sense of place, often with clear references to the
particular way in which materials were used in a given place through local
construction techniques and local crafts. Place therefore provides a profound
sense of orientation through repetition, familiarity, experience and attachment
and the materials found in place are a part of this. This bioregional approach to
materiality, which includes local cultural, social and economic as well as
physical and geographic dimensions is seen by Cooper [16] and others as
perhaps the most complete way of approaching genuinely sustainable
construction. It is a fundamentally empowering process for the users and
developers of local buildings, because it creates a virtuous circle of local
economic development through the use of local resources in local environments,
thus keeping people orientated and in touch with an understandable local
identity.
7 The emotional design of resource use in place

A second theme relates to the emotional attachment that people in the study
expressed towards certain construction materials. Gibson’s theory of affordance
suggests that our ability to survive is directly related to our evolutionary
perception of what an environment physically offers to us. In terms of
construction materials, we appear to relate to them in terms of how they can meet
our personal needs, rather than thinking of them in remote or generic
industrialised terms.
This attachment to materials and their use within a building has consequences
for sustainable construction. As Kasteren [17] points out, “A beloved building
probably requires less maintenance, because the people who work there (or live
in the vicinity) become attached to the building and thus treat it with more
respect”. Architects can therefore potentially reduce contracted maintenance
costs by drawing on the free care provided by people who will look after, and
take pride in, local materials used in the building. This emotional endearment of
construction materials is a new factor to take into consideration when trying to
evaluate them in terms of their inherent sustainability. It is a relational way of
considering construction materials that is unfamiliar territory for building
scientists but not for architects. What is new for many architects is the idea of
harnessing the emotional meaning of materials to sustainable resource use.
It is arguable that sustainable construction is ensured by referring to the users
themselves, the needs that they have and the specific and local manner in which
they believe these are satisfied. In effect, this means re-framing of architecture as
the emotional design of resource use in place rather than the design of space
using construction resources, which is how it is predominantly conceived. This
consideration of place and user in relation to resource use is now considered in
relation to developing work in the fields of ecology and anthropology, which
have further consequences for the sustainable specification of construction
materials.
8 Cultural eco-systems and construction materials

The combination of systems theory and ecology has, over the years, provided a
firm platform for the scientific development of sustainable construction resource
use which has led to the emerging field of construction ecology. More recent
developments in eco-system theory include work by Kay [18] and others on the
ability of ecological organisms to develop through emerging properties in a
system that attempts to re-establish equilibrium in the face of change. This has
been termed SOHO (self organising hierarchical open) systems. Importantly, it
suggests that within eco-systems, new knowledge emerges from the bottom up,
rather than being imposed from the top down, even though it is then ordered by
higher systems.
At the same time Ingold’s [19] anthropological investigation into different
human cultures and their interaction with their local environment draws on
Gibsonian ecological psychology to suggest that the division between ecology
and culture is an artificial divide. He argues that: “those specific ways of acting,
perceiving and knowing that we…call cultural, are enfolded in the course of
ontogenetic development, into the constitution of the human organism” and
claims that cultural differences are not added on to a substrate of biological
universals; rather they are themselves biological.
When we combine Kay’s notion of SOHO systems with Ingold’s definition of
human cultures as an integral part of these eco-systems, a very powerful
proposition emerges in relation to the findings of the case study considered here.
We can effectively re-frame the user’s local tacit knowledge of place, processes,
culture and materials as essential and integrated ecological feedback for the
design and specification of construction resources. Furthermore, this feedback
and the new knowledge it provides, emerges from specific “bottom up” local
situations, rather than from “top down” generic guidance that attempts to
eradicate cultural differences towards materials. At present, bioregional guidance
on construction resource specification, offers the most compatible approach
through its fundamental recognition of the indivisibility of cultural difference
and ecology.
9 Natural materiality: taking technology to the limit

A final theme to emerge from the findings concerns the nature of the materials
themselves. The more natural and relatively unprocessed materials, which
participants were familiar with and attached to, carried a higher emotional
endearment value than more processed and composite materials such as concrete,
steel and plastic which were difficult for them to place. In their overall
preference for stone and wood, as raw and local materials with relatively low
embodied energy, it would appear that participants tacitly recognised that the
more processing a raw material undergoes, the greater it’s potential for toxicity
(Genoni and Montague [20]). At the same time the findings suggest that people
will “trade off” different materials for different purposes, so that the more
processed materials are recognised for the contributions they can make in terms
of their specific properties.
Given the importance of emotional endearment in sustainable construction
resource use, a challenge for the industry is to try and utilise raw materials with
the minimum of processing while maximising their potential. This will help
“close the loop” between user and specifier and contribute towards buildings that
are more self-sustaining. As Norman [21] points out, the imposition of
constraints can actually improve the efficiency of design. Thus, rather than
continually expanding the variety of construction materials available with ever
increasing overall energy costs, designers and manufacturers should concentrate
on utilising the properties of raw materials as close to their original elemental
state and geographical origin as possible. This implies focusing on a more
limited palette of materials but working to the edge of technology in developing
building elements related to these.
10 Conclusion
By re-framing the debate on sustainable construction resources in terms of
people’s relationships with construction materials, the findings of the case study
presented here suggest a number of new themes in the discourse which deserve
further investigation. These themes draw on affordance, tacit knowing and
attachment as important means of evaluating the wider sustainability of
construction resources beyond the current physical criteria used in tools such as
LCA and ecolabelling. This can arguably best be achieved by architects and
researchers considering cultural difference as an integral part of eco-systems, and
removing the present dichotomy between cultural investigations of materiality in
architecture and physical investigations in building science.
The importance and particularity of place, as an ecological/cultural context
for evaluating materials is re-asserted here through the findings and a bioregional
approach to materiality is suggested as offering the best way forward at present,
because it addresses this joint context. True sustainability is thus based on a
deeply situated knowledge of materiality, rather than a simple physical efficiency
of resource use, which stays as close to the origins of materials as possible.
References
[1] Ryhaug, M., Policing Sustainability: Strategies Towards a Sustainable
Architecture in Norway. Sustainable Architectures: Cultures and Natures
in Europe and North America, ed. Guy, S. & Moore, S.A., Spon Press:
Abingdon and New York, pp. 145-161, 2005.
[2] Kasteren, J.V., Croes, H., Dewever, M. & Hass, M., Buildings That Last,
NAi Uitgevers: Rotterdam, p.8, 2002.
[3] Stevenson, F., Jones, M., & Macrae, J., Mapping Building Materials and
Products in Remote Areas: Sustainable Supply Chains and the Specifier.
Built Environment, 28 (1), pp.33-45, 2002.
[4] Guy, S., & Shove, E., The Sociology of Energy, Buildings and
Environment: Constructing Knowledge and Design Practice, Routledge:
London, 2000.
[5] Morton, T., & Little, Building with Earth in Scotland: Innovative Design
and Sustainability, Scottish Executive Central Research Unit: Edinburgh,
p.42, 2001.
[6] Ingold, T., The Perception of the Environment: Essays on Livelihood,
Dwelling and Skill, Routledge: London and New York, p.5, 2000.
[7] Kibert, C., Senddzmir, J., & Guy, G.B., ed.. Construction Ecology: Nature
as the Basis for Green Buildings, Spon Press: London and New York,
p.15, 2002.
[8] Kohler, N., Cultural Issues for a Sustainable Built Environment.
Buildings, Culture and Environment: Informing Local and Global
Practices, ed. Cole, R., & Lorch, R., Blackwell: Oxford, pp.83-108, 2003.
[9] Leatherbarrow, D., The Roots of Architectural Invention: Site, Enclosure,
Materials, Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, p.149, 1993
[10] Hagan, S., Taking Shape: A New Contract Between Architecture and
Nature, Architectural Press: Oxford, p.93, 2001.
[11] Gibson, J., The Ecological Approach to Visual Perception, Houghton
Mifflin Company: Boston, pp.129-140,1979.
[12] Vihma, S., Products as Representations: A Semiotic and Aesthetic Study
of Design Products, University of Art and Design Helsinki: Helsinki, pp.
49, 1995.
[13] Polanyi, M., Personal Knowledge: Towards a Post-Critical Philosophy,
Routledge Keagan & Paul, London, p.62, 1983.
[14] Stevenson, F., Materiality: People, Place and Sustainable Resource Use
in Architecture, unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Dundee: Dundee,
2005.
[15] Fransella, F., Bell, R., & Bannister, D., A Manual for Repertory Grid
Technique: Second Edition, John Wiley and Sons Ltd: Chichester, 2004.
[16] Cooper, I., What is the Problem? Buildings, Culture and Environment:
Informing Local and Global Practices, ed. Cole, R., & Lorch, R.,
Blackwell: Oxford, pp.109-124, 2003.
[17] Karsten, J.V., Croes, H., Dewever, M. & Hass, M., Buildings That Last,
NAi Uitgevers: Rotterdam, p.124, 2002.
[18] Kay, J.J., On Complexity Theory, Exergy and Industrial Ecology.
Construction Ecology: Nature as the Basis for Green Buildings, ed.
Kibert, C., Senddzmir, J., & Guy, G.B., Spon Press: London and New
York, p.72-107, 2002.
[19] Ingold, T., Culture and Human Nature: An Obituary Notice. Online.
www.abdn.ac.uk/chags9/1Ingold.htm.
[20] Genoni, G.P., & Montague, C.L., Influences of the Energy Relationships
of Trophic Levels and of Elements on Bioaccumulation. Ecotoxicology
and Environmental Safety, 30, pp.203-218, 1995.
[21] Norman, D.A., The Design of Everyday Things, MIT Press: London,
pp.60-62, 1998.
Environmental impact of materials

used in technical equipments:
an overview on different methods
L. Marletta, G. Evola & F. Sicurella
Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Catania, Italy
Abstract
In this paper the environmental impact of the most important materials used for
the production of technical equipments in buildings is assessed. The analysis is
performed according to Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) methodology. The LCA
of a product is conducted by compiling an inventory of relevant inputs and
outputs, and by evaluating the potential environmental impact associated with
them. In the evaluation phase different impact categories are defined;
normalisation and weighting are also performed to obtain a single score. All
these phases, except inventory, can be carried out in different ways, according to
different impact assessment methodologies (LCIA). For this reason, it is useful
to compare the results provided by some of the most used methods, namely
Eco-indicator 99 and EPS 2000, in order to understand how the assessment can
be influenced by the choice of the methodology. In addition, three different
cultural perspectives (Egalitarian, Hierarchist, Individualist) are considered when
using the Eco-indicator 99 method, since this choice influences calculation and
weighting processes. In conclusion, this study will provide an environmental
ranking of the most important materials used in technical equipments of
buildings, according to different methods and calculation hypotheses. The results
will be useful for future analyses concerning the impact of technological systems
in buildings.
Keywords: life cycle assessment, embodied energy, materials, methods.
1 Introduction
Achieving sustainable development is fundamental if environment has to be
preserved for future generations. To this aim, tools have been developed to
doi:10.2495/ARC060271
measure the potential environmental impact of products or services. One of the

most popular tools is Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), a multi-disciplinary and
systematic procedure which, according to SETAC, represents “a process to
evaluate the environmental burdens associated with a product, process or
activity, by identifying and quantifying energy and materials used and wastes
released to the environment […]. The assessment includes the entire life cycle of
a product, from the extraction of the raw materials to the final disposal” [1].
Another parameter useful in environmental analysis is the Embodied Energy,
defined as the overall energy demand, valued as primary energy, which arises
from the production, use and disposal of a product or service. Table 1 shows the
Embodied Energy (EE) associated with the main materials used in technical
equipments in buildings.
Table 1: Embodied Energy (EE, MJ/kg) in technical equipments of

buildings.
MATERIAL EE Ref MATERIAL EE Ref

Steel 26,7 [2] PVC 77,2 [2]
Plastics
Ferrous Stainless St. 79,9 [2] HDPE 64,9 [2]
Cast Iron 60 [2] Glass wool 31,3 [3]
Non Copper 72,9 [2] Insulat. Rock wool 15,7 [2]
ferrous Aluminium 164 [2] Polyureth. 99,8 *
*: average data for European factories.
2 How to perform the Life Cycle Assessment

According to the ISO 14040 series [4], an LCA consists of four steps:
1. Goal and scope definition [5]: the goal and the object of the analysis are
defined in terms of functional unit, as well as the system boundaries.
2. Inventory analysis [5]: data are collected concerning the relevant inputs
(raw materials and energy consumption) and outputs (emissions and
wastes) related to production, use and disposal of the functional unit.
3. Impact assessment [6]: the environmental impact due to inputs and outputs
from the inventory analysis is evaluated.
4. Interpretation [7]: the results of the impact assessment are analysed, and
possible improvements are identified
When performing the impact assessment, different methods are available, all
of which are based on the definition of a number of impact categories, such as
climate change, land use, resources consumption and effects on human health.
The quantification of the effects on each impact category is performed by means
of impact indicators, whose evaluation needs two different steps [8]:
1. Classification: every emission or resource resulting from the inventory

analysis is associated with one or more impact categories.
2. Characterization: mathematical and/or empirical models, taken from

physics, natural science or economics, are used to evaluate the contribution
of every emission to the impact categories. As an example, if the Global
Warming Potential (GWP) is chosen as the indicator for the category
“Climate Change”, the value of GWP for every gas released to the
atmosphere will be determined.
Apart from classification and characterization, other optional steps can be

performed, such as normalization, grouping and weighting. Normalization is
carried out by dividing every impact indicator by a reference value; this
operation makes impact indicators dimensionless, thus allowing comparisons
between different impact categories. Grouping involves sorting and ranking
results across the impact categories, and may result in a limited number of
damage categories. On the other hand, weighting means combining different
impact or damage categories into a single score or index; numerical factors are
used as weights, according to the importance attributed to every different impact.
Due to the subjectivity of the weighting factors, ISO 14042 recommends not to
use weighted results for public.
Table 2: Categories and indicators defined in the Eco-indicator 99 method.
Damage Category Impact Category Abbr. Impact Indicator

Carcinogenesis Ca. DALY
Respiratory effects R.I. DALY
Human Health Ioniz. Radiation I.R. DALY
Ozone layer depletion Oz. DALY
Climate change C.C. DALY
Ecotoxicity Ec. PDF · m2 · yr
Ecosystem Quality Acidificat. / Eutrophicat. A.E. PAF · m2 · yr
Land use L.U. PDF · m2 · yr
Minerals Mi. MJ surplus
Resources
Fossil fuels F.F. MJ surplus
3 The Eco-indicator 99 method

In the Eco-indicator 99 method, ten impact categories are defined, belonging to
three damage categories, as shown in Table 2. Impact indicators are defined as
follows:
− Human health: The impact is measured in DALYs (Disability adjusted life

years), to quantify disabilities and diseases caused by emissions to natural
− Ecosystem quality: The impact is measured through the Potentially

environment.
Disappeared Fraction (PDF) of plants and species; for Acidification and

Eutrophication the Potentially Affected Fraction (PAF) is used.
− Resources: the impact on resource depletion is evaluated through MJ surplus,

which is the amount of additional energy future generations will spend to
extract resources, due to their lower concentration.
Normalisation is based on the present overall impact measured within Europe.

As far as weighting is concerned, three cultural perspectives are considered,
which reflect different and well-defined attitudes towards environmental issues.
Table 3 reports the weighting factors for each cultural perspective, together with
a fourth “average” weighting set determined through a panel procedure. In the
following the average weighting set will be adopted.
Table 3: Weighting factors associated with different weighting sets.
Egalitarian Hierarchist Individualist Average

Human Health 0,5 0,4 0,25 0,4
Ecosystem quality 0,3 0,3 0,55 0,4
Resources 0,2 0,3 0,2 0,2
It must be underlined that the adoption of the cultural perspective influences

characterization as well as weighting. This means that, even if we use the same
average set for weighting, three different results may be obtained. Further
information concerning cultural perspectives can be found in [9].
Figure 1 shows the final score for materials used in technical equipments
according to Hierarchist and Individualist perspective. The functional unit (FU)
corresponds to one kilogram of material; no disposal scenario has been
considered (cradle-to-gate analysis). Egalitarian perspective has not been
represented, as the difference with Hierarchist perspective is not relevant.
Moreover, the contribution of every damage category to the final score is
highlighted; the percentage distribution into impact categories is shown in Figure
2 for the most outstanding cases (contributions lower than 0.5% are not shown).
HH EQ Re HH EQ Re
1,50 1,50
5 ,6 3,1 49,4
1,25 1,25
1,00 1,00
0,75 0,75
0,50 0,50
0,25 0,25
0,00 0,00
PUR
Glass
Cu
Rock
Steel
steel
Al
HDPE
Cast
PU R
Steel
steel
Al
PVC
Glass
Rock
Cu
Cast
HDPE
PVC
St.
Fe
St.
Fe
w.
w.
w.
w.
Ferrous No ferrous Plastics Insulating Ferrous No ferrous Plastics Insulating
Figure 1: Eco-indicator 99 scores (Pt/kg) for Hierarch. (left) and Individ.

(right).
Under the Hierarchist perspective, copper is the most impactive material

(1.4 Pt/kg, see Figure 1). Most of its environmental impact is related to the
category “Resources”. A clarification of this point may be provided by Figure 2;

here it is shown that the main contribution (62.4%) comes from the impact
category “Minerals”. Studies concerning the concentration of minerals in the
earth crust have shown that copper concentration will lower at a rate faster than
other materials, yielding concern about its extraction. Aluminium, which shows
an Embodied Energy almost twice as bigger as copper (see Table 1), presents a
lower score (0.76 Pt/kg); once again, the difference is mainly attributable to
“Minerals”, due to the lower scarcity of bauxite in a world-wide perspective.
F.F. Ca. R.I.

Copper 2,4% 41,1% Aluminium
12,3%
R.I.
15,7%
C.C.
Ca. 9,5%
C.C. 3,0%
Ec.
2,1%
Ec. 2,1%
3,1%
A. E.
A. E. 1,8%
1,0%
Mi. F.F. L.U.
62,4% L.U. Mi. 2,2%
33,9%
0,8% 6,0%
C.C. C.C.
Stainless Steel Ec. Ec. Steel
3,7% 13,5%
4,7% A. E. 18,7%
3,6%
L.U. R.I. A. E.
0,8% 20,8% 2,1%
L.U.
Mi. 2,4%
9,5% Mi.
2,0%
R.I. F.F.
14,7% Ca.
61,1% 11,1% F.F.
Ca.
29,1%
1,6%
Ca. Ca.
HDPE PVC 4,2%
0,9%
R.I.
14,8% R.I.
19,0%
C.C. F.F.
4,3% 60,3%
Ec. C.C.
F.F. 2,3% 5,9%
75,2% A. E. Oz.
1,2% 4,0%
L.U. Ec.
0,5% L.U. A. E. 2,1%
2,1% 1,6%
Figure 2: Percentage distribution into impact categories (abbreviations in

Table 2).
Stainless steel is the material with the highest impact on Human Health; it is
interesting to notice (Table 4) how emissions from stainless steel production are
lower than those coming from aluminium production, apart from carbon
monoxide and sulphur oxides.
Table 4: Main emissions to air associated with the Functional Unit.
NOx (g) CO2 (kg) CO (g) SOx (g) CH4 (g)

Stainless steel 10,1 5,3 28,5 342 15,7
Aluminium 19,8 10 3,8 58 22,4
Copper 8 5,2 2 136 10,2
The environmental impact of stainless steel is far higher than steel (0.89 Pt/kg
and 0.08 Pt/kg, respectively), due to the use of additional chemicals, mainly
Nickel and Chrome, for its production.
As far as plastic materials are concerned, High Density Polyethylene (HDPE)
and Polyvinylchloride (PVC) show close scores (0.32 Pt/kg and 0.28 Pt/kg,
respectively); even the percentage distribution presented in Figure 2 is similar.
Unlike ferrous and non-ferrous materials, the impact of PVC and HDPE on the
category “Minerals” is negligible, as these materials are not extracted from earth
but produced from chemicals through industrial processes.
Polyurethane (PUR) is by far the most impactive insulating material (0.4
Pt/kg); rock wool (0.06 Pt/kg) is more environmentally friendly than glass wool
(0.12 Pt/kg). As well as with plastics, the impact due to the use of minerals is
negligible for insulating materials.
The least affected damage category is “Ecosystem quality”, whose
contribution is higher than 20% only for steel.
If Individualist perspective is now considered, the most outstanding result is
that the scores for copper, aluminium and stainless steel are far higher than those
provided by Hierarchist perspective. Copper now shows an impact which is two
orders of magnitude higher than all the other materials (49.4 Pt/kg), with the
exception of aluminium and stainless steel, whose impact is “only” ten times
lower (3.1 Pt/kg and 5.6 Pt/kg, respectively). On the contrary, the score of plastic
and insulating materials is lower. In order to understand this considerable
difference, some details must be given about Individualist perspective. The main
point is that Individualists do not consider depletion of fossil fuels a real
problem, as the long time perspective is not relevant for them; they do not care
about consequences which will affect future generations. The consequences of
this assumption are manifold:
- There is no impact in the category “Fossil Fuels”; this is the reason why
all of the materials with an important contribution coming from this
impact category (Plastics, Insulating) show a drop in their score.
- The normalisation factor for the damage category “Resources”, which is
the overall impact within Europe, also decreases when evaluated through
Individualist perspective. This leads to the increase of the contribution
within the remaining impact category, namely “Materials”.
Due to such relevant issues, Hierarchist perspective appears to be more

balanced than Individualist perspective. Even the authors of the Eco-indicator 99
method suggest that Hierarchist perspective should be used as the default one,
whereas Individualist may be useful for robustness and sensitivity analysis.
4 The EPS 2000 method

In the EPS 2000 method, twelve impact categories are defined, belonging to four
damage categories, as shown in Table 5. Compared to the Eco-indicator 99
method, there is one more damage category, namely “Biodiversity”, while the
other categories are similar. Normalisation is not performed, while weighting is
carried out by assessing the Willingness-to-pay (WTP), which is the amount of
money people would pay to avoid environmental damages, from health diseases
to disappearing of species. The monetary unit is named ELU. The final score is
thus obtained by multiplying every impact indicator by the corresponding WTP,
and is measured in ELU [10], [11].
Table 5: Categories and indicators defined in the Eco-indicator 99 method.
Damage
Impact Category Impact Indicator Unit
Category
Life Expectancy Person-years
Severe morbidity Person-years
Human Health Morbidity Person-years
Severe Nuisance Person-years
Nuisance Person-years
Crop Growth Capacity kg
Ecosystem Wood Growth Capacity kg
Production Fish and Meat Production kg
Capacity Soil Acidification H+ eq
Production Capacity for Water kg
Abiotic Stock
Depletion of reserves ELU/kg
Resources
Biodiversity Species extinction ---
As shown in Figure 3, only “Human Health” and “Abiotic Stock Resources”

provide important contributions to the overall environmental impact. Copper is
once again the most impactive material (210 ELU/kg), and its impact is mainly
due to the depletion of abiotic resources (99.4%), that is to say minerals and
fossil fuels (Figure 4). Aluminium production turns out to be the most dangerous
for human health, but stainless steel production is on the whole more impactive
than aluminium, due to the high contribution of the category Resources. It should
be noted that, according to EPS 2000 method, the weights attributed to extraction
of copper, nickel and chrome is far higher than those associated with other
metals, which explains the high score of stainless steel and copper.
HH EPC ASR Bio
10
39 210
8
0
Steel St. Cast Al Cu HDPE PVC Glass Rock PUR
steel Iron w. w.
Ferrous materials Non ferrous Plastics Insulating
Figure 3: Environmental impact according to EPS 2000 method (ELU/kg).
Severe
Copper Aluminium
Morb.
15,3%
Morbidity
1,2%
Life
Life Expect. Nuisance
Expect. 53,5% 0,6%
0,4%
Depl. of
Reserves
99,4%
Depl. of
Reserves
28,8%
Severe Steel
Stainless steel
Nuis.
Morbidity
1,3%
0,8%
Severe
Nuisance Morb.
0,6% 4,1%
Life
Expect. Depl. of Life
5,4% Reserves Expect.
93,5% 16,2%
Depl. of
Reserves
77,0%
Figure 4: Percentage distribution into impact categories.
The difference between copper and all the other materials, with the exception
of aluminium, is even more evident than when using Eco-indicator 99 with
Individualist perspective. As far as plastic materials are concerned, HDPE is
more impactive than PVC (2.9 ELU/kg and 2.1 ELU/kg, respectively).
Polyurethane (PUR) is once again the most impactive insulating material
(2.4 ELU/kg), followed by glass wool (0.6 ELU/kg) and rock wool
(0.4 ELU/kg).
5 Conclusions
As shown in the previous sections, the potential environmental impact associated
with the production and the use of a product or process may be evaluated
according to different methodologies. Most of them follow the Life Cycle
Assessment approach, but differ from each other because they adopt different
impact categories and characterization is based on different models. On the other
hand, a narrower perspective is adopted when using Embodied Energy, as it only
takes into account the consumption of primary energy, while the effects of
emissions on human health and ecosystem quality are not considered.
Table 6 shows how the environmental assessment may be influenced by the
choice of the methodology; the materials considered in this paper are sorted
according to their environmental impact, from the highest to the lowest one.
Table 6: Environmental ranking according to different methodologies.
Eco 99 EPS 2000 EE

Materials Materials Materials
(Pt/kg) (ELU/kg) (MJ/kg)
Copper 1,40 Copper 210,2 Aluminium 164
St. steel 0,89 St. steel 38,9 PUR 99,8
Aluminium 0,76 Aluminium 8,0 St. steel 79,9
PUR 0,40 Cast Iron 2,9 HDPE 77,2
HDPE 0,32 HDPE 2,9 Copper 72,9
PVC 0,28 PUR 2,4 PVC 64,9
Cast Iron 0,22 PVC 2,1 Cast Iron 60
Glass wool 0,12 Steel 1,7 Glass wool 31,3
Steel 0,08 Glass wool 0,6 Steel 26,7
Rock wool 0,06 Rock wool 0,4 Rock wool 15,7
When using the methodologies following Life Cycle Assessment, slight

differences can be found. The overall impression is the same, and only cast iron
shows an important variation in its ranking, becoming the fourth most impactive
material according to EPS 2000 method. Furthermore, inside every category of
materials (Ferrous metals, Non-ferrous metals, Plastics, Insulating) the ranking is
not altered, suggesting Stainless Steel, Copper, HDPE and PUR as the most
impactive materials, respectively. However, even if the ranking is only slightly
modified, the distance between the scores undergoes relevant changes: in EPS
2000, the Functional Unit for Copper and Stainless Steel present a score which is
orders of magnitude higher than that of all the other materials. This will yield
outstanding effects if products made up of several kilograms of different
materials are to be compared.
Different results are provided by Embodied Energy, as Aluminium and PUR
turns out to be the materials with the highest primary energy consumption;
according to this approach, Copper is not the most impactive material. PUR and
HDPE still represent the worst options for insulating materials and plastics,
respectively.
According to the results of the present study, the use of different

methodologies to evaluate the potential environmental impact of products may
influence the final results of the analysis. However, a clear environmental
ranking of the materials used in technical equipments in buildings emerges.
References
[1] Guidelines for Life Cycle Assessment: a Code of Practice. Society for
Environmental Toxicology, SETAC, Brussels, 1993.
[2] ETH-ESU: “Ökoinventare von Energiesystemen“, Zürich 1996
[3] Loos B., De produktie van glas, glasvezel en glaswol, 1992.
[4] ISO 14040. Environmental management – life cycle assessment –
principles and framework. Geneva, Switzerland: International Standard
Organization (ISO), 1997.
[5] ISO 14041. Environmental management – life cycle assessment – goal
and scope definition and inventory analysis. Geneva, Switzerland:
International Standard Organization (ISO), 1997.
[6] ISO 14042. Environmental management – life cycle assessment – life
cycle impact assessment. Geneva, Switzerland: International Standard
cycle interpretation. Geneva, Switzerland: International Standard
[8] Pennington, D.W., Potting., J. et al., Life Cycle Assessment Part 2:
Current impact assessment practice, Environment International 30,
pp.721-739, 2004.
[9] Goedkoop M., Spriensma R. The Eco-indicator 99. A damage oriented
method for life cycle assessment. Methodology report. Amersfoort,
Netherlands, Prè Consultants, 2001.
[10] Steen B., A systematic approach to environmental priority strategy in
product development (EPS). Version 2000 – General system
characteristic. Chalmers University of Technology, 1999.
[11] Steen B., A systematic approach to environmental priority strategy in
product development (EPS). Version 2000 – Models and data of the
default method. Chalmers University of Technology, 1999.
Designing for longevity

V. Straka
Department of Architectural Science, Ryerson University,
Toronto, Canada
Abstract
The design stage of a building project is very important. Design impacts the site,
physical massing, material selection, potential reuse, and energy performance.
This paper addresses issues of durability of building systems in relationship to
the life of a building. The spatial planning and systems selection during the
design stage, with particular focus on the sustainability and life cycle of systems
and materials, are essential to the potential to prolong the building’s and its
components life by adaptive reuse or by dismantling for reuse at other location
or component reuse.
Most buildings are designed by current codes to last 30 to 100 years at most.
This means that a building built today will consume energy and resources for the
replacement of its components and for its maintenance for at least the same time
span. If no action is taken today, then our environment is at risk during this entire
period, if not longer. It is very important to consider the impact on future
generations of what is being done today. Considerations of life cycle evaluation
and costing over the entire life of the building are the only reasonable way to
evaluate a project. As the refurbishment of buildings has potentially the least
environmental impact, it is important to consider the implications of designing at
least some elements, notably the structure, to provide flexibility and potential for
alternative use.
Keywords: design life, sustainability, cradle to grave, life cycle assessment,
durability, adaptive reuse, component reuse.
1 Introduction
Over the past decade, severe weather conditions, such as hurricanes, tornados,
storms, heavy rains, and unusual seasonal variations in temperatures have been
increasing in number and intensity all over the world. A northern community in
doi:10.2495/ARC060281
Alberta which relies on a winter road for transportation of all supply was, in
2006, for the first time completely cut off. Due to mild temperatures, the earth
had not frozen. Frequent news from the Arctic over the last few years confirms
that the ice is melting and cracking and permafrost is thawing, endangering the
life of many communities. Even people who thought in the 1990s that the notion
of “global warming” was just a scare tactic by environmentalists are slowly
accepting that something is happening. Climate change is not a bad dream but a
reality. Scientists have also become united on this issue as all global weather
models predict occurrences of significant changes, with the most impacted areas
being the Artic and Antarctica. The rise in greenhouse gas concentrations are the
result of all our activities on this planet, from the food we eat, to the work we do,
to the comfort we take for granted in our lives and leisure activities. Canada
made a commitment to Kyoto agreement by reducing its greenhouse gas
emissions by 6% based on 1990 level by 2010 but, in reality, emissions have
been increasing by 1.5% per year since 1990. Currently, greenhouse emissions
stand +20 % over the Kyoto target.
Approximately 40% of Canada’s annual national resource expenditure is
consumed by the construction industry CaGBC [1]. The proportion is even larger
for non-energy non-renewable minerals. In Canada, construction and demolition
waste equals about 35% of the total waste stream in Canada CCA [2]
representing 11mega tonnes in weight. This paper will look into possible
improvements in which designers can improve the bleak statistics of construction
industry.
2 The design life of a building

Buildings are designed to last a certain number of years, usually as specified by
codes which primarily focus on design loads. Environmental loads (snow, rain,
wind, seismic) are recorded on a regular basis, some even constantly, and these
measurements are statistically processed to determine the design (specified)
loads with a known probability of being exceeded in any one year NRC [3].
There are three types of structures. Temporary structures are usually in place for
less than a year. Regular structures include commercial and industrial structures.
In Canada, these are designed for loads with a 1 in 30 probability of being
exceeded in any one year and with an expected life span of 50 years. Housing is
also included as a regular structure and is expected to last 30 years. The third
structural type includes important buildings such as government buildings,
hospitals, and schools. These are designed for environmental loads
corresponding to a probability 1 in 100. However, this does not mean that they
are designed to be in service for 100 years.
When considering the design life of a building, it is important to distinguish
between its potential life and its useful life, the latter meaning that the building
serves the same purpose as it was designed for. When a building is designed to
fulfil a particular owner’s needs, future needs are usually taken into
consideration, but these hardly ever exceed 10 years. It is hard to predict what
will happen even in five years. Our business practices have changed and will
continue to evolve as technology advances. Today, business can be operated

from home, product support inquiry from a Canadian customer can be rooted
without any problem to India, and, as a result of globalization, manufacturing
operations are moved to places where the labour force is cheap. Other examples
over the past decade include the drastic change in sizes of mainframe computers
and the way data and information is stored. It appears that current trends demand
fewer people in the office, smaller space, and less storage. There are many
changing and unpredictable parameters and this is possibly why codes remain
concerned with loads only.
On the other hand, the document Guidelines on Durability in Buildings CSA
[4] addresses design issues related to the creation of durable buildings. The
selection of building components to comply with design requirements determines
their service life and impacts overall durability of a building. The Guidelines are
very important as they try to rationalize criteria for determination of durability
and as they recognize the importance of appropriate maintenance during the life
of the component. Unfortunately, this document gives recommendations only.
When referring to the life of a building, it is necessary to separate permanent
elements, such as structure, from elements which can be replaced. Today, many
buildings have structural skeletons which are enclosed by an independent system
connected to the structure. In addition, there are other systems such as
mechanical (heating, cooling, ventilation, hot water), electrical, life safety, and
communications, which typically have a much shorter life and which are
significantly impacted by technological advancements. It is therefore necessary
to consider a building as a series of systems, each having a different lifespan.
The building structure with the greatest life potential will last 30 for more than
years. Communications, however, may last only a few years.
3 Environmental Issues
The environmental issues address the impact of a building on the environment as
well as the impact of a building on its occupants/ users.
3.1 Impact of the project on the environment
Any construction project has a serious environmental impact, one which spans
the period of time from a site development to a potential demolition. The site
development, construction process, and production and delivery of materials
result in the disturbance of local ecosystems on the actual site or, due to natural
resources extraction, off-site pollution, demands on energy, waste generation,
and greenhouse emissions. During its life, a building demands a continuous
supply of energy for heating, cooling, lighting, and water provision, and it
requires maintenance. This stage of the building’s life requires the greatest
amount of energy and it is associated with the largest greenhouse emissions.
A typical office building (the minimum energy standard compliance) in
Toronto consumes 89% (with very little variation resulting from the material
selection for the structural system) of the total embodied energy during its
operational life of 60 years. Another 6.5% is consumed on maintenance over the

same period Straka [5]. The initial embodied energy (related to materials and the
construction process) is under 4.5%. Hence, the very simple conclusion can be
drawn that all aspects of the design process must address issues of durability,
minimum energy consumption, and energy efficiency. It should be noted that
these figures vary depending on the climate and use of the building Straka [5]. At
the end of its life, if a building is destined for demolition, the main impact is the
creation of waste. Otherwise, the embodied energy associated with this process is
very small, much less than 0.5% Straka [5]. The “cradle to grave” stages of a
building’s life are now completed. But, importantly, there is a potential for reuse.
With the process known as adaptive reuse, the building can be put to an
alternative purpose. With component reuse, some of the components can be
processed for reuse on another project or reprocessed materials can be created in
some other form. If the building is renovated, there is considerable reduction in
environmental impact related to construction material and process. LEEDTM
CaGBC [1] and other environmental rating systems encourage adaptive reuse,
salvage and refurbished component reuse, and use of materials with recycled
content. These rating systems are largely responsible for the increasing interest
in this area.
3.2 Indoor environment
Buildings not only impact the environment but also their occupants. The issues
associated with creating a healthy and comfortable indoor environment have
been garnering increasing attention Hydes et al. [7] and are becoming a design
consideration. Again it is important to note that environmental rating systems
such as LEEDTM embrace these issues. In order to understand the significance of
indoor environment, it is important to realize that operating a business, i.e.,
paying people salaries, over the life of a building becomes by far the greatest
expenditure. Any additional expenditure or loss in productivity has a significant
impact on the operational cost. If the total cost of a project is considered, it can
be broken into three major components: capital expenditure, maintenance and
operating cost, and business operating cost. It was found [6] that the ratio of
capital expenditure to maintenance and operating cost to business operating cost
for an office building is 1:5:200. It is expected that this ratio does not vary
significantly for buildings where humans are part of the process of wealth
creation. This ratio clearly points out the significance of indoor environment. If
the indoor environment is healthy, occupants are comfortable, in charge of
controlling their environment, connected to outside and daylight, they feel and
perform better. When these conditions are present, occupants are less likely to be
absent from work or be sick, and more likely to be productive. Very importantly,
with proper indoor environments, it will be easier for businesses to attract and
keep the best employees.
Clients seem to be concerned about capital expenditure and how to decrease
construction and design costs, but are not aware that these savings are not
significant in the contexts of the total expenditure during a building’s life. The
design cost is typically less than 10% of the capital expenditure but the design
team controls an outcome two-thousand-time more significant financially. This

indicates that the design team has the most significant role in achieving these
financial goals.
4 Issues related to durability

4.1 Structural elements
The structural elements of a building are mainly enclosed and protected from
weather and de-icing chemicals. If the building is constructed following the
current best practices for construction techniques there are very few problems
with structural elements. Therefore they are usually found in excellent condition:
concrete is unspalled, steel is not rusted, and wood is dry with no signs of rot.
Thus, these elements are suitable for adaptive reuse—meaning that the structure
can be adapted and refurbished for new uses—or for component reuse, meaning
the incorporation of used components into a new construction at a new location.
It was noted that the design loads are for 30 or 100 year environmental events
but this does not mean that a given structure could not last for 100 or 200 years,
a relatively short time frame when considering the passage of human history.
The reuse of a structure or of its components is very viable. However, there are
some potential obstacles related to both reuse processes. Codes generally favour
new construction NRC [3] but make provisions for buildings that do not comply
with the current code. As the codes do not outline procedure to determine the
suitability of a structure or component for reuse, it is up to building officials to
determine requirements from the design team. Obviously, this situation may
hinder the process of adaptive reuse.
4.1.1 Design strategies

There are no major problems with regard to durability of structural materials if
standard best practices for a specific material are followed. As mentioned before,
structural elements are not usually exposed (parking garages is one exception)
and therefore usually do not require any maintenance. However, there are many
design issues not related to durability which are essential and which must be
addressed. These are primarily related to detailing of connections between
components for easy deconstruction.
4.2 Building envelope
Building envelope elements are designed for lower environmental loads due to
their typically shorter life span. The performance failure of any building
envelope component is not catastrophic but has serious social, health, and
economic issues. Leaky condominiums demonstrated the great social impact of
problems related to moisture infiltration in the building envelope. These
problems caused hardship to some property owners and health hazards from
mould formation for others. The problems were not related to lack of
performance of any of the components but resulted from the combination of
architectural design, detailing, and workmanship. The design and detailing of a
building must incorporate provisions for replacement of building envelope

components.
Durable cladding results in savings in natural resources and energy, in waste
reduction and disposal, in maintenance, and often in savings over the life of a
building. The initial cost of durable components is often high, but the additional
benefit is often in better performance, leading to a more favourable life cycle
analysis. Premature failures lead to reduced performance which is often related
to increased energy use. At the end of a building’s life, durable components may
be sold for reuse.

The following design recommendations are based on the assumption that each
• Analysis of alternative systems, including environmental and deterioration

component of cladding is designed for an appropriate set of environmental loads.
• Documentation of the selection process, including evaluation criteria and

analysis.
• Design review incorporating the building envelope components. There are

life cycle cost analysis.
architectural design implications which come from the selection of a
• Detailing of the building envelope. Details should go beyond the

particular cladding, i.e., EIFS must have sills and overhangs.
composition of a system as they are standard and well defined. The focus
should be on detailing of interfaces between different components, including
• Detailing of system components for easy access for maintenance and

the overall analysis on how the building envelope details fulfill its function.
replacement. Cladding systems often do not allow replacement of

components but the entire system must be replaced (e.g., window
replacement requires the replacement of the entire cladding system).
Detailing should be sensitive to the issue of which tools are required for
component replacement. Generally, standardization will promote
• Communication and discussion of design intent to the contractor, fabricator,

replacement, reuse, and separation for recycling.
and installer. Knowledge of local construction practices is a very important

part of the process. The very best detailed system can result in poor
performance if the detail is not understood on the construction site either
because the intent is not clearly documented or it departs from the local
• Development of the maintenance plan.

norm.
4.3 Mechanical, electrical, and communication systems
These systems have by far the shortest life as they are significantly impacted by
advances in technology and because many have moving components. All
equipment requires regular maintenance to ensure that it performs at the optimal
level. It is often necessary to replace equipment before the end of its life, either
because the repair costs are too high or because better and more efficient
equipment is available.

It is very important to accommodate mechanical components in a building in the
most flexible way, allowing for easy access to maintenance, replacement, and
changes in technology. Obviously, a minimum amount of mechanical equipment
is better and more sustainable. In contrast to the case of building envelopes,
replacement costs are commonly incorporated into maintenance budgets.
5 Design issues
The most important factor in prolonging the life span of buildings and
minimizing their environmental impact is the design. Architecture, spatial
planning, and flexibility determine a building’s potential for reuse. The health of
a building is related again to design and there are economical constraints
• Architectural design combined with massing of programs determines a

Lucuik et al. [8]. Below is a list outlining important design considerations:
building’s shape and the surface area exposed to the environment. This
impacts energy demands. Also, architectural design has a serious impact on
• Spatial planning of a building is of utmost importance. Spatial planning

the performance of building envelope components.
determines the penetration of daylight into the interior, the functionality of
• The structure should be designed for appropriate occupancy loads and

passive systems, and adaptability for many potential layouts for interior use.
should include potential for expansion. Around the perimeter, it should

accommodate a variety of cladding system loads and include flexible
penetrations between floors for mechanical/ communication services. This is
very important for the future reuse of buildings. Structure is related to the
• Detailing of the attachment of cladding to the structure should account for

shorter life span of mechanical equipment and to changes in technologies.
• The building envelope should be detailed in a way which allows for

ease of access and replacement.
• There has to be a benefit, social or economical to improved design and

component replacement.
environmental
6 Case studies
6.1 BMW building
BMW’s new flagship store opened in downtown Toronto in the autumn of 2003.
It is located on a highly visible site by the Don Valley Parkway (the DVP, a
major traffic artery) and the Don River. The site was occupied previously by an
existing 1960s steel-framed office building (which was extended in the 1970s),
and was classified as a “brownfield site” requiring extensive remediation and an
environmentally sensitive area, flood plane of the Don River. Any new
construction would have to abide by stringent setback regulations established by
the Toronto & Region Conservation Authority and would have pushed a new
building farther away from the DVP and made it impossible to retain the same
visibility as the existing structure enjoyed. Thus, it was agreed to keep the
original footprint and adapt the existing structural frame and redesign its exterior
and interior and create an addition to house the service department.
The structural system of the existing building was a one-bay steel frame with
hollow precast concrete panels spanning 16 feet between the frames. With the
decision to keep the existing footprint, the building was stripped down to its
structural steel skeleton with precast concrete slabs. Availability of drawings for
the original building from the 1960s as well as for the two-storey addition from
the 1970s made it possible to identify accurately the structural properties of the
steel. Visual inspection was required to confirm the actual quality and steel
properties were confirmed by tensile tests. It was determined that the existing
structure, though sound, would need strengthening to meet current building code
seismic provisions and change of occupancy from office to retail. This resulted
in strengthening of all beam column connection to act as rigid frames by welding
of additional t’s or plates. Also some columns in the area of new two storey
space and beams required strengthening.
The project, both innovative and of high quality, was completed in just over 2
years. The reuse of steel resulted in few complications and produced little
ambiguity.
6.2 MEC
Mountain Equipment Co-Op (MEC) is a well-established retail company

operating as a membership co-operative and supplying quality outdoor
equipment and wear in Canada for over 30 years with retail facilities in 10
locations across Canada—from Vancouver to Halifax. MEC prides itself on its
reputation as a “Green Company”. It adopted a corporate policy which amongst
others emphasizes leadership for a just world, social and environmental
leadership and strives for a healthy planet. As well as their business operations,
the construction of their buildings follows strict guidelines for sustainability.
Green roofs, composting toilets, daylighting, recycled/reused materials, radiant
floor heating, efficient heating/cooling and energy saving measures are just some
of the features found in some of their buildings.
The Winnipeg project was innovative in its construction and design. The
project was a collaborative effort and followed an “integrated design process”.
Meetings were held and feedback from the public was sought and equally valued
as that of the stakeholders. In this way the community was engaged in the
importance of material reuse. Team members worked together from the very start
and developed a conceptual design approach in 6 intensive workshop/design
sessions. MEC’s values and goals were clear and the architects and owners
worked collaboratively to achieve the “greenest” building possible. The building
is located on a small parcel of land in downtown Winnipeg which had 3 existing
buildings on it. It was decided to reuse the buildings as much as possible. Two of
the three structures were unsuitable and deconstructed, and materials found in
these buildings was reused in the new building, while the remaining structure of
the third building was retained and redesigned. The 960 m2 store uses a wide
variety of materials—reused and new showcasing sustainable features in a
modern facility. Materials not incorporated into new construction were used
elsewhere (300,000 bricks were cleaned and given to Habitat for Humanity for
reuse). The project achieved a gold rating from LEEDTM.
7 Conclusions
The above two case studies demonstrate two different ways of prolonging the
life span of buildings. It is important to design all future projects for adaptive
reuse potential, considerations of environmental impact, and underlying health
issues related to a building’s indoor environment. Durability of building systems
and their components is important as it conserves natural resources for
replacement and maintenance and decreases the amount of waste. Besides
environmental issues, durability has a serious impact on indoor environments. A
leaky building envelope may result in a draughty indoor climate and in moisture
retention within the walls which may support mould growth. Unfortunately,
these effects are not easily measurable. During the design process, they may be
neglected but they may have a serious impact on business operating costs.
Economically, life cycle cost evaluations should be used to support system
selection, but it is important that the analysis include other benefits associated
with better performance, such as energy consumption and greenhouse emissions.
Durability is very strongly associated with a building’s life span. It has very little
impact on the reuse of buildings and the extension of their life beyond design
life.
The most important factors in prolonging building life are good design,
flexibility, adaptability, and value of the building (architectural, reputation, and
residual value).
8 Recommendations
It is essential to prolong the life span of buildings as this will reduce the
environmental impact of construction. Very importantly, design issues have to be
addressed as these have the major impact on building reuse. It is not only the
architecture which distinguishes one project from another, but also the building’s
reputation. Is the building “sick”? What is the quality of the interior
environment? What is the potential for adaptability? Design issues are still
underrated perhaps because of the insignificant cost of design and the lack of
relationship of design issues to indoor environments. In order to move forward, it
is essential that design issues be addressed and that clients become educated
about their investments. It is important that environmental strategies are tracked
and their performance evaluated, including the comfort of occupants. In order to
progress in this direction, it is important that the following observations be taken
into consideration:
• Improvement in design and indoor environment will not occur unless there
is documentation which allows for evaluation of occupants and for
performance surveys of buildings. It is important to educate clients that a
post-occupancy survey is critical in determining the parameters for future
design. It is not possible for designers to improve their designs unless they
have feedback from practices they implemented in the past. As design cost is
not associated with performance, neither designers nor clients who would
accrue additional cost are interested in taking these steps. However, it is
essential to improvement in the construction industry to define parameters
•
related to performance, which could impact design.
Improvement in design strategies for effective green buildings is related to
input from performance evaluation of existing buildings. This is a weak link
because there is very little information on how green buildings perform and
•
on how they are related to indoor environmental quality.
Education of clients is of outmost importance as it can assure that their goals
for achievement of efficient and profitable business are met while the
•
environmental conscious design was implemented.
Designers can move forward only if they are aware how their design
perform in practice.
References
[1] CaGBC, LEED Canada NC v1.0, Canada Green Building Rating System,
Canadian Green Building Council, Ca, 2004. www.CaGBC.org.
[2] CCA, A Best Practice Guide to Solid Waste Reduction, Standard
Construction Document CCA 81, Canadian Construction Association,
2001.
[3] NRC, National Building Code of Canada, National Research Council,
Ottawa, Ca, 1995 and 2005.
[4] CSA, CSA S478-95 (R2001) – Guideline on Durability in Buildings,
Canadian Standards Association, 1995 (R 2001).
[5] Straka, V., Sustainability in Construction Industry. Proc.32nd Annual
General Conference of the Canadian Society for Civil Engineering,
CSCE, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada, GC-269, 2004.
[6] MacMillan, S. editor, Designing better buildings, E & FN Spon, London,
UK, 2004.
[7] Hydes, K., McCarry, B., Muller, T. & Hyde, R., Understanding our green
buildings: seven post occupancy evaluations in British Columbia. Closing
The Loop Conference, Windsor, UK, 2004.
[8] Lucuik, M., Trusty, W., Larsson, N. & Charette, A business case for green
buildings in Canada, Morrison Hershfield & Canada Green Building
Council, Ottawa, 2005.
Natural building systems:

experiments in urban ecology
K. Connors
State University of New York at Buffalo, USA
Abstract
Natural building and alternative material use have evolved gradually in the
United States over the past 40 years, mostly in rural situations, often outside
what Ann Cline calls the “Circle of Architecture”. With few exceptions, such as
Portland, Oregon and Madison, Wisconsin, urban natural building has not taken
a strong hold. The Rural Studio of the late Samuel Mockbee represents the
quintessential design/build pedagogy for the socially conscious architecture
curriculum in a rural setting. This paper describes the convergence of natural
building, design/build pedagogy, and the support of an emerging culture of urban
ecology in Buffalo, New York, by chronicling student work at the University at
Buffalo. The design/build seminar course, Natural Building Systems, explores a
range of alternative building materials and, through service to existing non-profit
groups practicing urban agriculture, employs these materials in a participatory
design/build process.
Keywords: natural building, design/build, urban ecology, alternative materials.
1 Introduction
Kennedy [1] describes the growth of the natural building movement through the
vehicle of colloquia, beginning in 1994 in Oregon: “The many disparate efforts
to relearn ways of building with local materials and adapt them to modern needs
have been brought together into a single conceptual basket with an easily
understood name: ‘natural building.’” The purpose of Natural Building Systems
is twofold: to introduce natural building to students of architecture and to
implement design/build projects that reinforce existing urban neighborhood
revitalization initiatives.
doi:10.2495/ARC060291
The collaborative teaching team consists of the author, a local natural builder
(D. Lanfear) and an Intern Architect (S. Heiser). The seminar began with only a
rough outline of planned research in order to allow for improvised material
research. Once clients were selected through an RFP (Request for Proposals)
process, programming and design commenced in parallel with material research.
From a pedagogical perspective, Natural Building Systems was conceived as
both a materials and methods laboratory and a studio. It was intended to provide
an opportunity for direct experience and experimentation as the basis for
architectural inquiry, and aimed to utilize natural and recycled materials while
facilitating community volunteers in the participatory building process.
2 Research in natural and found materials

The seminar began with an introduction to natural building concepts through
images of built works and construction processes, and discussion of the activities
of a design/build project. One specific focus of the seminar was the discovery
through action of the properties of natural materials, especially earth as a
building material.
2.1 Cob making
There can be no better introduction to earthen materials than making cob. Given
that the seminar began in January in Buffalo, it was necessary to acquire bagged
clay and sand to create the cob mixture. A few straw bales were obtained from a
local barn and the studio was transformed into a workshop. The design mix
consisted of roughly a ratio of 1:3:1 (clay: sand: straw) by volume.
Domestic students generally were treated to a new experience, whereas some
foreign students were familiar with the ambulatory mixing process, fig. 1. The
crude mixture was made into small bricks with wood reference strips to register
shrinkage. They were left to dry.
Figure 1: Cob mixing. Figure 2: Found material wall

assembly.
2.2 Scavenger hunt
Besides natural materials, natural building strives to use discarded and recycled
materials. Examples include Reynolds’ rubber tire Earthships, or the silo
sections of Jersey Devil creations. Retrieving usable materials, otherwise
destined for the landfill, demands a watchful eye. The skill must be cultivated.
The first assignment of the seminar was a group project to find and assemble
into a building system materials from a waste or scrap source. Students
proposed all manner of compositions for wall components and assemblies, fig. 2,
often using shipping pallets as a frame, with various infill materials. Aluminium
cans were used to create cladding shingles, sheet metal scraps for roofing.
2.3 “A Hut of One’s Own”
A single text was assigned for the seminar, a delightful book of this title by Ann
Cline [2]. The hut represents the primitive and the personal, the refuge and the
ritualized experience. It situates architectural experience in the process of
making, and opens the world of materiality to modest, even banal, constructs. It
argues, in part, for a world that is directly lived: “How, indeed, do we regain a
world that is directly lived, as it was for the Chinese recluses and the desert
fathers, or as it is now for some of today’s homeless.” [2]. It was precisely the
open-endedness of the hut as a model for architectural inquiry that suggested it
as the inspiration for the next work.
2.3.1 The de-constructable hut

The second assignment called for the construction of a de-constructable hut; that
is, one possessing the ability to be readily taken apart and rebuilt, fig. 3. It was
to be built first in our studio space and then relocated to the project sites. Two
groups were self-formed to work on two huts (for two clients, sites and projects).
Figure 3: A transforming tool shed.
The groups were given the freedom to interpret the program for the hut as
they saw fit. The only prerequisite was that the two huts fit in the studio space.
The unwritten assumption was that to be “huts” they should accommodate the
practice of “hanging out.” However, as the process of identifying the potential
clients evolved, the program for the huts transformed into utilitarian structures –
tool sheds.
2.4 Papercrete
In the spirit of open space, the faculty responded to a student request to

experiment with papercrete (a mixture of cellulose and a binder). This afforded
the opportunity to make an investigation of the properties of various binder
materials. Pulverized slag (a steel manufacturing by-product) and fly ash (a coal
combustion product) were donated by a ready-mix concrete supplier. All the
other materials were readily available.
Students self-assembled in six groups to mix various proportions of the
cellulose pulp with a selected binder. They were also encouraged to experiment
with multiple binder materials. A five-gallon container was premixed with a
blended mash of newspapers and water. Dry cellulose insulation was also
available to mix fresh pulp.
Samples were prepared in small plastic cylinders for compression testing,
fig.4. Since some of the binders did not chemically depend upon the water
content, they required a considerable length of time to set (dry). The
combinations of binder proportions varied in terms of volume or weight. The
compression testing was planned for later in the term.
Figure 4: Papercrete samples (l to r: Portland cement, fly ash, slag, Plaster of

Paris, lime, and clay).
2.5 Load-bearing strawbale wall
The planned research entailed the construction of an earth plastered strawbale

wall and its gravity load testing. An eight-foot long by eight-foot high wall was
constructed with a wooden base (toe-up) at the bottom and box-beam at the top.
Two-string bales were stacked on edge – straws in the vertical direction. Fencing
wire was used in a vertical loop at each end to help align and slightly
pre-compress the bales between the toe-up and box-beam, fig. 5.
Figure 5: Strawbale mock-up wall.
The plaster mix was from local hand-excavated clay loam. It was mixed into
a thick clay slip with a paddle-style mixing bit on an electric drill. Some of this
was first thinned and sprayed onto the stacked strawbales using a pneumatic
sprayer with an attached hopper. This created a natural bonding agent for the
earthen plaster. Straw was chopped using a mulching attachment on an electric
leaf blower. The plaster was mixed by volume in the proportion of 1:2:1 (slip:
sand: chopped straw). After voids in the bare wall were packed with straw and
cob, the first coat of plaster was applied by hand.
Due to the difficulty in obtaining clay directly from the ground, bagged dry
clay was ordered for the balance of the plasters. Load testing of the wall was
planned after the spring break.
3 Design/build process
One premise of a successful design/build project is that early comprehension of
the whole is essential. Since the effort would be collaborative, this is necessarily
a group process. Part of the first week was devoted to brainstorming a list of
tasks or activities necessary to complete the design/build project. The students
generated a list that was put into a rough Gantt chart. Among the activities
identified was the task of managing the tasks of the whole group.
3.1 Roles of students
In the second week, students were asked to choose a task or tasks on which to
take initiative. As the tasks were distributed over the course of the projects, some
individuals were at first freed up to participate more in the testing program. As
the semester progressed, roles further evolved as teams self assigned specific
tasks in the development and presentation of their design concepts.
3.2 Scheduling
The original Gantt chart was followed as closely as possible. As tasks slipped in
one area, other activities were moved forward to keep the process moving. As in
any complex endeavor, multi-tasking was essential. The teams were

simultaneously responsible for designing their de-constructable huts, researching
natural building materials and techniques, constructing test specimens and the
mock-up wall, meeting with clients, and doing site analysis. As the projects
moved forward, the design and presentation activities took precedence since
timely client approvals were essential to the critical path.
3.3 Participation
Ultimately the goal of the design/build process is to involve students with

members of the non-profit organizations, neighbors and families, other members
of the University community, and various levels of the city bureaucracy. This
connection is an integral part of community building that has been tremendously
successful in cities such as Portland. Practicing simple natural building
techniques, experienced community members can move forward with additional
phases of work, and become teachers of volunteers in the development of other
urban natural building initiatives.
4 Locating urban ecology clients

In order to optimize the design/build schedule for the semester, the process of
soliciting clients began prior to the start of classes. By canvassing faculty and
community leaders involved with various non-profit organizations, a list of
approximately 20 contacts was formed. A draft Request for Proposals (RFP) was
prepared and reviewed with the students in the first week of classes. It was
issued to prospective clients at the end of the first week.
4.1 Request for proposals/evaluation
The RFP was a Natural Building Systems Grant announcement. Specific

requirements included legal ownership or control of land, funding for materials
and fees, general liability insurance, and a community of volunteers to
participate in the actual construction.
Two organizations responded with proposals for projects: The Massachusetts
Avenue Project, and Street Synergy Community Association. Volunteer students
reviewed the proposals. They identified issues of scope and size, compatibility
with natural building techniques, and the need for further clarification. Meetings
with the respondents were set up. Ultimately, we determined that given the
number of students in the class (17) and the merits of each proposal, we would
offer two Natural Building Systems grants.
4.1.1 The Massachusetts Avenue Project

The Massachusetts Avenue Project (MAP) was established in 1992 to “organize
and implement projects to build and revitalize Buffalo’s West Side.” [3]. Their
core programs include Growing Green, a youth oriented urban agriculture
project and Food Ventures, a micro-enterprise development program. MAP
occupies several connected vacant parcels and one with a frame dwelling
housing one of the project facilitators. MAP’s proposal included the possibility
of a new greenhouse, exterior bake oven, and a tool shed to support the urban
agriculture program.
4.1.2 Street Synergy Community Association

Street Synergy Community Association (SS) was organized in 1999 to improve
“the integrity and strength of Buffalo’s University District neighbourhoods and
to improve the community’s quality of life.” [4]. SS programs include Better on
Bailey, a business development and façade improvement project for Bailey
Avenue, and Clean and Secure, an initiative to maintain order and cleanliness in
the low to moderate-income neighborhood as a means of fighting blight and
crime. SS developed a garden project at the site of a former restaurant and
apartment building that was destroyed by fire. This city owned property was the
focus of their proposal, which included potential projects for a garden wall, entry
gateway arch, greenhouse and tool shed.
4.2 Programs/programming
The two clients shared similarities in constituencies and programs. Indeed, the
SS gardening program aspires to become more like that of MAP. Both need the
support and leverage of positive changes, especially physical improvements, to
advance the impacts of their programs. They have similar programmatic needs
(gardening and agriculture) and concerns (e.g., safety and security).
Coincidentally, they both involve adjacent houses that have been previously
considered for demolition.
In particular, the SS site has an adjacent house that, if stabilized and
renovated, could provide space for educational programs, gardening support, and
a working greenhouse at a relatively modest cost. The boarded up south facade is
ideally suited for greenhouse adaptive reuse. From a sustainability perspective,
we advocated for reuse, or as a last resort, de-construction and salvage of the
components of the vacant house.
5 Planning and design
5.1 Contextual response
For each client, students used aerial mapping, Sanborn maps and physical
measurements to document the sites. The MAP site is a newly created common
space within an established residential neighborhood. The SS site belongs to an
old commercial strip flanked by residential neighborhoods in the vicinity of the
University at Buffalo. The context of each was a distinct type.
The students met with client representatives and developed preliminary
proposals that they presented to the clients and a guest faculty member. The
feedback from this presentation included clarification of the differences in the
context types. The SS corner lot on the commercial strip demanded more spatial
definition without compromising security. The MAP site joined three streets at
the interior of the lots and suggested a place of informal assembly.
5.2 Refinement
Based on the feedback from the preliminary review, the students modified the
designs and prepared to make final presentations to each group.
5.2.1 MAP proposal

MAP has a track record of urban agriculture at the site and articulated its needs
clearly. The masterplan proposal includes a strawbale greenhouse addition to the
existing frame structure, the tool shed (hut), a central seating retaining wall, a
cob oven, a screen for the compost area, and a scrap iron trellised gateway
entrance from each of three streets. Existing planting and orchard areas were
proposed to be expanded. The first phase would include the greenhouse, fig. 6
and the transforming tool shed, fig. 3.
MAP accepted the proposal and the student team began immediately planning
the final design and construction document tasks for the project.
Figure 6: MAP strawbale greenhouse proposal.
5.2.2 SS proposal
The existing SS site was reclaimed from dump ground status by the action of
volunteers, based on a formal garden design that was prepared without
community involvement. The SS team prepared and presented two schemes for
the site improvements: one based on the formal garden, fig. 7, but incorporating
the adjacent vacant house; the other making a flexible internal green space and
confined to the current site boundary. Both schemes create a paved surface area
with a gateway entry, fig. 8, as a transition from the commercial street.
The Board approved the project at its public meeting, without choosing a
scheme. The first phase would include the rammed earth garden seating wall and
cob or earth-bag gateway, as well as a nomadic tool shed.
6 Build
Before the spring break, one student developed a more detailed construction
activities schedule. The tasks, beginning with a ceremonial ground (and coconut)
breaking, carry through the first week of May 2006. This is where the real
education about the thinking side of building begins.
Figure 7: SS garden wall scheme 1. Figure 8: SS entry gateway.
Students will be responsible for developing construction drawings and

specifications, quantifying and costing out the materials, assisting in the
permitting process, and supporting the client with funding and volunteer
participation efforts – in addition to actual construction work. The faculty will
direct or negotiate assignments based on past performance.
7 Discussion
A Mid-Term Evaluation was conducted to obtain feedback from the students on
the trajectory of the seminar. The results were mixed with respect to the content
of both testing and real world projects, some expressing the desire to do either
one or the other. The hands-on exposure to natural and recycled materials was
well received, as was the experience of working with a deserving and
appreciative client.
Natural Building Systems has demonstrated the use of natural and recycled
materials in architectural education and practice. There remains the need to show
the value of building in community, for the growth of architectural students and
the community itself. Reflecting on the first half of the semester one student
voiced concern about the aesthetics of natural building. Our strawbale mock-up
was not the minimalist or computer generated surface of his training. Since much
natural building work has been realized in a volunteer context, there is often a
‘folk’ quality to the finishing, and an organic formal expression. Greater
exposure of natural building techniques can expand the range of building and
aesthetic possibilities, and increase the range of quality of the work as a whole.
7.1 Circle of architecture
Cline [2] is not alone in her willingness to investigate the borderlands of

Architecture, “…a region of structures and ideas, a wasteland of heterodoxy
defined simultaneously by its proximity to Architecture and its proximity to
everything else.” It is this everything else which Egenter [5] claims may
invigorate architectural theory through inclusivity: “Architectural ethnology
discovers that traditional societies, e.g. many tribal groups of Southeast Asia,
often show very high aesthetic developments… in this respect too, the basic field
of architectural phenomena has been enormously enlarged.”
From the standpoint of sustainability, the borderlands are fertile regions
where alternatives to a consumer building culture abound, including indigenous
builders. Rudofsky [6] states, “There is much to learn from architecture before it
became an expert’s art. The untutored builders in space and time… demonstrate
an admirable talent for fitting their buildings into the natural surroundings.”
Davis [7] notes that in reality architectural production knows no such borders:
“…buildings are built in a world in which most of the various players … do not
fundamentally change the way they work because of Pevsner’s distinction
between “architecture” and “building.” They tend to do the same things,
although perhaps to different degrees, on different kinds of buildings.”
Natural Building Systems advocates the evolution of architecture out of the
process of making as a necessarily communal enterprise. Belonging here to the
academy, the mud buildings of 2006 will take their form from any number of
influences, from Taos to The Simpsons, from blobs to hyperspace.
References
[1] Kennedy, J. F., Smith, M. G., & Wanek, K. (eds.), The Art of Natural
Building: Design, Construction, Resources, New Society Publishers:
Gabriola Island, p.3, 2002.
[2] Cline, A., A Hut of One’s Own: Life Outside the Circle of Architecture,
The MIT Press, Cambridge, 1977.
[3] MAP, www.mass-ave.org.
[4] Street Synergy Community Association, Inc., www.streetsynergy.org.
[5] Egenter, N., The Present Relevance of the Primitive in Architecture,
Structura Mundi, Lousaine, p.75, 1992.
[6] Rudofsky, B., Architecture Without Architects, University of New Mexico
Press, Albuquerque, p.3, 1964.
[7] Davis, H., The Culture of Building, Oxford University Press, New York,
p. 10, 1999.
Promoting sustainability of earth constructed

private and public buildings in South Africa
G. Bosman
Unit for Earth Construction, Department of Architecture,
University Free State, South Africa
Abstract
For many urban South Africans the traditional way of building recalls rustic
images with a colourful cultural past. The self-help process of home-making in
traditional materials is still strongly linked with rural earth construction. While
the temporary recycled shack becomes the next housing step closer to the image
of the promise of a better life in the city.
In South Africa the ever growing consciousness of sustainable values resulted
in some long life, low energy and lose fit buildings constructed during recent
years. This paper reflects on some buildings constructed, sustainable efforts in
capacity building and training on different levels during the past ten years under
the supervision of the Unit for Earth Construction (UEC) at the University of the
Free State. These activities of the UEC shows that by upgrading existing skills
and techniques involving stabilised earth construction, economic and
ecologically sustainable buildings of a high quality can be built. The social and
cultural sustainability of these buildings boost local economic development and
can help to revive the tradition of women participating in the home-making
process. Much of the findings in this paper are based on desktop research, field
studies, involvement in community buildings and the personal experience of the
author in building his own home using a considerable amount of earth
construction. This paper also reflects on preliminary findings from a research
project funded by SANPAD (South Africa – Netherlands Research Programme
on Alternatives in Development) and conducted by the University of the Free
State in collaboration with the Technical University Eindhoven, Netherlands.
Keywords: sustainable development, earth construction, training, community
small builders, professionals, architecture students.
doi:10.2495/ARC060301
1 Introduction
In years to come, South Africa will have to cope with the huge shortage of
affordable, human and comfortable housing for its inhabitants. Against the
background of a colourful history of vernacular architecture and an elaborate
colonial European image, the poor will continue building temporary urban
shelters constructed in rubble plastic and discarded wood and corrugated iron.
High expectations from sensitive, controversial [7] and some times corrupted
government housing projects, the loss of indigenous building practices, and the
elusive prosperous city life contributes to an unwanted built environment [2].
The preferred building materials in South African informal settlements are
mainly lightweight, recycled material. Together with rapid urbanisation and the
occasional overnight relocation of these settlements, make the structures’ in-
transit adaptability by far more favourable than its comfort or safety. Few city
dwellers will resort to a traditional way of building, if so, it is seen as temporary.
Even if natural building materials like suitable earth for construction, wood,
grass or stone are available, the image of building in natural material is not
acceptable. Changing aspirations and loss of knowledge also result in poor use of
natural materials, reducing the status of traditional buildings.
There is a constant struggle between the simple and frail African technology,
supported by subsistence lifestyle with natural rules and the changing new
technologies with no sustainable principles in mind. Exploited for centuries,
African cities were conceived, designed and built on European models, which
eventually supports an American life style [8].
2 Earth construction as vehicle for sustainability
During the past 10 years more than a thousand students have been trained by the
UEC in the advantages of the contemporary application of earth construction
techniques. These young professionals have begun to reach the market place
effectively, gradually eroding some misconceptions and scepticism pertaining to
earth construction in general. Architects should not only design earth constructed
and sustainable buildings, but build and inhabit it as well, for they are in the
position to introduce new materials and construction techniques with in their
designs. The character of the soil in the Free State [7], the vernacular architecture
and the climate allow suitable use of both adobe (sun dried earth blocks) and
CEB (compressed earth blocks).
The energy crisis of the 70’s only resulted in government endorsed projects in
the 1980’s, where European building projects became prototypes of energy
saving and environmental friendly construction techniques. In the early 90’s
South Africa, with the support from several European Organizations, persisted in
the quest to challenge a more technical, scientific and systemic approach to
building with earth.
Figure 1: Students doing service learning classes on community projects in

the production and construction of adobe or sun dried earth blocks.
Figure 2: A Proto-type farm workers house at Glen Agricultural College,

Bloemfontein and the Albert Luthuli Day Care Centre in Mangaung
during construction in 1997 [3].
3 Training of young professionals

The University of the Free State was in the fortunate position to become one of a
few tertiary institutions world wide to include a scientific based education
programme with earth construction as part of the curriculum. The Department of
Architecture is the smallest, of the six national Schools of Architecture, with
between 180-200 students annually. The design programme of the school is
founded on the “making of meaningful place” a universal theme being
propagated by Christiaan Norberg-Schulz [10] since the 1980’s in Genius Loci:
Towards a Phenomenology of Architecture.
The Unit for Earth Construction (UEC) was established at the Department of
Architecture in 1995. Core objectives of the UEC have been to gain experience
through building projects, developing building capacity and reaching out to
communities in the area surrounding Bloemfontein, the capital of the Free State
Province. Architecture students in their first to fourth years are being trained by
the UEC by means of an Integrated Sustainable and Alternative Development
Programme with the vernacular and rural landscape as background. In each year,
3-6 weeks are dedicated to design projects which focus on (i) earth construction
techniques, (ii) climate control, (iii) appropriate structural systems, and (iv)
recycling of building material and structure [2]. Training of not only
Architecture but also Quantity Surveying and Construction Management
students, established the Unit for Earth Construction (UEC) as one of the leading
institutions in Africa [1].
4 Training of community builders

The UEC has focused on training on different levels. The completion of 8 small
to medium buildings completed since 1996 gave the opportunities for training
small scale community builders. The cooperative and collective patterns of
organized labour [11] are a well established custom in South Africa. Between
1996 and 1999 a prototype farm workers house, two humble day care centres and
3 ablution blocks were constructed with lime plaster adobe and compressed earth
blocks.
Figure 3: Brickyard activities in 2002 at the Mangaung University

Community Partnership Programme (MUCPP) in Bloemfontein
[3].
Between 1999 and 2005 an economic development centre, a school hall and a
craft and tourism centre was constructed with the help of the UEC. Through
these projects 170 male and female small builders have been trained in the
production and construction of either adobe or compressed earth blocks. The
staff of the UEC (two colleagues and the author) has been part-time involved in
all of these projects dividing time on site and lecturing duties at the Department
of Architecture.
During the past projects the UEC has learnt a lot from the expectations of
communities. Many of the community training programmes since 1996 that
focused on the production and construction with earth components have been
greeted with great enthusiasm and commitment but resulted in only a few small
brickyards becoming sustainable. New groups with no business financial history
always have problems establishing small loans. Often these discouraged trainees
and beneficiaries have moved on to greener pastures – leaving few survivors
behind [2].
Figure 4: MUCPP-brickyard activities with the Economic Development

Centre in the background, 2000-2002 [3].
Figure 5: MUCPP-activities in 2005 at the Economic Development Centre,

Mangaung, [3].
In South Africa there is a growing awareness to test a building’s sustainability

regarding social, economic and environmental aspects. The Sustainable Building
Assessment Tool (SBAT) is a South African developed system used by the
Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), Academic and Technical
Universities in South Africa. This also proofed to be a useful tool for architects,
building managers and informed public addressing sustainable issues [14].
5 Sustainable environment versus economic development:

the struggle for survival
The difficulty for communities to manage and maintain buildings is a common
phenomenon in South Africa. It is almost impossible for these communities to
contribute time, labour, and imagination to the management and maintenance of
community facilities. In most cases the communities, especially in poverty
stricken rural areas, are poor and cannot achieve these aims with limited
resources. In addition, many people hold the view that support from the
government is mandatory as part of the process of income re-distribution that has
been promised for years [9].
Figure 6: The five different research areas of the SANPAD project.
The UEC is currently in the third year of a research project funded by The
South Africa Netherlands Project on Alternative Development (SANPAD). The
title of the research project is: A South African Building Renaissance -
Acceptability of sustainable, high quality, earth constructed, public and private
buildings to support local sustainable economic development. Seven locations in
five different research areas (north east of Bloemfontein and north west of
Kimberley), all nearby former homelands, have been targeted in the Free State,
North-West and the Northern Cape Provinces.
A Survey was conducted with Questionnaire 1 (with a total of 1800
participants) on the acceptability of earth constructed houses within this mainly
rural environment. We can confirm that the general public mostly prefer burnt
brick walls for their own houses. The main reasons: “It looks good! The Material
is strong and safe”.
The people (78.2%) that live in an earth constructed house claimed to have
made the blocks themselves, with the help of a friend or a family member while
21.8% paid for it. Of the 9 semi-formal and 13 informal brick yard owners in
these research areas, producing mainly cement stabilized concrete blocks or sub-
standard burned clay bricks, 90.6% will be interested in learning to produce
other kinds of bricks or blocks. It is clear that there is a need to expand the type
of products in these brickyards. These brick yard owners (96.9%) confirmed that
they also would be interested to attend workshops in order to learn how to make
compressed earth blocks (CEB) and stabilized adobe. The training in technical
and management skills of this local trades can increase the number of blocks and
bricks produced, which currently varies between 2 500 and 15 000 blocks per
person per month, with at total number of bricks and blocks at 387 000 per
month [12].
Table 1: The question results on the SANPAD Questionnaire 1: Choose the

two materials you prefer most for building your walls.
Material indicated First choice Second choice

zinc 6.0 % 5.0 %
bricks 59.6 % 32.7 %
cement blocks 29.6 % 52.9 %
adobe 3.2 % 3.9 %
wood 0.0 % 0.0 %
wood & earth 0.0 % 0.6 %
The UEC will complete workshops with a follow up survey, by July 2006 in
these areas, targeting decision makers (traditional chiefs, councillors, small
builders and brickyard owners) and present an outreach community theatre
production to school children and the public at large. This dramatized
performance will reflect on the low status of traditional earth building and focus
on the many advantages of living, and building your own house in an upgraded
eco-friendly earth building technique.
The main research question to be answered is: How can earth construction be
more effective and acceptable in providing private and public buildings to local
communities in support of sustainable economic development? During the
dissemination of this project it should be clear if a technological intervention in
the form of training can make and impact on the acceptability of earth
constructed buildings. If the local brick yards in these areas can provide new
improved earth products, it can change the acceptability of earth building in
these areas.
6 Sustainable thinking
Working with earth as the primary tool to promote sustainable thinking, results
in various problems. These problems with earth buildings can be grouped under
the following:
1) Mechanical performance
2) Standardisation to comply with local authorities and financial institution
3) Social acceptability (high expectation) [3]
The combined knowledge of experienced scientists, soil technologists,
builders and architects, gained over the last three decades, contributes to the
increased utilization of earth. The mechanical performance of earth used for
construction will be in question for years to come. Convincing publications on

this issue not only helped the scientific community to take stock of this area of
study, but also react to the high expectations of the non-scientists’ desire to
understand the issues [6]. Earth construction was prohibited in of the South
African towns and cities as a result of by-laws and conditions for loans set by
financial institutions. This resulted in earth construction being reduced to mainly
rural areas. However earth construction made a comeback after the Second
World War when it was again extensively applied by many farmers who either
knew the techniques of earth building or learnt them anew [5].
Figure 7: Bosman Residence with the application of stabilized adobe and

compressed earth blocks in the residential area of Westdene,
Bloemfontein.
Unlike many other developing countries and some European countries, South
Africa still does not have national standards for Earth Construction. However
approval for earth building systems can be obtained through a time consuming
process, no standard earth building blocks, bricks or components are
commercially available in South Africa. Unfortunately, the communal small
scale of earth construction makes standardization difficult. This is, however, not
a big obstacle as the contemporary earth buildings in the urban environment
stand witness to. Standards are however, required by the decision makers, the
financiers, and the builders.
In South Africa there is not only a need for low-cost building in alternative
and sustainable construction methods but also for high profile buildings in the
urban context [7]. Despite the absence of accredited standards and regulations
the author took up this challenge and constructed his own earth house built in a
post Anglo-Boer war (1899-1902) residential area of Bloemfontein. The
selective use of compressed earth blocks and stabilized adobe in this small 180
square meter house is an attempt to address the status of raw earth as
contemporary building material in an urban context. With some effort even the
local authorities and a financial institution were convinced and approved this
technology in the centre of Bloemfontein.
The Bosman residence is a second dwelling on a residential stand. In order to
support the densification of the urban residential area of Westdene,
Bloemfontein, a specific brown field structure was utilized. The criteria included
using recycled material on site and the use of compressed earth blocks from an
abandoned brickyard. A specific morphology in terms of character, volume,
material and geometry was achieved. The use of plaster and paint (with colour
trends from the context) and an inverted corrugated roof were in direct reaction
to the existing character of the suburb of Westdene. However, a contemporary
building, it attempts to blend into the context by using compressed earth blocks
and adobe, while creating a high quality economic and ecologically sustainable
building [3].
7 Conclusion
With a global network on earth construction in place for some decades now, the
international community can share experiences, disseminate research findings
and give advice. This support system confirms the growing rediscovery of earth
as building material [13]. International as well as national workshops and
conferences focused on some or other sustainable issues have converted many
South African politicians, building professionals and students to the use of earth
construction. The environmental friendly contemporary buildings that have been
built in the past decade are the evidence. A bigger challenge still awaits the
South African building industry, where more sustainable high profile buildings
have to be constructed in order to have a substantial effect on the social,
economic and ecological environments. The promotion of upgraded earth
construction on our beautiful open plains and in our cities will continue, in order
to change the image of building in earth.
References
[1] Bosman, G., Teaching Earth Architecture at the Department of
Architecture at the University of the Free State: Current situation,
Analysis and Perspective. Unpublished Thesis: Ecole D’Architecture de

Grenoble, DPEA Architecture de Terre 1998-2000, pp. xv-xx. 2000.
[2] Bosman, G., Sustainability, involved ability, and the struggle for
survival. Leading Architecture and Design, vol. September/ October, pp.
22-23, 2003.
[3] Bosman, G., Teaching Earth Construction in the Free State: 1995-2005.
Proc. of the 4th Conf. in the series Sustainable Built Environment, South
Africa: Pretoria, pp. 38-51, 22-24 June 2005.
[4] Dayaratne, R., Earth architecture for contemporary living: prospects and
new initiatives. Open House International, vol 28 no 3, pp 23-33, 2003.
[5] Gerneke. G., The return to earth: The last of three articles on earth
building. Architecture SA vol July/August pp. 40-44, 1992.
[6] Houben, H., Guillaud, H., Earth Construction: A comprehensive guide.
Intermediate Technology Publications, London, 1994.
[7] Jooste-Smit, P., Earth Construction: A changing tradition. Acta Structilia,
5(1&2) pp. 55-80, 1998.
[8] Jordaan, G., Sustainable Urban Future – Cleaning up a messy Past. Proc.
of the Conf Sustainable Buildings & Integrated Design, South African
Solar Academy, South Africa: Johannesburg, p. 329, 9 – 14
September 2002.
[9] Noero, J., Unpublished Workshop presentation: Seven reasons why
community asset management will not work. Community Asset
Management (CAM) Workshop 15-16 September 2002.
[10] Norberg-Shultz, C., Genius loci – Towards a phenomenology of
architecture. Academy Editions: London, pp. 5 – 30, 1984.
[11] Rodriquez, A. & Pettus, K., The Importance of Vernacular Traditions.
APT Bulletin. vol. XXII no. 3 p. 2. 1990.
[12] Steyn, J.J., The role of small local brickyards in economic development: a
case study of Botchabelo, South Africa. Proc. of the annual Conf. of the
Regional Studies Association, eds. S. Hardy, L. Larson & F. Freeland,
Seaford: UK, pp. 10-12, 2004.
[13] Watson, L., Earth as a British building material. Architectural design, vol
67 no. 1&2 pp. 87-89, 1997.
[14] CSIR, www.csir.co.za/boutek.
Section 5
Natural technologies
Heteronomy and (un)sustainability of

essential technical infrastructures
A. van Timmeren1, 2
1
Climate Design & Environment (CD&E),
Delft University of Technology (TUD), Faculty of Architecture,
The Netherlands
2
Atelier 2T, Haarlem, The Netherlands
Abstract
The methods and techniques applied in present-day essential infrastructures for
energy and sanitation supply may be considered traditional and driven by the
separation and centralization paradigm. There is physical expansion and this is a
structural phenomenon because of globalization combined with the liberalization
of the energy market and – to a lesser extent – the solid-waste market. Moreover,
there is growing heteronomy of the essential utilities, particularly energy and
sanitation. There is a considerable increase in the electrification of society. For
solutions to new or existing problems, technological development is following
the “roads present”: the existing paradigm. Strict rules and regulations often
make this necessary. Changes, innovations or adaptations within these essential
(infra)structures follow the principles of the quasi-evolutionary model, while
during the last few years developments have more and more arisen from the
endogeneous point of view and a certain kind of “techno-fix” cannot be denied.
Little or nothing is done about the underlying causes of the environmental
problems, whereas unforeseen side effects occur, e.g. a large amount of strongly
polluted sludge in waste water treatment.
Many relevant participants do not seem to realize that other, more sustainable
alternatives can be found by abandoning the specific characteristics of the
traditional paradigms rather than following them. This paper emphasises the
potentials for sustainability and resilience in case of a reciprocal relation between
centralized and decentralized systems and the interconnection of energy, waste
and wastewater solutions.
Keywords: heteronomy, infrastructures, autonomy, integration strategy.
doi:10.2495/ARC060311
1 Introduction
Where the essential infrastructures are concerned, the liberalization of the
markets shows that the goals set cannot always be accomplished in an integral
way. At a national level, there is (still) too little grip on the developments. The
demand for supervision or rules at a supra-national (European) level is being
heard, and this causes one of the two main reasons for this liberalization to be
surpassed. Changes in technological choices and in the framework are based on
political decisions and (market-driven) sectoral strategies. This asks for target
values and conditions to be formulated. Market participants have no interest in
overcapacity, which puts pressure on the reliability of supply (by a maximum bid
on the available capacity).
Pressure can also be put on the other long-term interests, including
maintenance of grids and investments in, research into or application of
innovations (other techniques, other subsystems or even other (infra)structures
and technology). Other aspects (for the users) are sustainability, a guarantee on
supply and processing and affordability.
For sectors that are left to market forces, positive effects are soon to be
expected on the efficient use of the (infra)structures by oligopolistic market
types, and, thus, on the affordability of the accompanying services. There will be
a (well-known) dilemma between the short term (economic efficiency) and the
long term (sustainability and guarantee of supply).
In the Netherlands, the contributions to energy independence and knowledge
infrastructure of the country are tasks for the government, or, in other words, a
“the public interest”. Nevertheless, it seems reasonable that the dominant market
participants also subscribe to these strategic targets, or at least facilitate them.
Politics still aims too much for certainties and guarantees in advance. Given the
nature of the changes (particularly in the internationalizing markets), politics
should pay more attention to the uncertainties and, consequently, to the question
of how public interests can be prevented from getting stuck in case of unforeseen
and undesired developments.
Convergence is a new characteristic of the various technical infrastructures. It
results in greater complexity and more dependence on the structures as perceived
by users. Reliability and – in an indirect way – affordability gain more
importance. At this moment, this is still at the expense of sustainability. This
may be overcome by including sustainability, via reliability, as an added value at
relatively little cost, e.g. in the form of a decentralized backup. Too little
advantage is taken of this subaspect of sustainability. For small-scale users, this
results in a simpler arena, particularly where the number of parties is concerned
with which contracts have to be signed. Other characteristics of development
according to the traditional centralization paradigm of the essential technical
infrastructures are: specialization and segmentarization, with one or several
dominant parties per subflow or sector as major results. The dominant
participants have an interest in using existing structures as efficiently as possible
and in developing them further with as few risky investments as possible. As yet,
the cost of transport (distances) is not taken into account, and there is little
product differentiation.
As a result of the increasing importance of flexibility, sustainability and
certainties, it is evident that the call for solutions according to the present
“integral” approach (with the aid of a source-focused and preventive policy as an
important condition for all built-up areas) adds too little value as either a process
guiding or process following interpretation. With administrative-organizational
“integralness” as a starting point, there is too much focus on the advantages of
business economics resulting form horizontal or vertical integration.
“Integralness” is used too often and, as a result, is becoming a container notion,
possibly even an empty paradigm.
The current paradigm, specified by the participants connected with the
essential flows and infrastructures, seems to aim at a development following the
principle of the “economies of scale”. In addition to more far-reaching
interconnection, this implies a vertical integration building on administrative-
organizational integralness. In this process of interconnection and integration, the
aspects discussed, viz. certainty and sustainability, will eventually be normative
for a well-considered choice of interpretation. Here, the so-called physical
integralness will be of increasing importance.
The presented research tries to demonstrate the need to include
interdisciplinary approaches to the integration of strategies for raising public
awareness, marketing of the different qualities of water (cascading) and energy
(exergy), and establishing a service business for building and operating more
decentralized installations. The general aim is the integration strategy for water
management and sanitation (healthy wastewater and waste streams) together
with energy-generation at scales nearer to users or residents. On the one hand it
comprises direct linking of building and urban settlement with their surroundings
and/or (green) hinterland. On the other hand with neighboring subjects like
agriculture (especially urban farming), aquaculture, horticulture, health care and
food security.
The research has been commissioned by the Delft University of Technology
(TUD) as part of the DOSIS (Sustainable Development of City & Infra-
Structures) project recently continued in CD&E – Climate Design &
Environment – research to investigate and develop decentralized sanitation,
energy and reuse technologies. The aim is to research the spatial, social and
environment related consequences of the implementation of decentralised
technologies, and to define the conditions within society, with emphasis on urban
planning and building.
2 Heteronomy and the effects on sustainability

2.1 Sustainability of the essential technical infrastructures
It is important to distinguish between underground and aboveground

infrastructures. As yet, there is little knowledge of environmental costs of the
technical, often underground, infrastructure. It is not known how the
relationships between the infrastructure inside the building, and the infrastructure
systems outside the building and in the area in between can affect the
environmental effects (or environmental costs) as a collective process.
Since much is known about the sustainability of the infrastructure and
facilities at the level of the building, it has been decided to test the environmental
costs at the next levels, i.e. the ones higher than this smallest relationship. In this
case, this is the level of the (city) district and/or neighbourhood. For the
visualization of the environmental load of a prototypal reference project, this
research studies part of the development Oosterhout in Nijmegen (the
Netherlands). The modelling and calculation program Greencalc was used, that
translates the environmental load into environmental costs. In this new housing
estate (finished in 2001), the environmental load of the technical infrastructure
(excluding roads) is 10.4% of the total environmental load. This portion may be
considered non-significant, but at the same time it is not to be neglected,
particularly where the hot-water infrastructure and sewage infrastructure are
concerned.
In three alternative configurations of the reference case of Oosterhout, it
turned out that a reduction of the technical infrastructure of heat supply (which
was the one with the highest environmental load) at the level of the district did
not automatically lead to a lower total environmental load of the district. An
example is the configuration based on a natural gas grid with individual heat
supply (boilers) instead of the shared heating grid. The alternative configuration
using heat pumps did produce a (slight) reduction of the total environmental
load.
In general, the calculation of environmental costs of the technical
infrastructure of this new district in Nijmegen and the related techniques prove
that the smallest amount of environmental load occurs in high-efficiency heating
systems with generation close to the user. More important, however, is that
reductions based on optimized urban development structures have a larger effect
on the environmental load than optimizing the infrastructure using other system
or transport options.
Hence, optimization of central utilities or other facilities demands “compact
building”.
2.2 (Further) preservation
Looked on from the social aim of “sustainable development”, the path of

expansion selected is not necessarily the optimum as perceived subjectively. A
characteristic of expansion is the increasing importance of relocating the material
and energy flows. In this, physical infrastructures play an important part. They
are the bases for the supply of processes, products and services that meet the
fundamental needs. Building infrastructure almost always implies slow and
large-scale processes in the “underground” layer. For a structural solution and
preservation, the technical infrastructure should be considered, as the lowest
layer in this model of layers. It will be leading for the design and the allocation
of the faster dynamics of the overlying layer: the layer of the “networks” and that
of “occupation”.
The infrastructure strongly correlates with production (supply as well as

drainage). A change desired in the infrastructure, e.g. a bottleneck with respect
to capacity, can be solved by investing in extending the infrastructure (now often
accepted), but often also by adapting the “production” in strategic spots of the
(central) grid. One possibility is connecting or disconnecting (decentralized,
additional) sustainable subproduction (generation or processing capacity). This
may imply a gradual change of the paradigm, following a sliding time scale
rather than a radical change at a certain, perhaps unexpected, point in time.
Moreover, it may involve short-term interventions for long-term guarantees
(sustainability, guarantees for supply or processing and affordability). Such a
principle may be useful as a kind of fall-back scenario for, for example, a serious
and unforeseen dysfunction of the current process of further scaling up and
liberalization of sectors.
2.3 Introduction of decentralized systems
There are clear differences between the characteristics (or rather: advantages and
disadvantages) of the various central networks, in the energy and sanitation
subflows each as well as between the energy and sanitation supply as a whole.
They are caused by different “central scales” of application and different extents
of visibility, but also by the management structure and the presence or absence
of liberalization processes. The increasing heteronomy observed in the so-called
“essential” networks and accompanying managing parties for end users does not
only hold for central networks, but also for decentralized or local systems. The
difference lies in the consequences of catastrophes and the extent of visibility
(the subjective perception) of the results of this heteronomy for the end user.
There is a common consensus in society about the necessity of fundamental
facilities for meeting the most fundamental needs in the own living environment,
viz. “Maintenance”, the so-called primary necessity of life. The availability of
energy and food, including clean drinking water, and the removal of waste are
parts of it. It is no use trying to introduce sustainability measures that harm this
fundamental need. It has turned out that the ongoing processes of liberalization
have put pressure on the importance of the certainty of supply, and sometimes
also removal. Working certainty of supply and independence out in further detail
seems necessary, or even essential, not only for further development based on
the future of scaling-up (“economies of scale”), but also for decentralization
(“scale economy”).
The distance created between the (environmental) problem and its solution
leads to more and more complexity. The process of changing the interrelated
public and private services, systems and infrastructures is becoming more and
more complicated and less and less predictable. Together with the increased
scaling, the interconnection of the various flows and the growing number of
parties and techniques involved has increased the end users’ (consumers’)
(subjective) dependence. This asks for a simplification of the processes, products
(or rather: services) and parties involved. A larger concentration on integral
provision of services, or, in other words, the supply and management of integral
packages, offers possibilities. Also the level of application should attune better to
the lifestyle and direct surroundings of the users.
The ongoing individualization more and more often leads to a pursuit of
decreased independence on public infrastructures and the wish for decentralized
utilities (connected or not), with autonomy of the individual or the household as
an extreme version. A decentralized system must not be characterized as a static
system, since there is an ongoing change of an existing situation. The scale level
of a decentralized system is relatively fixed. It depends on the technique of the
administrative body itself, the context and the position of the observer. Technical
(de)centralization concerns (a change of/in) systems. In the case of
administrative decentralization, there is a distinction according to the nature of
the administrative bodies: territorial decentralization (between/carried out by
Government, Province and Municipality) and functional decentralization (within
the Municipality).
As for technical decentralization, the various flows have different definitions
of (the scale of) subclusters and of “decentralized” subnetworks and subsystems.
Often, there is vagueness even within the various flows. The scale level is
considered decentralized, but is defined in a relative manner too often. Regarding
technical decentralization, this paper starts from the production and processing of
the various flows closer to the users than is usually done, with the flows being
fed back to the users in a direct way.
In administrative decentralization, the “sandwich strategy” may be a good
starting point for the far-reaching support of making the various (infra)structures
within town and country planning sustainable and possibly independent.
Decentralized initiatives to solutions and environment-friendly behaviour are
emphasized here.
Because of the relative new market of (technical) decentralization, “niches”
can be created. It has turned out that this has happened before in history. Often,
niches cause a set of instruments to be developed for the start of a new paradigm
or system of techniques. With the aid of strategic niche management, innovations
are implemented in this type of “sheltered area”, tested and evaluated. It is
possible that the creation of niches can also take place in a planned way. This is
called “strategic niche management”. The difference with the more familiar
principle of “pilot projects” is that a shelter is built around the new technology in
the case of strategic niche management, through which the technology can
develop from prototype to an actually applicable technology. Eventually, the
technology should work without any protective measures at all.
Generally speaking, the two main problems in decentralized solutions are
scepticism of the leading (often dominant) parties involved and the larger
influence of a fluctuating flow size. The former is particularly caused by
responsibility (certainty) and liability. This scepticism will increase because of
the necessary transition of the market(s) from supply of products to supply of
services. The aspect of the flow size (in fact, the basis for the technical
“economies of scale”) can be met locally by modern techniques of control and
tuning, the so-called “Real Time Control”, and the subdivision into parallel
facilities. Thus, the remaining main points of interest for improving the
competitiveness of decentralized systems and actually achieving the advantages

for the environment and the users are the organization and implementation of
maintenance, exploitation, provision of services and inspection of the various
systems, together with the availability of backup provisions if necessary.
3 Alternative network geometry
3.1 Introduction
For the essential (technical) infrastructure, the dynamics of non-simultaneous,

slow transformation necessary for attuning the complex structures of society, the
“flows” and nature (or natural processes) implies that it is wrong to still think in
separate systems within integral development processes. That is, since there is an
increasing interconnection and interdependence in the technical infrastructure of
the essential flows. This does not concern local interconnections only. In fact, the
total human system all over the world is linked with the issue of to what extent
the increasing rate and complexity of change is integrated in a determined effort.
Two development processes concerning decentralized technology for the
purpose of autonomy have come forward as topical: viz. first, the efficiency and
improvements in the integration of subtechniques and co-ordinated, connected
concepts, and, second, a better harmony between supply (input) and demand of
the (different) subflows.
Additionally, there are two more general underlying development processes.
The first is the environment-technical, environmental and, to some degree, also
social optimization of decentralized systems within semi-autarkic projects. In
spite of the potential of the underlying optimization principle of the “scale
economy” claimed in much of the literature, and in spite of its importance, which
was also proven, it has only been applied to a small extent. Consequently, there
are not many “economies of scale”. However, the subaspects concerning the
application freedom and environmental integration (smaller sizes, fewer
secondary demands, etc.) and user-related demands (comfort, ease of use, costs,
etc.) do improve noticeably.
The second underlying development process concerns the link to economic
applications related to the surroundings, often determined by soil or users,
including taking nutrients back to agriculture and other lateral applications or
possibilities, such as car-sharing systems. In addition to the possibility of other
types of use of (agricultural) grounds (urban agriculture), the link to agriculture
may not only lead to a structurally different infrastructure (aboveground and
underground), but also to different country planning as a whole, when applied on
a larger scale. This offers points of departure for interrelating “red” and “green”
functions in environmental planning. Here, the aspects of vicinity and comfort
are leading. In this situation, the search for an optimum scale of autarky or
autonomy of the various essential subflows in the built-up environment gains
higher importance.
The changed network philosophy described as desired has far-reaching

consequences for the way in which these infrastructures are designed and
integrated.
For complex systems, the coherence with which and the way in which
dynamic processes are dealt with determines the translation to physical
“integralness”.
It is important to establish that the stability or resilience of networks is
directly related to their complexity. It is not the components of the various
structures that matter, but the way they are organized together as intelligent
structures. It is important to learn from the organization structure and topology of
existing adaptive, complex structures. Recognizing the structures of each
network is needed for combining their optimally ongoing development, possible
decline and damage done to them, whether desired or not, with constant or
increasing sustainability and certainty guarantees for users.
3.2 Decentralization for the purpose of scale invariance
In current central infrastructures of energy as well as waste water flows, the

possibilities of an alternative network layout are not or not sufficiently taken into
account. More and more connections are made between the various (national)
networks and subnetworks in gas and electricity networks, but this occurs
because of considerations of capacity and economic (business) perspectives,
rather than on the basis of the principle of network geometry. Consequently,
there is a direct interest for large-scale central networks to have subsystems as a
decentralized cluster included into the complex network.
Because of the principle of self-organization, it also offers the possibility and
the guarantees for being able to make local decisions with respect to, for
example, further-reaching sustainability without abandoning the principle of
scale size (“economies of scale”). Procedurally, it implies that authorities and
(public) grid managers may abandon policy aiming for a fixed ultimate goal.
Systems within decentralized planning concepts may lead to networks,
complex or not, with a more strongly decentralized network structure with part
of the networks performing relatively autonomously. These may support flexible
planning concepts in town and country planning. Moreover, the issue of a more
precise attribution of (network) costs to specific customers or transactions
(which become more and more important as complexity decreases with ongoing
liberalization) may be solved or may easier be solved. Concepts as such which
support increasing flexibility can anticipate changing market developments.
Moreover, it causes smaller investments with fewer risks in liberalized markets.
The effect of scale size by various technological developments has decreased
the last 50 years, because of the low energy density and little purification
efficiency per m2. This is also because improvements of energy transformation
techniques and waste (water) transformation and purification have had relatively
more influence on small-scale systems. The main technical advantage of
(incorporating) decentralized systems is that, because of the scale size, the flows
transported, processed or generated can be separated more easily into various
qualities at source. In addition, the transport, the treatment, the use and/or the
processing per subflow can take place more efficiently according to exergetic
principles, such as cascading, where further optimization against user
specifications becomes possible. A disadvantage is the difficult organization,
maintenance, exploitation and inspection. The development of (legal) conditions
with respect to responsibilities and periodic inspections is crucial for
(decentralized) systems and determines a successful penetration of this
technology.
Decentralized and local (sub)systems as parts of complex networks will
possibly play an important role. It is important that each of the regional systems
is connected “aristocratically” within higher scale levels, according to the
principle of overlap as described in Christopher Alexander’s ‘semi-grid axiom’.
Network relationships support a process of so-called mutual innovation and,
consequently, reduce the distances between central and decentralized solutions.
In addition to this, there is the advantage of vicinity facilitates the “face-to-face”
interaction and horizontal communication.
In order to accomplish the desired shift to a larger interest in future value and
power of correction, small, gradually changing innovations should alternate
(incrementally) with top-down innovation.
It is a problem that particularly the innovation related aspects come off worst
because of a lack of control and grip, together with the aspects of maintenance
and sustainability, in the current or intended liberalized situation of different
essential subflows. The alternation of incremental and structural innovation
appears to be the key to work out conflicting interests coherently for the short
and the long term, without this leading to concession-driven solutions which are
now quite common, and which lead to sustainability disappearing more and more
or becoming only a fake type.
4 Conclusion
Redesigning large parts of the primary process in a top-down manner is
necessary for the implementation of the substantial structural and sustainable
improvements. Within the alternating process of incremental and structural
innovation that was suggested above, the incremental innovation should shift
more to solutions which follow the principle of subsidiarity of the European
Community (Subsidiarity is the idea that matters should be handled by the lowest
competent authority). It will lead to the desired larger differentiation in quality
when there is less involvement, and it will support the main starting points of the
European Community, and also (literally) the starting points of the wish for
liberalizing the various utilities within the European market. Establishing the
incremental innovation from the lowest scale levels may be a method for solving
another topical problem on a European level, viz. the creation of equality for all
member states, or, in other words, the accomplishment of a “Level Playing
Field”. In the set of demands of optimum flexibility, a smaller scale can
guarantee better flexibility and units that are exchangeable to a larger degree.
As a conclusion, it can be stated that differentiation and flexibility in the area
of town and country planning are preconditions for being able to anticipate
uncertainties in the long term. Additionally, it is easier to anticipate dynamic

developments that are characteristic of today’s society. The process of
urbanization and the infrastructural transport and distribution systems of the
essential flows should be prevented from developing in separate ways. A sound,
integral (Eu)regional planning based (first) on a combination of conventional
(central) systems and additional decentralized systems (or, actually, the other
way round), can prevent the risk of a possible “deadlock” of the current central
systems, with all the accompanying health risks. The philosopher of culture Tom
Lemaire claims “what matters is finding the right ratio between the global and
the local. Local aspects should not be wiped out by globalization, but should get
a new place”. The strategic or random integration of decentralized clusters into
the growing central networks, that approach autonomy as much as possible, will
contribute to the increase of the robustness of these central (complex) networks,
provided that the other conditions of scale invariance are met. Thus, it seems that
the developing directions of “economy of scales” and “scale economy” need
each other according to the principles of mutual interdependence.
References
[1] Alexander, Ch. The City is Not a Tree. Architectural Forum. nr.04 & 05 /
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debate and research, PLEA 2004, The 21st Conference on Passive and
Low Energy Architecture. Eindhoven University of Technology. The
Netherlands. 2004.
[3] Moet, D. Autarkie. Zelfvoorzienende woonwerklandschappen. Park.
Haarlem. The Netherlands. 2004.
[4] McDonach, K. & Yaneske, P.P. Environmental management systems and
sustainable development, The Environmentalist, vol.22, pp217-226,
Academic Publishers, Kluwer. 2002.
[5] Timmeren, A. van. The scale of Autarky; self sufficiency through
integrated design of decentralised natural technologies in city districts
and building clusters. Proceedings Sustainable Building 2002. Oslo.
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[6] Timmeren, A. van, Kristinsson, J., Röling, L.C. Existing infrastructures: a
restriction for real sustainable development, in: ‘The Sustainable City III;
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WIT Press. Southampton. United Kingdom. 2004.
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Nature nr.393. p.440-442. 1998.
Eco-design of technological systems

in buildings
L. Marletta, G. Evola & F. Sicurella
Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Catania, Italy
Abstract
In recent years the use of technological systems in buildings has considerably
grown; the components are produced by industrial processes whose energetic
and environmental impact is outstanding. The aim of this paper is the evaluation
of the environmental impact and the energetic cost related to technological
systems (heating, air conditioning, waterworks, fire-proofing, etc.). To this aim
the Life Cycle Assessment approach is used; the environmental damage is
assessed by means of the Eco-indicator 99 method. For every component (pipes,
ducts, wires, radiators) different solutions and materials are considered,
corresponding to the current technologies, in order to find out the best and less
impactive solution. A case study is then considered to show the environmental
benefit achievable by means of a proper design. The technical equipment of a
real building is taken into account, and an “ecological” version is defined, by
choosing the best solution for every component. The score of the whole
apparatus in the ecological version is then compared to the one of the actual
installation, showing that an outstanding reduction of the environmental impact
can be obtained.
Keywords: life cycle, environmental impact, technical equipment, pipes.
1 Introduction
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a well known methodology for the evaluation
of the environmental impact associated with the production, use and disposal of a
product, taking into account resources and emissions occurring throughout its
life, from cradle (extraction of raw materials) to grave (disposal). There is a wide
literature concerning the application of LCA to building materials, due to the
importance of the sector and to the number of new constructions in previous
decades.
doi:10.2495/ARC060321
On the contrary, only recently has this approach been applied to heating and
air conditioning systems in buildings; the interest in this field is mostly due to
the rapidly increasing number of installations, as opposed to the declining
building activity. Some studies can be traced back to the late eighties, concerning
the energy use connected with the production of components used in heating
systems, such as pipes, radiators and heat generators [1]. These analyses were
only focused on the Embodied Energy, whereas no attention was paid to other
impacts on the environment.
The publication of the ISO standards of the series 14040 [2], [3], [4], [5],
which describe and regulate all the phases of an LCA, has led to the development
of new complex evaluation methodologies for the assessment of the
environmental impact, such as EPS 2000 and Eco-indicator 95, successively up-
dated to the version 99. All of these methods consider a number of impact
categories and quantify the environmental impact by means of suitable impact
indicators; a final score is then obtained after a process of normalisation and
weighting.
The publication of these new methods and their consequent implementation in
powerful and user-friendly software packages has given new impulse to the LCA
analysis of heating and air conditioning systems in buildings. Prek [6] applied
Eco-indicator 95 method to compare the use of radiators, fan-coil convectors and
floor heating in residential buildings. Nyman and Simonson [7] studied the
environmental impact of different ventilation units, with and without energy
recovery systems, in order to understand if the further environmental load due to
the production of the recovery unit could be overcome by the impact avoided
thanks to energy savings. Furthermore, Heikkila [8] applied EPS 2000 to
evaluate the environmental impact of a conventional air handling unit, and
compared it to a more efficient one, provided with a desiccant rotor to perform
dehumidification.
In this paper the Eco-indicator 99 has been used to assess the impact
associated with the main components of technological systems in buildings, such
as pipes, ducts, radiators, gutters, drain pipes. For every component, different
options were considered, according to the current practice. The aim is to guide
designers to choose the best material for every component, as well as to quantify
the advantages connected to the eco-design of technical equipment of buildings.
2 Environmental impact of components: methods

In Table 1 a list is made of the components which have been considered in this
analysis. For every component different sizes are actually available, but only one
has been chosen, as the results for all the other sizes may be regarded as differing
for a simple scale factor.
The first step of the analysis was focused on the definition of the functional
unit (FU). The standard ISO 14040 defines the functional unit as the quantity of
a product system which is able to provide a certain quantified performance;
according to this definition, the authors decided to consider a one-meter length as
the FU for pipes, wires and ducts, while for the radiator the FU was defined as an
element which is able to produce as much thermal power as 150 W when

working with a temperature difference of 50°C between water and air.
Table 1: Definition of the components considered in this study.
Component Dimensions Functional Unit

Gutters r = 13 cm 1m
Drain pipes D = 10 cm 1m
Sewer D = 15 cm 1m
Gas distribution D = ¾” 1m
Fireproof and sanitary
D = 2” 1m
water distribution
Hot/cold water for
D = 1” 1m
heating and cooling
Air ducts D = 500 mm 1m
Radiators ----- 150 W
Electric wires S = 2,5 mm2 1m
r = radius D = diameter S = cross section
Every component may be made up of different materials; all the options

normally available in current design and installation practice have been
considered. The definition of the amount of material used in the functional unit is
derived from information supplied by producers; where no information was
available, the weight of the element was computed starting from its size, and
adopting the following values for density:
PVC : 1350 kg/m3

HDPE: 970 kg/m3
STEEL /IRON: 7800 kg/m3
COPPER: 8900 kg/m3
Some further information should be provided concerning ducts for air

distribution. Ducts are not only circular, but they can also have a rectangular
shape; in this case, it is possible to define an equivalent diameter, such as the
diameter of a circular duct which shows the same pressure losses per meter. If
D = 500 mm (see Table 1), the equivalent rectangular section measures
400 mm x 500 mm. Four different types of ducts are normally used (see
Table 2).
Ducts defined in cases B and C are usually chosen when aesthetic
requirements are considered more important than energy savings; case D is also
known as flexible duct, as the thin layer of aluminium which forms the main
frame of the duct allows the latter to be bendable. As far as electric wires are
concerned, the only possible choice refers to the insulating material (PVC or
Polyethylene), as copper is in any case used for the core.
Table 2: Different types of ducts for air distribution.
Case Shape Material Insulation

A Rectangular Galvanised Iron Glass wool (25 mm)
B Circular Stainless steel -----
C Circular Galvanised Iron -----
D Circular Aluminium Glass wool (25 mm)
Once all the components have been defined, the Life Cycle Assessment may
be performed. To this aim, information provided by European databases have
been used for the inventory phase, concerning resources and emissions
associated with the production of raw materials, as well as the processes to
transform the material into the final product. The LCA has been performed by
means of the Eco-indicator 99 method, implemented in the software code
SimaPro 6.0. In this study the Hierarchist cultural perspective is adopted, while
the weighting is carried out by means of the Average weighting set [9], [10].
Products are considered to be disposed of in landfills at the end of their life.
3 Environmental impact of components: results
In Table 3 and Figure 1 the main results of the analysis are shown. A first
consideration can be made about the convenience in using plastic materials, such
as PVC and HDPE, for pipes. Thanks to its lightness and to the lower
environmental impact of the material itself [10], an HDPE one-inch pipe for
heating and cooling water presents a score almost one tenth as high as for copper
(0,11 Pt/m vs. 1,27 Pt/m). Copper turns out to be the less environmentally
friendly material for pipes, even worse than galvanised iron, which suffers from
the process of galvanisation, where zinc is used. However, copper is frequently
used in heating and cooling systems because of its good properties, such as
resistance to corrosion, low pressure losses and easiness of installation. HDPE is
normally adopted for cold water, while it must be properly treated to be used
with temperatures higher than 80°C (cross-linked polyethylene). PVC is the most
suitable material for gutter, drain pipes and sewer pipes.
As far as radiators are concerned, cast iron should be avoided, while steel
provides the lowest environmental impact (0,33 Pt per element producing
150 W). Furthermore, the best solution for air distribution is represented by
flexible circular ducts; galvanised rectangular ducts are slightly more impactive
than circular ones (5,1 Pt/m vs. 4,8 Pt/m), but their score accounts for a layer of
glass wool, so their use ensures a reduction of the heat losses which should be
considered when making a choice between these two options. Circular stainless
steel ducts should be avoided, as their environmental impact is five times higher
than galvanised iron ducts (15,6 Pt/m); however, they are often used when no
false ceiling are adopted, and aesthetic requirements are more urgent.
Finally, the use of PVC or HDPE as insulating material in electric wires is
equivalent, as the most relevant contribution is due to the copper core.
Table 3: Main results with reference to the Functional Unit.
Weight Environmental Embodied

Component Materials
(kg) Impact (Pt) Energy (MJ)
Copper 2,99 4,83 346
Gutter Galvan. Iron 2,54 0,76 137
PVC 0,44 0,14 31,6
Copper 2,23 3,71 267
Drain pipes Galvan. Iron 1,96 0,55 106
PVC 0,34 0,11 24,4
Cast Iron 23,6 7,24 1830
Sewer pipes PVC 2,36 0,76 169
HDPE 2,47 0,9 208
Copper 0,86 1,43 103
Pipes for gas
Galvan. Steel 1,18 0,43 69
distribution
HDPE 0,2 0,07 16,8
Steel 4,49 0,74 198
Fireproof
Galvan. Iron 4,63 1,38 250
and water
PVC 1,4 0,45 100
distribution
HDPE 1,05 0,38 88
Copper 0,76 1,27 90,6
Heating and
Steel 2,20 0,36 97,3
cooling
Galvan. Iron 2,28 0,68 123
water
HDPE 0,28 0,11 22,6
Case A 17,8* 5,1 927
Ducts for air Case B 16 15,6 1550
distribution Case C 16 4,8 861
Case D 2,5 ** 2,4 596
Cast Iron 7,1 2,4 595
Radiators Steel 3,5 0,33 106
Aluminium 1,75 1,8 433
Electric Cu + PVC 28,5 (g) o 0,0363 2,63
wires Cu + PE 27 (g) oo 0,0360 2,59
o
* : 16,5 kg steel + 1,3 kg glass wool : 22,3 g copper + 6,2 g PVC
oo
** : 1,9 kg aluminium + 0,6 kg glass wool : 22,3 g copper + 4,8 g HDPE
4 Eco-design of technological systems: a case study
In the previous paragraph the most environmentally friendly material was

identified for every component related to technical equipment in buildings. In the
following a case study is considered to understand how much an eco-design of
technical equipment can depart from a conventionally designed system.
Gutter (r = 13 mm) Drain pipe (D = 10 mm)

5 5
4 4
3 3
Pt/m
Pt/m
2 2
1 1
0 0
Copper PVC Galv. Iron Copper PVC Galv. Iron
Water / Fireproof (D = 2") Sewer (D = 150 mm)

1,5 8
6
1
Pt/m
Pt/m
0,5
2
0
0
Steel Galv. Iron PVC HDPE
Cast Iron PVC HDPE
Gas distribution (D = 3/4") Hot water (D = 1")

Heating
1,5 1,5
1 1
Pt/m
Pt/m
0,5 0,5
0 0
Copper Galv. Steel HDPE Copper Steel Galv. Iron HDPE
Ducts (D = 500 mm)

Radiator (150 W)
16
2,5
12 2
1,5
Pt/m
8
Pt
4
0,5
0 0
Case A Case B Case C Case D Steel Cast Iron Aluminium
Human Health Ecosystem Quality Resources

Figure 1: Eco-indicator 99 scores for the components shown in Table 1.
To this aim the design of a school was taken into account. The school is a
one-storey building, which will be built in southern Italy; the ground floor will
be used for classrooms and offices, while in the basement the boiler room and
some utility rooms will be placed. Each storey surface is 650 m2, and the overall
volume is about 6000 m3. The ground floor is provided with a heating system,
with an overall thermal load as high as 48 kW, produced by two heat generators
(24 kW each). Hot water is delivered to cast iron radiators by means of steel and
copper pipes; no cooling or air conditioning system has been designed. In
Table 4 the components of the technological systems are listed; the material
chosen by the designer is reported, together with the one which should be used
according to eco-design principles.
Table 4: Detailed description of the systems adopted in the case study.
Material
System Component Quantity
DESIGN ECO
Radiator 315 * Cast Iron Steel

Pipe for hot water Copper
470 m HDPE
Heating distribution Steel
Heat generator 2 ------- ------
Pipe for gas
20 m Copper HDPE
distribution
Fireproof
Pipe 175 m Steel HDPE
Sanitary water
Gutter 77 m Copper PVC
Rain drainage
Drain pipe 146 m Copper PVC
Sewer drainage Pipe 340 m HDPE PVC

Copper Copper
Wire 1060 m
Electricity and PVC and PVC
distribution PVC pipe for
500 m PVC PVC
protection
* : elements, 150 W each.
Table 5 shows the contribution of each system to the overall environmental

impact and embodied energy, as well as the reduction achievable with an eco-
compatible choice of the materials. The percentage reduction due to each system
is computed as the ratio of the corresponding savings to the overall impact
associated with the base-case design. The results are also shown in Figure 3 and
Figure 4. The highest impact is shown by the heating system, which is
responsible for 38% of the Eco-indicator score and for 46% of the embodied
energy. This is mostly due to the use of cast iron radiators, while the impact of
the heat generators is not relevant (see Figure 2). The latter has been quantified
by dismantling a real heat generator and weighting its components and materials,
resulting in a score as high as 23,5 Pt and 3150 MJ of embodied energy for each
heat generator.
Gas Heat
distrib. 3% gener. 4%
Water
distrib.
25%
Radiators
68%
Figure 2: Heating system - percentage distribution of its environmental

impact (Base-case design).
The most relevant improvements are given by means of a proper choice of

heating and rain drainage systems (31,6% and 32,8%, respectively), i.e. the
substitution of copper with PVC and HDPE. Minor improvements are achievable
by substituting HDPE sewer pipes with PVC.
On the whole, the eco-design of the technological systems may reduce the
environmental burden of the 70% if compared to the design solution, which
reflects common design practice. Furthermore, the embodied energy decreases
down to the 40%.
Table 5: Advantages in performing eco-design of technological systems.
Rain Sewer
Heating Firepr. Electric TOT
drain. drain.
Base-case
1112 158 992 606 70 2938
design
Environm.
Impact Eco design 184 90 29 509 70 882
(Pt)
Savings 31,6 % 2,3 % 32,8 % 3,3 % --- 70 %
Base-case
224450 43100 71200 141000 7000 486850
design
Embodied
Energy Eco design 47940 20900 6470 114000 7000 196410
(MJ)
Savings 36,3 % 4,6 % 13,3 % 5,5 % --- 59,7 %
Base-case design Eco-design % distribution ( Base-case)

1200
Rain Heating
1000 drainage 38%
34%
800
Pt
600
400
200 Electric
2%
Sew er Water
0
drain. distrib.
Heating Water Sew er Electric Rain 5%
21%
distrib. drainage drainage
Figure 3: Environmental impact: reduction and percentage distribution.
Base-case design Eco-design

% distribution (Base-case)
250000
Rain Heating
200000 46%
drainage
15%
150000
MJ
100000 Electric
1%
50000
0 Sew er Water
drainage distrib.
Heating Water Sew er Electric Rain
29% 9%
distrib. drainage drainage
Figure 4: Embodied energy: reduction and percentage distribution.
5 Conclusions
The results presented in this study show how important may be the right choice
of the materials, as far as technological systems of a building (heating, drainage,
fireproof, etc.) are concerned. Relevant environmental benefits may be derived,
as well as a consistent reduction of the embodied energy associated with the
production, use and disposal of these kinds of systems. Of course recycling can
further reduce the environmental impact; if materials are recycled at the end of
their life, according to average European figures on recyclability of plastics and
metals, the results shown in Figure 5 are obtained. These results are even more
important if we consider that technological systems are either regularly installed
in new buildings or periodically renewed in existing buildings, to be adapted to
new regulations or to new standards concerning comfort and energy savings. An
environmentally aware approach to systems design is therefore of primary
importance; the environment can be respected not only by using more efficient
systems or cleaner fuels, but also through the attentive choice of materials.
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
Base-case Base-case Eco-design Eco-design
Pt
design design RECICL RECICL
Figure 5: Effect of recycling on the environmental impact (Pt).
References
[1] Baroncini C., Giacchetta G., Lucarini G., Polonara F., Manufacture and
running costs for traditional and innovative heating systems, La
Termotecnica, 1988.
[2] ISO 14040. Environmental management – life cycle assessment –
principles and framework. Geneva, Switzerland: International Standard
[3] ISO 14041. Environmental management – life cycle assessment – goal
and scope definition and inventory analysis. Geneva, Switzerland:
International Standard Organization (ISO), 1997.
cycle impact assessment. Geneva, Switzerland: International Standard
cycle interpretation. Geneva, Switzerland: International Standard
[6] Prek M., Environmental impact and life cycle assessment of heating and
air conditioning systems, a simplified case study, Energy and Buildings 36
(2004), 1021-1027.
[7] Nyman M., Simonson C. J., Life cycle assessment of residential
ventilation units in a cold climate, Building and Environment 40 (2005),
15-27.
[8] Heikkila K., Environmental impact assessment using a weighting method
for alternative air-conditioning systems, Building and Environment 39
(2004), 1133-1140.
[9] Goedkoop M., Spriensma R. The Eco-indicator 99. A damage oriented
method for life cycle assessment. Methodology report. Amersfoort,
Netherlands, Prè Consultants, 2001.
[10] Marletta L., Evola G., Sicurella F., Environmental impact of materials
used in technical equipments: an overview on different methods, Proc. of
the 1st Intern. Conference on Eco-Architecture.
Section 6
Design by passive systems
Sound barriers to enable open windows

and integration in landscape
G. Rosenhouse
Faculty of Civil Engineering - Technion, Haifa, Israel
Abstract
Sound barriers are a familiar sight along highways. They act to reduce noise
levels in residential areas. As architectural elements that influence the
environmental view, sound barriers form a variety of kinds of geometrical
shapes, textures, and colour combinations, and they are made of different
building materials, such as concrete, plastics (including transparent panels),
glass, wood etc. A part of the sound barriers is designed to be impressive, having
a strong architectural effect on the landscape. Yet another extreme is
possible - merging with the environment. This paper illustrates a diversity of
solutions that make part of the environment, and are not significant visually, or at
least minimize the intervention in nature. Examples of such designs that are
shown here are chosen from a variety that includes the moderate slope barrier,
the local screening, the combination of earth berms with walls, lowered roads,
hidden walls, walls with end absorption and non planar walls.
1 Introduction
Residential areas near highways, railway lines, airports, industrial premises,
recreation areas and other noisy zones are often subject to excessive noise levels,
which are beyond the standards limits. Such situations invite acoustic treatment
as to reduce the noise levels at noise-sensitive points to acceptable levels. The
solutions can be divided into two distinct categories, namely:
1. External screening such as long sound barrier walls along noisy
roads.
2. Acoustic isolation of the receiver, such as double glazed acoustic
closed windows, or adding air conditioning and acoustic absorption
to rooms exposed to noise. In some cases, also combined with
acoustic isolation of the source.
doi:10.2495/ARC060331
While the first type may intervene in natural landscape the second one forces
people to live in sealed rooms, where direct flow of fresh air is avoided (It
should be noted that it is also possible to use ventilation units combined with
noise silencers and air cleaning devices, but even then the feeling of open
windows is prevented).
The need to close windows, which necessitates in turn the use of air
conditioning leads also to a significant waste of energy. Yet, the usual low sound
barriers (up to 5 m high) cannot screen the upper floors in a high rise building,
unless local screening is built over the front of the protected building.
A useful observation is that most of the length of highways, for example,
passes near rural areas, where typically building height does not exceed two
floors. However, in such areas the speed of the cars is very high, which increases
the noise level considerably. Planning sound barriers combined with
consideration of the topographic conditions can be useful in this case.
Regular thin walled sound barriers do not integrate well with local
landscapes. For that reason architects of such walls decorate them by using
different shapes, materials (including transparent panels) and colours. This
solution is not natural, and there exist solutions to the problem. In this paper we
show schemes and approaches that integrate environment as it is.
2 Theory
A rigid screen that separates between the noise source S and the receiver P and
intercepts the sight line SP causes reduction of noise levels at P. The sound
barrier can-not entirely avoid the penetration of noise into the “shadow zone”
due to diffraction at the edges of the screen, taking into account an
approximation of infinite transmission loss through the wall.
The most fundamental model of the environmental sound barrier is the rigid,
thin half plane (see Figure 1) and several theories have been developed in order
to find how much noise reduction is achieved by it. The most popular concept of
solving the diffraction pattern caused by the wall is that it combines a
superposition of the waves scattered by the edge of the plane and the part of the
incident waves that is not blocked by the screen. This idea was first brought into
consideration in the 18th century by Young and Fresnel, and had a rigorous
mathematical solution for a 2-D problem and a plane wave first introduced by
Sommerfeld [1]. During the years, the theory was further developed, generalized,
and has obtained integral forms, and applied the use of Wiener-Hopf method.
Tolstoy [2] obtained an exact explicit solution for the sound diffracted by a
wedge, represented by a sum of infinite series. For a review of other solution
methods, see Maekawa [3], Pierce [4], Hu and Wong [5], Menounou et al. [6],
Menounou [7], Quis [8], Li and Wong [9], among many others.
The simplest solution for noise reduction by a thin half plane that fits the
diffraction approximation model of Fresnel-Kirchhoff was presented by
Maekawa [3], although this approach was already known (See Redfearn [10]),
Rettinger [11–13]), and its fundamental physical model was borrowed from
optics (Born and Wolf [14]. Maekawa's Formula reads:
θ = 3π − θs
Shadow boundary Br Region II
θs
Shadow
boundary Bs
θ = θs − π
Region I
Region III
Source rs rr
S θ r Receiver
R P
θ = 2π θ = 0
screen
S’1 S’2
Image source - 2
Image source - 1
Figure 1: Geometrical relations between the sources, control point and the
half plane sound barrier.
10 lg 10 (3 + 20 N ) for N > −0.05 2∆x

∆L p =  N=
0 for N < −0.05 λ
; ;
(1)
∆x = rs + rr − R.
See glossary in section 5 of this paper and Tatge [15].

Another popular formula is that of Kurze and Anderson [16], which deviates
by about 21.5 dBA from Maekawa’s curve for N<1:
( )
 2πN 
∆L p = 5 + 20 lg 10   for N > 0.
 tanh 2πN 
(2)
Also Yamamoto and Takagi [17] formulated four types of more accurate
solutions none of which deviates from Maekawa’s formula by more than 0.5 dB.
The four solution types are respectively:
10 lg10 [(1 + G ( N) )(N + 0.3)] for N > −0.3 2∆x

∆L p =  N=
 for N < −0.3 λ
; ;
0
∆x = rs + rr − R.
 +  + 6.165{1 − exp[− 0.205(N + 0.3)]} + 2.354.

  N − 0.005  π 
G ( N) = 3.621tan 
  0.0145  2 
(3a)

 10 lg 10 N + 13 for N > 1
 2∆x
∆L p = 5 + 8 for − 0.3 < N < 1; N =
N

0.55 + 0.143 N λ
;

(3b)
for N < 0.3
N
 0
∆x = rs + rr − R.
 10 lg 10 N + 13 for N > 1
 2∆x
∆L p =  5 ± 8 N for − 0.3 < N < 1; N=
λ
0.438

;
 for N < 0.3
(3c)
0
∆x = rs + rr − R.
( )
 10 lg10 N + 13 for N > 1
 2∆x
∆L p = 5 + 9.07674 × sinh N
−1
for − 0.3 < N < 1; N=
λ
0.485

;
 for N < 0.3
(3d)
0
∆x = rs + rr − R.
The efficiency of special types of barriers was also investigated. For example,
a slit type barrier (Tanioku et al. [18]), a wide barrier following Pierce’s model
(Li and Chang-zu [19]), a barrier with a cylinder at the edge (Fujiwara and
Furuta [20]) and a barrier with a multiple absorbing edge obstacle (Fujiwara and
Ishikuda [21]). If properly designed, sound barriers can reduce roughly 5-15
dB(A) of the noise levels in the “shadow zone”, and this may in many cases
suffice to overcome the standards restrictions. Making the top of the barrier
absorptive adds about 2 dB(A) to the noise reduction.
3 Sound barriers integration in landscape

3.1 Design approaches
There are three main architectural approaches in acoustic screening design for
residential areas:
One approach makes the barrier a prominent feature in the nearby
environment. The second way is to use the building façade for acoustic
protection of the interior, including acoustic elements (see Figures 2, 3), and a
third one is to design the barrier as a part of the environment, whether natural or
man-made (see Figures 4 and 5). All three types can be combined legitimately
together in the same project. Mostly, the use of sound barriers is protection of
residential areas against noise radiated from transportation, industrial premises or
sports and recreation areas. In all these cases the aesthetics and view of the
barrier is important on both the side of the receiver and the side of the noise
source.
Residential
area
Shadow zone
Extension
of the
lower floor
Road
Residential
area
Shadow zone
Commerce
Road
Shadow zone
Residential
area
Commerce
Road
Figure 2: An acoustic screening by the building.
Noise Noise absorbing

screening material over
precast the internal
surface of the
shielding
A fixed
window
A kip
window
Shadow
zone
A fixed window
Boundary
of the
shadow
zone
Noise
radiation
Figure 3: A detail of façade screening.
Shadow
zone
Hill
Factory
City
Figure 4: Topographic acoustic shadow.
When the sound barrier is prominent the shaping, materials, colours,

transparency, cultural and historical considerations, texture, pattern, caps,
maintenance, view and landscaping are points to be considered in the design.
In the present paper we emphasize the use of sound barrier that is, as much as
possible, non intrusive to the environment.
Figure 4 illustrates a scheme of design where natural topography like a hill

creates a shadow zone for a city against the noise of a nearby factory. The
artificial counterpart in this case is the earth berm, mound or embankment. The
deficiency of the earth berm is its wide base due to its natural slopes, which
consume area. This problem can be partially solved by “cutting” the width of the
slopes by steep retaining walls.
Landscape considerations in sound barrier design are shown in figure 5. A
house is located a few tens of meters from a main road as shown in figure 5a.
Being exposed to heavy transportation noise, the measured levels are too high,
which invites the design of a shadow zone by screening. The amount of needed
noise reduction follows standard noise limits. The next step is calculation of the
barrier height by using for example one of the aforementioned formulae.
One of the possible solutions is road depression, which may solve the
problem, but causes a steep cut in the landscape (see figure 5b). This cut should
be very long since otherwise the screening will not be effective. Another
possibility is shown in figure 5c. A thin sound barrier is built, which may have
the same effect as the cut. This wall has to be also very long, or, alternatively
perpendicular walls should be added along the border of the area that belongs to
the house. Because of this screening, some activities can be done beyond the
wall, due to its noise reduction. A combination of road depression and a thin wall
barrier yields more acoustic shadow as shown in figure 5d. A road depression
combined with a horizontal slab (see figure 5e) yields an effect that is similar to
that of the scheme in figure 5d.
Finally, a solution that integrates better with the environment and is not less
effective can be obtained if the house is distant enough from the road. A small
slope angle created in the area in front of the house and right landscaping gives
us the advantage of road depression and thin walls noise protection. It should be
noted that due to the ground sound absorption, about 2-3 dB can be added to the
noise reduction as compared with non-absorptive sound barriers of the same
height.
4 Conclusion
Designing against noises of road and railway traffic, factories, and recreation and
sports areas can be done by using sound barriers. The theoretical analysis of
noise reduction by such shielding is now established, backed by a huge amount
of experimental data and evidence. At this stage researchers are trying to blend
active noise control in design of barriers, but this a future trend. As a
consequence of the intensive development in this area, the resulting engineering
tool allows for architectural and environmental considerations without any
analytical burden.
The present paper illustrates how by involving architecture, the design of
noise protection of residential areas can be friendly to the environment and
landscaping. The additional benefit of the suggested approach is that a proper
design may allow for building houses in a noisy area, still enabling living with
open windows. This means allowing natural fresh air into the room through the
windows, and saving artificial ventilation and air conditioning energy.
No shadow zone but some trees of low

acoustical influence
a
House
Road
Shadow
zone
b
House
Road depression
Road
Shadow
zone
Sound
barrier
c
House park Road
Shadow
Road
zone
depression
combined
with a sound
d barrier
House park
Road
Shadow
Road depression
zone
combined with an
e horizontal roofing
House park
Shadow Road
zone
f Intentional
House slope Road
Figure 5: Landscape acoustic screening.
5 Glossary
N – Fresnel number.
P – control point.
R – the length of the sight line, SP, m.

rs – the distance between the source and the top of the barrier, 2-D analysis, m.
rs – the distance between the control point and the top of the barrier in 2-D
analysis, m.
S – sound source point.
λ – source sound wave length, m.
∆Lp – reduction of sound level by the screen, at the control point, dBA.
References
[1] Sommerfeld, A., Mathematische Theorie der Diffraction. Math. Ann. 47,
1896.
[2] Tolstoy, I., Exact explicit solutions for diffraction by hard sound barriers
and seamount. Jr. Acoust. Soc. Am., 85, pp. 661-669, 1989.
[3] Maekawa, Z-I, Noise reduction by screens. J. Appl. Acoust., 1, pp. 157-
173, 1968.
[4] Pierce, A.D., Diffraction of sound around corners and over wide barriers.
Jr. Acoust. Soc. Am., 55(5), pp. 941-955, 1974.
[5] Hu, Z. & Wong, R.L.M., Barrier insertion loss versus Fresnel number and
secondary parameters. Noise Con. Engineering J. 20(1), pp. 31-36, 1983.
[6] Menounou, P., Bush-Vishniac, I.J. & Blackstock, D., Directive line source
model for sound diffracted by half planes and wedges. J. Acoust. Soc.
Am., 107, pp. 2973-2986, 2000.
[7] Menounou, P., A correction to Maekawa’s curve for the insertion loss
behind barriers. Noise-Con 2000, ed. J.J. Van Houten, Newport Beach
California, CD, 2000.
[8] Quis, D., Diffraction by half-plane: useful approximation to an exact
formulation. J. sound Vib., 252, pp. 191-221, 2002.
[9] Li, K.M. & Wong, H.Y., A review of commonly used analytical and
empirical formulae for predicting sound diffracted by a thin screen.
J.Appl. Acoust., 66 ,pp. 45-76, 2005.
[10] Redfearn, S.W., Some acoustical source-observer problems. Phil. Mag.
30, p. 223, 1940.
[11] Rettinger, M., Noise level reduction of barriers. Noise Control, 3(5), pp.
50-52, 1957.
[12] Rettinger, M., Noise level reduction of “depressed” freeways. Noise
Control, 5(4), pp. 212-254, 1959.
[13] Rettinger, M., Acoustic Design and Noise Control. Vol. 2: Noise Control.
Chemical Publishing, NY, pp.315-324, 1977.
[14] Born, M. & Wolf, E., Principles of Optics, 4th ed. Pergamon Press, pp.
375-386, 1970.
[15] Tatge, R.B., Bar-wall attenuation with a finite sized source. J. Acoust.
Soc. Am. 53, pp.1317-1319, 1973.
[16] Kurze, U.J. & Anderson G.S., Sound attenuation by barriers. J. Appl.
Acoust. 4, pp. 35-53, 1971.
[17] Yamamoto, K. & Takagi, K. Expression of Maekawa’s chart for

computation. J. Appl. Acoust. 37, pp.75-82, 1992.
[18] Tanioku, Y., Konishi, K. & Maekawa, Z-I, Noise reduction of a slit-type
barrier by using the line integral method and full scale model
measurement. Inter-Noise 87, ed. Li Pei-zi, Beijing, China, Pp. 395-398,
1987.
[19] Li, Z. & Chang-zu, Z., Diffraction field of traffic noise behind building
along a street. Inter-Noise 87, ed. Li Pei-zi, Beijing, China, Pp. 403-406,
1987.
[20] Fujiwara, K. & Furuta, N., Sound shielding efficiency of a barrier with a
cylinder at the edge. Noise Con. Engng J. Beijing, China, pp. 5-11, 1991.
[21] Fujiwara, K. & Ishiduka, T., Noise Shielding efficiency of a barrier with
multiple absorbing edge obstacle. Inter-Noise 99, eds. J. Cuschieri, S., S.
Glegg & Y. Yong, Fort Lauderdale, Florida, pp. 451-454, 1999.
Practicing what we preach

M. Lawton
Landcare Research, New Zealand
Abstract
In 2001 Landcare Research embarked on a journey into the unknown – the
design and development of premises for 100 of our staff in Auckland.
Sustainability is the central thread of Landcare Research’s core business but we
also try to practise what we preach, so when we came to build new
accommodation, we knew we had to be innovative and to some extent
courageous in breaking new ground. We set and achieved high environmental
and sustainable design objectives for the building, based on our ethos as an
organisation that champions sustainable development through lowering resource
use and dramatically reducing waste. We agreed that the building had to be
designed for sustainability. Construction costs were not to be increased because
the building was sustainable. Projected energy operating costs should be about
60–70% less than for a conventional building. The building would make minimal
use of municipal water, stormwater and sewage systems. In addition, we wanted
the building to be a great place to work and to reflect our Pacific culture and
specific Auckland location. We continue to adhere to those principles in our on-
going management of the building, and monitor and manage it as a research and
demonstration site for low-impact urban design.
This presentation will outline the drivers of sustainability in New Zealand and
how they were translated into the goals we set ourselves for our sustainable
building. It will also focus on the problems that face design professionals and
their clients when they choose developments that are not mainstream, and
present suggestions to overcome them.
Keywords: sustainable architecture, energy efficiency, water management.
1 Introduction
It is now well accepted that the world has a limited source of natural resources
and a limited ability to deal with waste. That’s a given, a fundamental law of
doi:10.2495/ARC060341
nature. Our global footprint, the amount of resource used globally, already
exceeds by a third a level that can be defined as sustainable, that is will allow for
the needs of future generations [1]. In addition, the footprint varies widely
between countries emphasising global inequities. In New Zealand we have not
yet exceeded our footprint but that is only because we have a magnificent
landscape and small population. It is possible that previous post-industrial
generations could be forgiven such extravagance; they simply did not have the
data, even if they may have sensed that all was not well. The present occupants
of this planet do not have that excuse. Despite the fact that science has still much
to learn about how the world works, how species evolve, how climate cycles are
influenced and what feedback mechanisms exist, the pattern of Western living
will need to be changed, sooner or later, to adjust to global environmental
concerns. The increasing development of China and India will only accelerate a
global environmental crisis already on the horizon.
So that is the big picture, a huge political, technical, social and economic web
to disentangle so that we can find the balance that allows for global societal well-
being in a sustainable way. All countries will face the same pressures, some
more than others, but New Zealand with all its inherent natural wealth should be
leading the way, a natural design laboratory for the world.
What are the key urban development issues in New Zealand? The main
consideration has been the provision of future energy sources, but the need to up-
grade stormwater and sewage disposal systems is also of concern.
Discussion usually seems to focus on the need to replace and rebuild, to find
new sources, and to ensure above all else that we maintain our current high
standard of living. Implicit in that way of thinking is that our behaviour need not
be required to change, that we should be able to keep on using power whenever
we want and should not have to think about how we get rid of any waste other
then a modest attempt to recycle our newspapers, wine bottles and some plastic
domestic solid waste. We know we could be less resource consumptive and
produce less waste but that requires a change in behaviour, not an impossible
task but something that could be facilitated by good leadership and a political
and economic framework that encourages sustainable development. It is easy to
say that people are the problem but behaviour would be strongly influenced by a
more innovative approach from town planners, architects, engineers, local body
politicians and industry. Much easier to be “green” in a house that does not need
much energy or in a society that does not buy produce in excess wrapping or that
lives in houses with toilet waste systems that do not require large amounts of
water to flush away the contents.
In the case of energy, a substantial reduction in energy demand, along with
the development of a wider range of renewable energy sources, would diminish
New Zealand’s issue of looming power failures and the need to enhance energy
generation from fossil fuels. We should maintain a national grid by all means,
but have that grid supplemented by local grids supplied through individual
buildings that contribute or draw from the system as required. Let the grid act as
a battery but have as much energy as possible generated where it will be used.
Then design houses and develop precincts that minimise the need for energy
through orientation, aspect and material selection, and New Zealand, with its
modest population growth predictions, would have no trouble in achieving its
power needs without compromising productivity and comfort.
Stormwater is a major problem wherever there are modest to major
communities. The problem is two fold: the disruption of the hydrologic cycle by
concentrating stormwater in pipes, leading to flash floods; and the contaminants,
carried by the stormwater, mainly from road transport, which end up in our
streams and harbours. Impervious surfaces add to both problems. The percentage
of many urban impervious surfaces has increased in the last few years through
in-fill housing, much smaller sections and larger houses and large tar-sealed
driveways. No wonder the Auckland stormwater system is in trouble. There is
insufficient natural filtration of water through the soil both to moderate its flow
and absorb contaminants.
Toilets, not a subject that most people want to spend time thinking about,
certainly not discuss at dinner parties, are unpleasant but necessary evils, which
help take our waste away so that we do not have to think about it. Their design
has improved in latter years so that they have low water-use alternatives. In
general, however, the principle has not changed and most still use large amounts
of water directly from the municipal supply. The logic of cleaning water to
potable standards and then flushing it down the toilet evades me.
With massive redevelopment projects in Auckland getting underway, there is
huge potential for further environmental degradation. However, if low-impact
urban design and development practices become mainstream, enormous
environmental improvements could be expected – with social and economic
benefits ensuing.
In any building, whether small domestic to large commercial, there are
numerous improvements that could be made to limit resource use and waste
production. The problem is that very few people are taking that opportunity
despite the obvious advantages. Our experience in low-impact urban design in
• The prospective owners do not understand the problem or what can be

our recent building project has uncovered a number of reasons for this:
• There are too few professionals in the design industry with a

achieved.
• Anything can be built if the price is right, so there is a perception and

background in ecological engineering and sustainable architecture.
sometimes a reality that eco-buildings are more expensive than
• While the design industry has some understanding of the problem, the
conventional buildings.
construction industry, construction contractors and material suppliers

have very little.In general developers have not been interested in
moderating development to address environmental concerns. There are
• Building code and compliance standards can work against innovation.

some exceptions.
Often people work to the minimum standards, when going above them
would be beneficial.
• Risk is a major factor in that anything new may be risky and may not be
suggested by the design team or the construction company, because of
•
liability issues.
Environmental, economic and social data need to be put in a form that is
able to influence plans, codes and practice.
2 The Landcare Research building

Despite the above constraints and in part in blissful ignorance of the potential
pitfalls, Landcare Research when it came to consider a new building for staff in
Auckland, decided they wanted as sustainable building, at the forefront of eco-
design in New Zealand. Clearly they wanted a sound functional building,
suitable for all the various activities staff carry out. They wanted a good place to
work and agreed with the University of Auckland to co-locate onto the Tamaki
Campus to facilitate collaborations with University staff. The main functions of
• House our national insect collections of 6.5 million insects, one million
the building provided a challenge being:
• Likewise for our national fungal collection of 600 000 specimens.

of them mounted with pins, in a state-of-the-art collection facility.
• Provide for containment facilities within our laboratories to meet PC2
• Provide containment and propagation glasshouses.

standards.
• Ensure the building could be monitored as part of our ongoing urban
• Provide space for 60 Landcare Research staff, 25 MAF staff, and a

research.
number of University collaborators.
• The building had to be designed for sustainability.

As an organisation we also had some key goals relating to sustainability:
• Construction costs were not to be increased because the building was
• Projected energy operating costs should be about 60–70% less than for
sustainable.
• The building would make minimal use of municipal water, stormwater

a conventional building.
and sewage systems.

We assembled a design team with some experience in sustainable buildings
and were fortunate to be able to include Robert Vale from the University of
Auckland to assist.
We went through many of the usual processes of seeking staff consultation
through workshops and scoping our requirements. We had some of our own
ideas of what a sustainable building should incorporate and we threw them into
the mix.
The design and build process took 18 months and no doubt there would have
been some improvements if there had been more time to explore a wide range of
options. We moved into the building at Easter and have been settling in for the
last 2 months.
2.1 Building features
Pressure did come on the cost-plan, and the original size of the building was
scaled back. Nevertheless, we are very pleased with what we have achieved
through the ideas of the architects, Chow-Hill, the innovations of Connell Mott
MacDonald, the forbearance of Hawkins Construction, and our own
perseverance in the face of some adversity. The key features that have added to
the sustainability aspects of the building are dealt with below.
2.1.1 Energy
The goal was to maximise passive climate control in keeping the warmth in but
excess heat or cold out so that pleasant working conditions were maintained
throughout the buildings irrespective of the weather outside. Inside temperatures
are expected to range from 17 to 25oC for offices and laboratories
(winter/summer) when external temperatures will be between 6 and 27oC. We
deliberately did not aim for a smaller temperature range that would have required
more active climate control and intervention.
The energy consumption target is 100 kW hrs/m2/yr averaged over offices,
collection spaces and laboratories, the latter being notoriously energy intensive.
A conventional office building would consume approximately 200 kW hrs/m2/yr,
and a building with laboratories would use closer to 300 kw hrs/m2/yr. Limiting
energy consumption will be achieved through design features that reduce the
need for heating and cooling (minimising direct energy consumption), and by
recovering and reusing waste heat. In addition to our environmental saving,
good energy management will save us up to $70000 a year. Some of the design
features to help achieve that include:
2.1.1.1 Building materials The external shell of the building is multi-layered to

limit heat gains from or losses to the outside. The innermost layer is a concrete
block wall (keeping the thermal mass on the inside), then a thick layer of rigid
fibreglass insulation, a ventilated cavity, a vapour seal layer, and finally timber
or metal cladding on the outside.
Internally, exposed concrete has been used extensively to increase the thermal
storage capacity of the building. During the initial decision-making design
stages, innovative energy modelling software was used to optimise placement of
windows and window shades and the building fabric options. The software
assessed natural lighting, heating and ventilation for various times of the day,
every day of the year.
2.1.1.2 Insulated walls and roof Expenditure and performance has been
focussed on areas where it is needed most:
• High-performance insulation has been used for the roof, walls and
•
floors of the Biological Collections
Mid-level insulation (R4 fibreglass batts, which is several times the
recommended amount) has been used in the atrium and office façades.
• Low-level insulation has been used internally between air-conditioned

and non-air-conditioned areas.
(A typical office loses 28–30 W of heat per m2 of un-insulated wall. With
insulated walls this drops to 8 W.)
2.1.1.3 Windows Windows are double-glazed, with opening frames for fresh air.
Windows will need to be closed at night and during temperature extremes to help
maintain the reasonably constant inside temperatures. (A typical office loses
100 W of heat per 1 m2 window. With double-glazing, this drops to 56 W.)
2.1.1.4 Heat recovery ECO-AIR units that incorporate heat exchangers recover
waste from the refrigerator/freezer systems, the air-conditioning/dehumidifying
systems, and some of the fume cupboards. The building has 11 fume cupboards,
and the energy associated with their operation (including replacing the air they
suck out) is the greatest single energy use for the whole building. The
refrigeration system serving the freezers and Collections space dehumidification
system both contribute to a skirting radiator system throughout the offices. A
gas-fired booster system has been installed to supplement, if needed, the
recovered heat and solar heating systems.
2.1.1.5 Solar panels Two solar panels on the roof provide the energy needed for
the hot water usage throughout the laboratory systems. The cafeteria has a
separate solar hot water storage system that is independent of the laboratory
systems.
2.1.1.6 Wind-powered generator A small (400 W) wind-powered generator by

the glasshouses provides sufficient power to pump rainwater from the storage
tanks (by the glasshouses) back up to the roof tanks that supply water for
flushing urinals and ground floor toilets. Wind is a ‘sustainable’ form of energy,
and incorporating a windmill generator contributes to the overall sustainability of
the stormwater management on site and further reduces energy consumption
from the national grid.
2.1.2 Sewage
The goal was to minimise the load that 90 staff, visitors and laboratory usage
places on the sewer and wastewater system. The key to achieving this goal was
using low-impact alternatives that meet all health and waste discharge
requirements.
2.1.2.1 Composting toilets Using waste materials as a resource is a fundamental

of nature or ecological systems. Human waste, once composted, is a rich source
of carbon and nitrogen that can be added to soil to enrich its productive and
filtering capacity.
Composting toilets are frequently considered for use in rural areas as an
alternative to septic tanks. There is no reason, however, why they cannot be
considered in a built-up area. There may be some occasions when they are
simply not practical but there will be many times when they are. Putting
composting toilets in our urban commercial building has been one of the more
controversial aspects of the building and, it must be admitted, this feature still
has its sceptics amongst the building occupants.
The first and second floors in our building have composting toilets with seven
toilets feeding two large Clivus Multrum units. These toilets are located against
the North wall to help keep the composting tanks warm for optimal functioning.
Cleaning requires bio-friendly products similar to those used with a septic tank
system. It is expected the tanks will need emptying about once every 6 months,
and the tank area has external access to make servicing easier.
The system conforms to the Australian standard for composting toilets, and
the New Zealand standard for on-site wastewater disposal. This means compost
can go onto the surrounding gardens.
Liquid toilet waste drains to the sewer system, as do the urinals and
washbasin wastewater. Wastewater from laboratories goes via local
sediment/dilution traps to the sewer via a 1000-litre detention/dilution tank, and
then into the sewer system. There is insufficient land area available for soakage
pits for ‘grey water’ disposal.
2.1.2.2 Ground-floor conventional toilets For the ground floor, low water-use
flush toilets have been installed. Rainwater (collected and stored on site) is used
for flushing these toilets plus the urinals on all floors.
Composting toilets were not suitable for the ground floor because the hole
that would have needed to be excavated for the collection unit of the composting
toilets would have been below flood level. This, plus the additional costs
associated with excavation, extra pumping, tanking and ventilation, made
ground-floor composting toilets impracticable and uneconomic.
Overall, we have achieved our goal by ensuring that the load being placed on
the sewer system is markedly smaller than for a conventional building of similar
size and function.
2.1.3 Water and wastewater management

The goal was to reduce both the amount of water purchased from Auckland
Metro and the amount of water entering the stormwater system. By harvesting
rainwater and using it on site, we are reducing the need for mains water and the
infrastructure needed to supply it and remove stormwater.
2.1.3.1 Rainwater harvesting Instead of rainwater running into the stormwater

system, as much as possible is collected and stored on site for use in all urinals
(manual flushing), ground floor toilets, and for irrigating gardens and
glasshouses. Rainwater harvesting for water reuse is an obvious way of limiting
the demand on future water supplies but currently it is only applied in rural areas.
It is one relatively simple change that could be made to a significant percentage
of our urban infrastructure.
Water running off all the roofing areas is gravity fed to a 25 000-litre tank
near the glasshouses. Water is pumped from the main storage tank back up to the
roof header tank using electricity supplied by a small wind turbine.
Two additional 25 000-litre tanks detain stormwater overflow from the main
tank. Overflow from the detention system (e.g., during a big storm when the
tanks are already mostly full) will overflow into the rain garden (still to be
constructed). A soak pit, which penetrates the basalt rock layer, allows approx
10 l/sec to drain way. Any excess over this will still enter the municipal
stormwater system through the normal curbing channels and drains but the
volumes will be drastically reduced compared with situations where collection
and detention systems are lacking.
The cost of the tanks and wind turbine generator was offset by not needing to
run downpipes to the ground and connect them to underground stormwater
systems, and by savings in Auckland’s Metro water charges.
Mains water is used for basins and for drinking. Although hand basins use
mains water they have low-volume water-saving taps to prevent unnecessary
wastage of water, including the hot water heated by solar panels.
2.1.3.2 Purified water for laboratories Reverse osmosis or hyper-filtration is

the finest filtration known, and is used to provide pure water to the laboratories
with specialist requirements for slide preparation and uncontaminated glassware.
A reverse osmosis machine is a large consumer of water as only a small
proportion of the water (maximum 30%) flowing through the machine actually
passes through the filter. The system has been configured so that the reject water
can be collected for re-use in urinals and for garden irrigation, i.e. the reject
water is incorporated in our stormwater management system. We have the option
of using either rainwater off the roof or mains water in the reverse osmosis
machine. However, using recovered rainwater may extend the life of the reverse
osmosis resin filter because the rainwater probably has less dissolved salts than
tap water.
2.1.3.3 Runoff from the car park and roads The car park has been constructed
with a pervious gravel surface that allows rainwater to infiltrate the surface.
During storms, excess water beyond what the soil can normally retain, will flow
through the soil down the gentle gradient to an area to be shortly developed as a
rain garden. This involves collection into a stormwater pipe to take the water
under the building foyer to the front of the building where it will be released into
soil and a wetland area. Any excess water will flow through the soil into the
stormwater network. The overall water volume will have been significantly
reduced and contaminants filtered out.
2.1.4 Other features

As limiting resource use was a key goal, we limited the inclusion of excess
materials where possible. There are many areas with no false ceiling but exposed
ceiling trays carrying pipes and wiring below the concrete upper floors or roof.
Most of the office and corridor floors are concrete, which acts as a heat sink.
Carpets used in meeting rooms and admin offices are tiles from Interface
Carpets. They are off-cuts that form an interesting pattern. Once they are ready
to be replaced they will be extensively recycled. Laboratory coverings are a
product called Marmoleum. It looks like vinyl but is made from jute and natural
resins and can be composted after its 25-year lifetime. Organic solvents in paints
and varnishes were minimised. Light fittings are low energy usage.
3 Where to from here?

The building has already fulfilled its purpose in a number of ways but the hope is
that it will continue to be an example of some or all of the features others may
wish to consider when they come to build.
We will incorporate the monitoring and management of the building into our
mainstream urban research, continue to make public its performance, and suggest
further improvements.
Some of the deterrents for the widespread uptake of ecological features were
mentioned earlier. These are not insignificant. Some of the things to consider
• Having a design team that is really committed to the goal and has in it
when going down the sustainable building path must include:
• Remembering that sustainable design does not have to stand out like a
some experience in sustainable design.
• Client and design team being prepared at this stage to take some, at least
sore thumb, especially if that adds to the costs.
• Having end-users who are prepared to accept a building they may need
perceived, risk, in moving away from the status quo.
to manage actively, to open and close windows, and to adopt a wider
• Choosing a framework for decision making – there are several available

climate comfort range than normal.
– and spending the time required to consider the trade-offs in terms of

sustainable features, e.g., the various aspects of embodied energy in
choosing materials in relation to the life-cycle of the building.
In the longer term there needs to be more fundamental changes to the
• Major suppliers of materials should be aiming to procure only certified

Construction Industry:
sustainable products. There needs to be better traceability so that
• More robust and accepted financial systems should take account of the
customers know where the materials come from.
reduced operating costs of a sustainable building and, as is often the
• There will either need to be a move away from working to the minimal
case, the longer building lifetime when considering depreciation.
building code and compliance standards, or those standards will need to
• We had anticipated more concern from our local Council than we

change to encourage more sustainable behaviour.
encountered. We were pleasantly surprised. However, for sustainable

development and design to become mainstream councils need actively
to promote such an approach through a range of mechanisms, and they

also need to coordinate between their planning and consent departments
to give a consistent message.
There was more time and effort involved in achieving our building than we had
anticipated/planned for but it was a rewarding process, well worth the effort. We
hope it can encourage others and, through some of the learning involved, make it
easier for them to follow suit.
Reference
[1] Loh, J., Living Planet Report 2002, Gland Switzerland: WWW-World Fund
for Nature.
Guidelines for sizing roof windows

S. Robertson & M. Thompson
University of East London and the Centre for Alternative Technology, UK
Abstract
Roof windows are often used as a major glazing element in loft conversion
projects and to create a room in the roof space of new residential developments.
Selecting the correct size of roof window is subject to a range of potentially
competing influences, including the need to satisfy building regulations and
planning control legislation. This paper describes a recent investigative project to
address a particular research question: ‘When considering the daylighting and
energy consumption aspects, how can designers determine the appropriate size
and position for roof windows in loft rooms?’ The primary objective was to
identify appropriate roof window size and position for a typical loft room, when
based on accepted numerical daylighting criteria. The research method that was
adopted used standard calculations, scale modelling under an artificial sky,
computer simulations and internal illuminance measurements for real loft rooms.
The relative daylighting performance of a dormer window was also determined
using similar techniques. By considering an example of typical modern
residential construction, it was then possible to illustrate the effect of variation in
roof window size on annual energy consumption. Finally, the paper outlines the
preliminary development of a simple graphical design tool that exploits the
research. This tool is intended to assist homeowners and designers in selecting
roof windows that optimise both the daylighting and energy consumption
aspects.
Keywords: roof windows, dormer windows, loft conversions, daylighting, energy
consumption, design tools.
1 Introduction
Roof windows are tilting double glazed units that are fitted in the plane of the
sloping roof surface. Such windows are often used as a major glazing element in
conversion projects for domestic lofts, agricultural barns and former industrial
doi:10.2495/ARC060351
buildings. Modern construction techniques including structural insulated roof

panels and planning trends such as the higher density requirements for new
residential developments mean that roof windows are also increasingly used to
illuminate rooms within the roof space of new build housing.
Selecting the appropriate size for roof windows is subject to a range of
potentially competing influences, including the need to satisfy building
regulations and planning control legislation. For instance, the understandable
desire for a well daylit interior with consequently low electric lighting load may
well conflict with the need to achieve a low average U value and the associated
reduction in the annual heating energy requirement.
In relation to the sizing and position of conventional vertical windows, the
question of daylighting has been investigated and documented by authors such as
Hopkinson et al. [1] and Littlefair [2]. Much of this work on daylighting theory
has been embodied in practical guides including the CIBSE Lighting Guide
LG10 Daylighting and Window Design [3]. Baker and Steemers [4] have
produced material that describes the potential conflict between daylighting and
thermal performance requirements and have developed this to provide predictive
techniques such as the LT Method.
However, there is little independently published work to provide the same
degree of guidance for sizing roof windows. Whilst it is possible to determine
optimum roof window size using some of the sophisticated lighting and thermal
simulation tools that are now available to designers, this level of effort is
unlikely to be appropriate for a typical loft conversion or new build project.
Consequently, for mainstream construction projects it is common practice to
refer to the available industry guidance from industry bodies and manufacturers
in order to identify design solutions. As far as the leading manufacturer of such
windows is concerned, the available guidance on the topic of roof window sizing
has historically used a comparatively simple rule of thumb approach [5]. This
proposes a minimum glazed area equivalent to 10% of the floor area in order to
achieve adequate natural daylighting levels. It is further suggested that the
overall effect is usually improved by increasing this ratio to around 20% of the
floor area. An associated common statement is that a roof window will admit
40% more light than the equivalent dormer window. This guidance also appears
in a number of texts that are aimed at homeowners who may be considering a
loft conversion project [6].
Choosing the correct size of roof window is important both for external
aesthetic and building performance reasons. Although normally prevented by
compliance with Building Regulations limits, extreme instances of incorrect
sizing could actually produce loft rooms that are unusable. This might be due
either to the creation of a poorly illuminated, stuffy attic or a loft room with such
a large area of glazing that it resembles a solar oven in summer and a cold garret
in the winter. Selecting the optimum size of roof window can undoubtedly
produce light, airy loft rooms so the objective of the research was to increase the
frequency of this situation for future design projects. Estimates of the total
number of such roof windows that are being installed each year were derived
from sources such as manufacturer revenue data [7] and the English House
Condition Survey [8]. It appears that there are approximately 450,000 roof
windows being installed in the UK each year, so any general trend towards
inappropriate sizing can reasonably be multiplied by this value to determine the
cumulative effect.
Therefore the aim of the research was to answer the question: ‘When
considering the daylighting and energy consumption aspects, how can designers
determine the appropriate size and position for roof windows in loft rooms?’
2 Objectives
The primary objective was to identify appropriate roof window size and position
for a typical loft room, when based on accepted numerical daylighting criteria.
Average daylight factor (ADF) is defined as the ratio of average indoor to
outdoor illuminance and is the most commonly used indicator of daylighting
within a nominated room. The current British Standard BS8206 [9] specifies
required daylighting levels based on ADF values of between 1% and 2.5%
subject to the intended use of the room in question. However, it is generally
accepted that most people now prefer daylighting levels that are approximately
twice those defined in this standard [10]. Therefore, this study considered
daylighting levels in the range 2% to 5%, with an optimum value of 3.5% at the
centre of this ideal range.
The particular case of a loft room was selected since it represents one of the
most frequent situations in which such windows are used. It also provided a
common test case to which a number of different assessment techniques could be
applied. The loft room dimensions that were used were consistent with those
published in the guidance notes from the leading manufacturer of roof
windows [11]. A physical 1:10 scale room was constructed for comparative
investigation and a standard CAD toolset was used to create a software
representation of the same loft room. In addition, these dimensions matched
those of an available full size loft room. It was therefore possible to use a
number of different research tactics to determine these indicators and compare
them with real world data. Numerical results and observations associated with
these different approaches are considered in the following section.
3 Research
3.1 Calculation
A proposed calculation method for ADF is described by Littlefair [2] and cited in
LG10 [3]. This is a widely accepted single stage technique that is used to
calculate ADF from a number of fixed variables. Although this approach is more
usually applied to vertical windows, LG10 does show it being applied to sloping
glazing and in the absence of any other readily available single stage technique,
this method has been used to assess its suitability for sizing roof windows during
the loft room design process. This is found using the Littlefair and Plymouth
expression:
ADF = TAw∂/A(1-R2)%
where the terms have the following meanings:
T diffuse transmittance of the glazing

Aw net area of the window
∂ angle of the visible sky in degrees
A total area of the room surfaces
R average internal surface reflectance
Based on these calculations, it seems that the predicted ADF for the typical loft
room will be approximately x0.35 the ratio of glazing to floor area. This implies
that a roof window of 10% of the floor area would result in an ADF of 3.5%,
which is in the centre of the ideal range.
3.2 Scale modelling
Next, a scale room placed under an artificial sky was used to determine the ADF
for a number of test cases. The 1:10 scale room had dimensions equivalent to
4.0m x 2.5m internal floor plan and 2.5m internal ceiling height with a 45o pitch.
The internal finishes of the scale room were generally identical with those of the
full size room and the external surfaces of the scale room were finished in black
to represent a typical concrete tile or slate roof surface. As is normal practice for
such scale rooms, no glazing was installed and a correction factor was then
applied in the analysis. This scale room was placed under an artificial sky, of the
mirror box type that replicated overcast sky conditions. Internal illuminance
levels were measured using a 0.5m scale grid on a working plane at 0.7m scale
height. The results suggested that with a 2.0m head height and a typical room
profile, installation of a roof window will result in an average daylight factor
(ADF) that is 0.46 x the glazing to floor area ratio. Therefore in a typical loft
conversion with a 45o roof pitch, from the scale modeling it appears that an
average daylight factor (ADF) of 3.5% can be achieved using a roof window
with a glazing to floor area ratio of 7.6%.
3.3 Simulation
Daylighting simulation tools such as Radiance [12] and FlucsDL [13] can be
used to predict daylighting levels and numerical indicators such as ADF. The
simulation model was a single loft room with dimensions of 4.0m x 2.5m
internal floor plan, 2.5m internal ceiling height and a 2.0m window head height.
All the detailed dimensions of the room were consistent with those of the scale
room and with those of the full size loft room. In setting up the simulation, the
location and orientation together with all of the internal finishes, glazing type
and construction materials were either the default values used within the
Radiance and FlucsDL simulation environments or were set to be consistent with
those of the scale room. In order to be consistent with the data from the
calculation and scale modelling, this daylighting data also used simulated
overcast sky conditions. The Radiance simulation work suggested that

installation of a roof window would result in an ADF that is 0.43 times the ratio
of glazing to floor area. Within a reasonable margin of simulation error, the work
with FlucsDL generally supported these findings and showed that a roof window
will result in an ADF that is 0.45 times the ratio of glazing to floor area.
Therefore, in a typical loft room with a 45o roof pitch, the simulation work
predicted that an ADF of 3.5% could be achieved using a roof window with a
ratio of glazing to floor area of between 8.13% (Radiance) and 7.78% (FlucsDL).
3.4 Measurement
Comparing these results with measured data from a full size loft room was also
possible since all the dimensions and internal finishes were consistent. This loft
room also had plan dimensions of 4.0m x 2.5m and a 45o roof pitch. In this room,
the roof window had a glazed area of 0.82m2 with a head height of 2.0m. Data
was collected for the equivalent grid points as used in the scale room. Based on
three sets of data collected, the measured ADF was found to be 4.97%. Applying
these findings would imply that in order to achieve an ADF of 3.5% with a fixed
head height of 2.0m, it would be necessary to install a roof window with a
glazing area of 5.83% of the floor area.
3.5 Summary
For the typical loft room that was investigated, the combined calculation,
experimental, simulation and measurement data in this study seem to suggest
rather lower values for the required glazing area than that which has been
identified in the majority of the existing guidance material. The findings are:
•
•
Method ADF:glazing to floor area ratio
•
Calculation 0.35:1
•
Scale modelling 0.46:1
•
Simulation 0.43:1 to 0.45:1
Measurement 0.60:1
Averaging these findings and applying equal weighting to each, it appears that a
linear relationship of ADF to glazing to floor area ratio of 0.46:1 will generally
apply. This means that in a typical loft room, a roof window with a glazing area
of 7.6% of the floor area will normally result in an ADF in the region of 3.5%. If
the two extreme values based on the calculation and measurement aspects are
ignored then an almost identical linear relationship will still apply. This second
approach may be justified on the basis of the potential inapplicability of the
Littlefair and Plymouth expression to roof windows and the reduced confidence
level for the measurement data due to the inevitably limited number of data
points associated with one full size loft room.
3.6 Comparison with dormer windows
In visually sensitive situations for historic buildings and conservation areas, it is

possible to debate the relative merits of dormer windows as compared with the
use of small conservation rooflights. To a degree, any conclusions on this topic
are somewhat subjective. However, the internal room qualities can be assessed
more objectively. A comparative investigation using the well proven Radiance
daylighting simulator has previously been published by Dubois et al. [14].
It indicated a relative ADF for a roof window of approximately 3 times that of a
dormer window of equal glazed area, which seems to be at odds with the
published guidance from a major roof window manufacturer. The work carried
out by the authors generally supported the findings described by Dubois et al.
Comparative scale room and simulation data was collected for a dormer window
using the same techniques as described above for the roof windows. In
particular, the ADF for roof window was found to be 2.9 times that of a dormer
window of identical roof aperture size and head height.
3.7 Energy consumption
As far as the predicted energy consumption is concerned, the available

techniques are rather more limited. Given the project duration, it was impractical
to consider collecting data from a real loft room over an extended period. Energy
consumption data from scale rooms is generally not considered particularly
valuable and in any event it was expected the proportionately small change in
energy consumption with changes in roof window area would potentially be
masked by experimental error and measurement limitations. The use of the
Apache thermal simulator appeared to offer the most promising option for
predicting annual energy consumption and was applied to a number of test cases.
From this simulation, it was apparent that the range of values for annual energy
consumption are much less sensitive to changes in roof window area than is the
case for daylighting levels. For the typical example that was analysed, varying
the roof window area from zero to 20% of the floor area resulted in a maximum
variation in energy consumption between 1830kWh and 2330kWh or 21% of the
maximum value. The minimum total annual energy consumption was with a
glazing to floor area ratio of between 13% and 17%, depending on the
orientation of the loft room.
4 Comparison of tactics
Calculation of daylighting levels for loft rooms using a single stage method was
comparatively rapid but it appears that the usual calculation method will tend to
underestimate the daylighting performance of roof windows.
The use of scale rooms under artificial sky conditions provided access to
daylighting prediction based on variables that would not routinely be possible in
full size rooms. Obvious instances of this flexibility included variation in the
window area and the ability to change from a dormer to a roof window at will.
The collection of data under the artificial sky represented a very stable and
repeatable test environment, without the variability of weather conditions. The
scale room was intuitive to use and provided good quality data, albeit typically at
a resolution that was limited by the scale of model and the precision to which the
model had been constructed. The majority of these observations are consistent
with those described by Littler [15].
In contrast, the simulation techniques allowed for finer resolution and
provided photo realistic rendering data. In order to obtain valid data, it was
important to construct a CAD model that accurately reflected the room under
investigation. The simulation tools also required care during the setting up phase
to ensure that the results reflected reality. The use of a common data model
within the IES Virtual Environment was also valuable as it facilitated a
comparison of the Radiance and FlucsDL results for the same CAD model.
The measurement activity generally affirmed the qualitative findings from the
calculation, scale modelling and simulation work. It also directly related the
findings to a real environment and highlighted some of the intrinsic issues in the
measurement of lighting levels in a practical context. Although the data set was
small, from the measurement work it did seem that in some cases the actual
daylighting performance of roof windows might exceed that predicted by scale
rooms or using simulation techniques. From a practical point of view, the
challenge in the measurement work was one of normalizing the recorded results
in order to try and eliminate the effects of any minor variations in aspects such as
reflectance and geometry.
5 Design tool
A derived objective of the project was the preliminary development of a simple
graphical design tool to exploit the research. This tool is intended to assist
homeowners and designers in sizing suitable roof windows that optimise both the
daylighting and energy consumption aspects. It is based on two graphs that plot
the linear change in predicted ADF and the U shaped variation in energy
consumption with increasing roof window area. This tool will apply to a
reasonably common set of conditions for aspects such as roof pitch, construction
type and location.
6 Conclusions
This paper makes a case for amending the current guidance on roof window
sizing and also the stated relative performance of such windows in comparison
with dormer windows. Rather than suggesting 10% of the floor area as the
minimum for adequate daylighting, it appears that for typical loft rooms a roof
window sized at 7.6% of the floor area will actually provide optimum
daylighting levels. Roof windows have been confirmed to provide daylighting
levels that are approximately three times better than equivalent dormer windows,
which may sometimes encourage their preferential selection for visually
sensitive situations. Lastly, in the case of specifically low energy designs and
assuming adequate control mechanisms, roof windows having a glazing area that
is between 13% and 17% of the floor area may be the most energy efficient
solution.
References
[1] Hopkinson R G, Petherbridge P and Longmore J., Daylighting,
Heinemann, London, pp. 59-107, 1966.
[2] Littlefair P J., Site Layout Planning for Daylight and Sunlight: a Guide to
Good Practice, Building Research Establishment Report, Watford, 1991.
[3] CIBSE., Lighting Guide LG10 Daylighting and Window Design, Elsevier,
Oxford, pp. 15-68, 1999.
[4] Baker N and Steemers K., Energy and Environment in Architecture, Spon,
London, pp. 22-25 and pp. 42-52, 2000.
[5] Velux Ltd., Loft Conversion Guide, Velux, Glenrothes, pp. 29-31, 2003.
[6] Hymers P., Home Conversions, New Holland, London, p. 85, 2003.
[7] Velux Ltd., Directors Report and Financial Statements, Velux,
Glenrothes, pp. 3-9, 2004.
[8] Office of the Deputy Prime Minister, English House Condition Surveys,
2003 and 2005.
[9] British Standards Institution, BS8206 Part 2 Code of Practice for
Daylighting, BSI, London, pp. 2-7, 1992.
[10] Borer P and Harris C., The Whole House Book, Centre for Alternative
Technology, Machynlleth, pp. 35-36, 1998.
[11] Velux Ltd., Architects Binder, Velux, Glenrothes, 2005.
[12] Ward Larson G and Shakespeare R., Rendering with Radiance – The Art
and Science of Lighting Visualization, Morgan Kaufmann, San Francisco,
1998.
[13] Integrated Environmental Solutions Ltd., Virtual Environment Version 5,
Integrated Environmental Solutions, Glasgow, 2003.
[14] Dubois M C, Grau K, Traberg-Borup S and Johnsen K., Impact of Three
Window Configurations on Daylight Conditions: Simulations with
Radiance. Internal Report, Danish Building and Urban Research,
Hørsholm, Denmark, 2003.
[15] Littler J., Test Cells: Do We Need Them? Building and the Environment,
volume 28, Pergamon Press, London, p. 222, 1993.
Section 7
Building operation and
maintenance
Building defects: survey and

impact over sustainability
E. Costanzo
Laboratory for Construction and Conservation LCC1-EPFL,
Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Switzerland
Abstract
It is commonly assumed that existing building stock management has a great
potential to achieve better sustainable development results.
Durability of existing building components determines the period of their
performance decay and, therefore, maintenance and refurbishment cycles, which,
owing to their recurrence, may have relevant effects on the environment and the
economy.
Knowledge of building pathology phenomena and, therefore, defects
prevision during building operation, can lead to less frequent and more
appropriate maintenance and renovation, helping lengthen service life (and
durability) of components, and so avoiding new production and construction
impacts and reducing recurrent C&D waste due to frequent replacement.
This paper shows the advantages of an archive on building pathology, created
from cases of expertises and consultancies, and a proposal of a protocol of
survey, to collect in-field data and address the use of the archive towards
operational and post operational building performance assessment and
management.
Keywords: construction elements, failure, survey, post occupancy evaluation,
durability, indoor health.
1 Introduction
The operational phase in building life is the moment where the occupant has to
experience and to profit of the existing structure.
This phase lasts at least 50 years in average and is the very aim of
construction, where the user’s needs are compared with real building
performances and their eventual decay due to aging:
doi:10.2495/ARC060361
• health, safety and security,

• functionality and efficiency of technical and space elements
• psychological, social, cultural and aesthetic performances.
Moreover, - if we consider an existing building as an heritage all citizens has
to profit of as enlarged users of the built environment - environmental and
economic issues, such as impacts on natural material and energy resources
consumption due to operation, land occupation, adaptation to present crucial uses
and other externalities, are also to be taken into account.
Since the ‘1970s Post Occupancy Evaluation (POE) models have been
developed to estimate real occupancy performances of housing rapidly
constructed after the Second World War, when premature damages and
degradations began to be evident. The feedback evaluation of performances and
failures has several advantages:
• socially, to demonstrate lacking of knowledge of needs, expectation,
behaviour and lifestyle of present occupants at the age of construction;
•
renovation “correctness”, thus contributing to assess service life [1] and

technically, to assemble useful information on design, construction and
negative effects of building components and products.

The feedback data are precious to building industry, to maintenance and
management planning, to the assessment of compliance to new standards that
occurred after the construction. It is the case of energy saving directives but also
more imperative in Europe [2].

of building products health and environmental standards, nowadays more and
Information from inspection of buildings, - when the investigations are properly
environment and the building use [3].

designed - gives direct correlation between the state of components, exposure
The trend for systematisation of such information is alighted by recent

international acts and procedures and by the spread of master study courses for
building inspectors [4] and the on going “air quality campaign” in France [5].
surveyors: i.e. the UK 2004 “housing act” requiring re-launched training for
Failures that occur in buildings are among the data that are necessary to
gather in order to evaluate varied building performances from the design phase.
The concern of measuring the relationship between occupants’ satisfaction and
building technical performance is expressed by recurring complaints on comfort
deficit (acoustic and lightning levels, temperature and humidity, ventilation,
indoor air quality) as consequences of components failures or inapt employ of
materials and techniques. Quantitative and qualitative evaluations are necessary
to attain the comparison between measured and perceived levels of performance.
Expertises supplied by EPFL for thirty years in French Switzerland, as a
service to owners, architects, building estate managers, renters and lawyers
constitute an archive basis on actual state of running modern buildings. The
available database contains information on corrupted materials, components
failures, performance decay, agents, anomalies localization, factors causing
degradations, defects and responsibilities.
where components failures and low indoor comfort are strictly related [6].
Most of pathologies have been found to be systemic, first of all the ones
Nevertheless our available information should be enriched by a more systematic

approach in measuring micro-environmental loading, building components
degradation and in investigating occupants’ perception. The relationship between
these three factors is still unexplored, as well as effects on human health due to
indoor pollutants; yet some of them are generated by building products and by
their degradation.
Therefore we consider it necessary to broaden the building pathology enquiry
field, fostering the interdisciplinary approach of three combined issues: socio-
economic occupants’ satisfaction, environmental and engineering studies of
indoor environment, architectural topic of components’ durability.
2 In field data collection

Survey is the first cognitive moment of the building, of its components features,
of their aging and use conditions but also of performance level they actually
supply. It can represent much more than a simple “visual appreciation” so
leading to diagnosis, if the surveyor carries it on according to a procedure and by
help of a basic equipment that allows him to gather numbers of targeted
information.
Normally a first recognition visit is followed by a more detailed direct survey,
where adopting further diagnosis-oriented investigations and non-destructive or
little invasive tests and monitoring. The surveyor analyses:
• Materials and their labour
• Constructional techniques and historical stratification
• Degradation phenomena and evolution
• Triggering agents
• Hygienic-sanitary conditions, health and comfort (IAQ, IEQ)
Moreover further instrumental testing, technically more complex and
expensive, may claim particular skills and experience. Decision to deepen the
diagnosis is established by the surveyor and can be rather subjective. An
indiscriminate adoption of such methods might be a burden for a cost-effective
diagnosis, and for repeatability of building performance evaluation methods.
It is necessary, in our opinion, a rule to scientifically define the relationship
between the presence of particular building materials and products, their
degradation, health concern and measurable in use performances.
In the last decade different campaigns in Switzerland dealt with building
performance evaluation [7] [8].

pathology diagnosis and indoor comfort, supplying separate tools of building
We are working at a tool, a protocol, to make the survey methods repeatable

and to integrate available information in our building pathology database.
2.1 Preliminary recognition visit
During the first visit, following a quick documentary research and simple
questions to owners, clients, occupants, the surveyor will gather general data and
attain a rough estimation, by the aid of descriptive forms.
Table 1: General data for report of preliminary recognition visit.
Data to report:
Conditions of engagement Data on client Client’s mandate or complaint
Geographical information Building localization Date of inspection and weather
Functions of the building Date of construction Date of renovation - maintenance
Activities per space/room of inspected units Occupational density
Demographic information of occupants (position, age, gender, education)
Presence, type, conditions of services (electrical, gas, cold water plumbing and sanitary fittings,
hot water, drainage)
Main technology (prefabricated, Hi-Tech mechanic assembly, main structural and envelop
materials)
Rough evaluation of overall building components conditions
i.e., roofs, chimneys, flashings, parapets, gutters, main walls damp proof courses and
ventilation, joinery and woodworks, decorations and finishes, ceilings, walls and partitions,
floors, joinery and woodworks.
Rough evaluation, rating of degradation percentage and level
Pre-diagnosis
Eventual degradations will be rapidly appreciated according to four levels:

light, average, heavy, irreparable and by rough estimation of percentage or
number of components affected by degradation. A first pre-diagnosis will be
hypothesised, also underlining opportunity of further survey.
2.2 Building defects detailed survey: protocol of investigation
The tools that compose the protocol in course of development are:

1. A check list for sensorial survey, mainly subjective visual, odour, tactile,
noise assessment, to gather qualitative data on presence/lack of symptoms and
anomalies (Figure 1), as well as on presence/lack of building products that can
be sources of indoor pollution such as fibrous or foam insulations, textured
glues, some rocks, etc [9].

paints and coatings, pressed wood products, wet or damp carpets, tissues,
2. A questionnaire for occupants. (Table 2)

Aid tools for more detailed inspections are:
3. A list of reference to methods of direct survey. The surveyor uses
common instruments such as insulated light and extension lead, binoculars,
plumb line, hand mirror, camera, assorted screwdrivers, digital level meter
for angles and gradients, laser measurer, capacitance moisture meter,
endoscope, rubber tipped hammer, metal detector and stud sensor, concrete
coloured dyes for tracing drain runs, but also more specific equipment [10]
reinforcement corrosion detector, inflatable bags and smoke testing,
for measuring materials strength or detect invisible condensation (dew point

indicator). (Figure 2)
4. A list of reference to instrumental procedures of testing and monitoring
to quantify IEQ effects due to building components pathology or
inappropriate use of building materials, absorbing or emitting ozone,
formaldehyde, fibres, asbestos, radon, bacteria and moulds, VOCs.
Sensorial Perception:
• Visual: Colour, surface texture, continuity, deformation
• Tactile sensation: Temperature, moisture content,
consistence (tenacious, friable); hardness (tender, soft,
hard)
• Sound: different sound levels at impact
• Taste: salted (efflorescences); sweet, bitter, none
• Odour: acre, sweet,
Surveyor perception Questions to
A) Ceiling Finishes. (code 45/1) Visual sensation occupants
Material: Plaster Visual sensation:
Where water leaked?
Moisture stains and corrugation Are there interior or exterior stains? How long have
of rendering What is their chromatic attribute? What water leaked?
the degrees of intensity? What the Since when in a
degrees of brightness (clear, dark)? visible way?
Does it make patterns along fissures, What were the
sills, roof drains? Are there water patterns in
efflorescences (white stains)? the building
Is the surface flat, smooth, corrugated, history?
cracked? What are the materials at Under what
perception? What materials-parts were meteorically
wetted? What are the materials affected condition leak
B) Suspended ceiling (code 45/3) by anomalies? Are previous repair occurs: after
Material: gypsum-board present? Are there open or corrupted abundant rain,
joints? with what
Rust stains on the ceiling combination
wind-waterfall?
Figure 1: Example of checklist for sensorial survey in two cases of water

leak trough flat roof.
references to outline questionnaires for owners, managers and occupants [11].

Existing checklists, building codes, standards and past good practices form the
Table 2: Abstract of the questionnaire for occupants.
Data and evaluations to be supplied by the occupants

Comfort per type of space (rated from 1 to 4, according to different spaces/rooms)
Scores for temperature, ventilation, humidity, air movement, air freshness, odour, noise distraction,
visual privacy, conversation privacy, natural and artificial lighting comfort, glare from light,
perceived quality of building materials
Functionality of components:
Scores: easy (simple, intuitive) to use, equitable use (for different abilities), resistant, safe.
Maintainability: easy to care, difficult to care, frequency of maintenance
Ecology: energy saving (bill cost, Energy Index), kind of cleaning, frequency of cleaning
Health problems: allergies, headaches, light disturbs (complaints, frequency of disturbs)
During the detailed inspections the pre-diagnosis is confirmed or rejected.

This may require the use of instrumental testing that is to be indicated by the
surveyor himself. He has to judge the opportunity and the kind of such check.
Figure 2, case A, illustrates the characterisation of symptoms like stains,
efflorescence, and moulds. One third to one half of buildings have damp
conditions that may encourage development of such pollutants, often causing
allergic reactions - including asthma - and spread of infectious diseases. Related
symptoms described by occupants may be sneezing, watery eyes, coughing,
shortness of breath, lethargy, fever and digestive problems.
Owing to the correlation of factors like temperature, relative humidity,
thermal transmittance, condensation and probable presence of indoor air
pollutants (VOCs, formaldehyde, moulds, odours) in this pathology case, the
surveyor might go through the indicated instrumental monitoring.
More generally, building products can actively and indirectly contribute to
pollution not only as a source of indoor pollution but also by absorbing or
reacting to NOx, SOx, CO2.
3 Impacts on sustainability
Life cycle thinking is peculiar in sustainability evaluation. Within this approach

building pathology distresses:
• Mentioned health and satisfaction of occupants during operation
• Functionality of components
• Service life of the original and repaired components, hence waste
avoidance
• Degree of repair intervention and through time easiness to care.
• Reusability or recyclability of components when dismissed and their
end of life treatment (discharge, incineration, special processing, etc.)
Choice of materials and of their quantities, also due to repair frequencies,
determines associated environmental impacts. That’s why service life, is
and emission flows [12].

mentioned as a parameter to be taken into calculation of resources consumption
Knowledge of negative cases and codification of failure modes, contributing

to service life prevision, effects on micro-environmental and occupants’ comfort,
can improve sustainability performances.
4 Results
The ongoing work, as illustrated, will converge to a method of data collection to

integrate components pathology analysis with occupational and indoor
environment information, within a holistic approach to building performance
evaluation.
5 Conclusions
Data gathering during expertises on building pathology is to standardize, in order

to have replicable results and contribute to post occupancy evaluation.
Pathology Cases Direct survey Instrumental testing

• Materials and Material characterisation
degradation (destructive sampling): i.e.
classification and organic nature of coating
evolution with weather and of glue.
(see sensorial Moisture content, wall
perception checklist) moisture meter
• Dimensions of Surface temperature
the room/space hand kit
• Orientation of Thermal Bridges
the wall hand thermograph
• Orientation, Temperature and Relative
position and size of Humidity (ISO 7730)
doors – windows instantaneous measurement
• Appraise by a Fanger psychrometer.
detachment and moulds Condensation (ISO 13788)
stain surface (rating) Air tightness of windows
and position pressure-pulsation by a
• Evaluate standard kit with ventilator
relationship with Formaldehyde airborne
Case A: thermal bridges concentration by passively
Detachment of the paper, stains, (external insulation, samplers (ISO/DIS 16000-4)
moulds, fungal growth, Odour presence of reinforced and analysis by
concrete beans and chromotropic acid colour
Pre- diagnosis: columns) development UV-VIS
• Insufficient thermal • Verify spectrophotometry.
insulation of the wall (U value) presence, type and Moulds analysis on
• Excessive air-tightness of position of thermal specimens taken from
the windows insulation in the wall surface (Petri Box) and from
• Excessive air moisture content (but also in the floor air (pumping on
in the room (insufficient and in the ceiling) polyurethane foam)
ventilation) Presence of materials VOC analysis by diffusion
with air pollutants sampling and gas
emissions: chromatography (ISO
• Glues (VOCs) 16017-2)
• Tissues
(formaldehyde)
• Tissue
powders (fibres)
• Check activity Sequence and composition

and evolution of of the wall layers
fissures at visual and (endoscope)
probe (indoor-outdoor) Cracks width and evolution
Presence of materials (monitoring through time by
with possible dangerous a plaster or glass crack
emissions: indicator)
• Isolating mats Mineral fibres monitoring
Case B: behind the gypsum of airborne concentration by
Displacement and fissures between boards (fibres) pumping air into filters or
the indoor gypsum boards by a hand counter of
Pre- diagnosis: condensation centres (CNC)
Shifts of the load-bearing structure
Figure 2: Examples of detailed inspection checklist.
A more rigorous approach in surveying can be put to point by putting into

practice a campaign of oriented expertises. These ones should simultaneously
take advantage of empirical and scientific methods, both direct sensorial ones,
which are peculiar of current building pathologies inspections - and instrumental
monitoring, typical of IEQ building physics and chemical investigations.
Furthermore, a sustainable approach cannot neglect interviews to occupants and
their appreciation. In some standard cases, as the presence of moulds and water
leak, such approach could allow fixing:
• Reliability of pre-diagnosis survey visit
• Proper testing and a standardised series of empirical detection
procedures
• Relationship between qualitative pre-diagnosis direct survey results and
quantitative measurement.
References
[1] International Organization for standardization, series ISO 15686:
Buildings and constructed assets - Service life planning. ISO 15686-
1:2000 General principles; ISO 15686-3:2002 Performance audits and
reviews; ISO 15686-6:2004 Procedures for considering environmental
impacts.
[2] European Commission Construction Unit, http://europa.eu.int/comm/
enterprise/construction/mission_en.htm.
[3] P. Jernberg, C. Sjöström, et al., Service Life and Durability Research,
Proceedings of Joint CIB W080/RILEM TC 140 -Prediction of Service
Life of Building Materials and Components - Guide and Bibliography to
Service Life and Durability Research for Buildings and Components, Part
I, CIB report 295, 2004.
[4] BRE, British Research Establishment, http://www.bre.co.uk/.
[5] Observatoire de la qualité de l’air, http://www.air-interieur.org/.
[6] F. Iselin, Plaidoyer pour des rénovations durables - Leçons de mille et
une expertises. C&R 5, pp. 52-56, May 2005.
[7] Publications of Programme PI-BAT, Entretien et rénovation des
constructions, Office Fédérale des Questions Conjoncturelles, Berne
1990-95.
[8] Office Fédéral de la Santé Publique, Liste de contrôle pour la première
évaluation de la charge polluante à l’intérieur des bâtiments existants,
Berne, Suisse, 2000.
[9] Ibid., Fiches d’évaluation : fiches thématiques et de matériau (20 sheets)
[10] P. Glover, Building Surveys, Elsevier: Oxford, pp. 4-6, 2003.
[11] W. F.E. Preiser, J. Vischer, Measuring instrument for Building
Performance Evaluation (Appendix), Assessing Building Performance,
Elsevier, pp. 209-237, 2005.
[12] AFNOR, NF P01-10:2004, Environmental Quality of construction
products – Environmental and Health Declaration of Construction
Products (Within the ISO/TC59 for ISO/TS 21931).
Cob seismic rehabilitation

G. Scudo1 & A. Drei2
1
Department BEST, Politecnico di Milano, Milano, Italy
2
Department Ingegneria strutturale, Politecnico di Milano, Milano, Italy
Abstract
Among the different earth architectural techniques largely diffused in the Italian
regions – rammed earth, various types of “adobe”, light earth and cob – the last
one is the less known due to its prevalent use in traditional rural buildings and in
a few small settlements in Central Italy, partially abandoned in the last
50/60years. Only recently the administrations of the Regions where the majority
of this cultural heritage is located developed an interest in the cob technique and
earth architecture, mainly in the Marche and Abruzzo regions.
Conservation and ecological interest are the main aim of the local groups
which have to face the very “heavy” task to cope with national technical norms,
particularly seismic ones which do not include traditional earth based building
technologies.
A detailed study has been carried out to assess the technological and
structural pathologies of a typical rural residence in Treia (Macerata Council,
Marche Region) now abandoned in critical conditions due to the lack of
maintenance and to the destructive use of concrete and bricks in previous repair
interventions.
An appropriate technological and cultural sound restoration was proposed
along with a structural improvement taking into account the seismic hazard of
the area, by means of a wooden grid included into the outside façade of the cob
structure.
Seismic forecast performance of the proposed system is based on the
experience of the Colombian research group “Tierra Viva Foundation” and was
also studied by means of a numerical modelling.
Keywords: earth construction, seismic rehabilitation, cob technique, rural
residence.
doi:10.2495/ARC060371
1 Context
The understanding of earth building seismic behaviour is an important issue also
in Italy, where existing large earth built Cultural Heritage stimulated a proposal
to introduce into the new seismic national regulations earth material and
techniques.
The rehabilitation design of an earth building has been the occasion to study
its antisismic performance through specific “consolidation” techniques.
The opportunity came from the interest of the Treia council in Macerata
County (Central Italy) and local architects to preserve the cultural heritage of an
almost disappearing earth technique common in that area.
The local Council promoted an agreement with the property to repair one of
the few still standing cob buildings (“atterrato” Cerioli) in Treia through a
“learning by doing” process which involves researchers, architects, local
technicians and builders in the frame of a larger rehabilitation programme.
2 Cob technique
The unique earth technique used in Treia is the cob (“massone” in Italian,
“bauge” in French) which is relatively uncommon in Italy where the most
diffused earth techniques are rammed earth and earth blocks.
In Italy cob technique is limited to few areas in the hinterland of Marche and
Abruzzo regions (central Italy), while in France, Belgium and Great Britain the
cob cultural heritage and new cob buildings are much more diffused and
studied [1, 2].
The existing cob architecture in Marche region – built between the second
half of the XIX century and the beginning of the XX – is mainly rural isolated
buildings, now almost completely abandoned; a unique example of row houses –
Villa Ficana settlement – now inglobated in Macerata town and undergoing to a
rehabilitation programme – is still existing [3].
Cob is based on the traditional ingredients of many other earth techniques:
aggregates (vegetal fibres, small stones, gravel, sands and silts), binder, which is
the clay fraction of the soil, and water. When the wet mixture is done, walls are
built directly without any shutter or formwork. In the traditional technique the
cob mixture is used to prepare the “massoni” (big “earth loaves”), which are put
beated on the wall. The single course is more or less one meter high and has to
be enough dried to “carry” the second course. Up to two/three courses, the
vertical surface is then pared with special cutting devices used in agricultural
works (mattocks, slashers).
3 Seismic protection of the “atterrato” Cerioli

The building is completely built with the earth cob technique, from which comes
the local name “atterrato”. The southern part of the building, the oldest one built
around the middle of the XIX century, is single store, while the northern two
stories part was added later defining a non regular typology uncommon in the
area (Fig 1).
Figure 1: The cob built “atterrato” Cerioli in Treia (Macerata Council, central
Italy).
When the design analysis and restoration proposal were carried out (2 years
ago), the building was in a very critical physical decay due to structural and
technological pathologies determined by a long period of lack of maintenance,
wind and rain actions and soil yielding (Figs 2, 3).
Figure 2: Analysis of the structural pathologies due to soil yielding and lack
of maintenance.
Figure 3: Analysis of wall erosions due to wind, rain and lack of

maintenance.
Earth building techniques generally give structural elements which have a

lower carrying capacity in comparison to other poor conventional techniques
such as multiple-leaf walls. Further on the flexural behaviour of earth cob
structures, even if it can be considered a monolithic element, without mortar
joints, is not good because of the low tensile resistance of the material.
Therefore the overall structural performance requires a high thickness of the
earth structure, usually not less than 40 cm.
Nevertheless earth structures have a relatively good ductility behaviour,
which is very important to resist seismic actions, while masonry structures have
generally very low ductility factors.
The plan to insert earth structures in the national seismic code came up
against a certain opposition, mainly based on the critique (or pre conception) that
it was very difficult to include in a technical regulation the great variability of
mechanical properties of earth structures due to the local differences of soil
ingredients and craft-men culturally oriented building abilities. It is a typical
example of local/global technological conflict in which the dominant
methodology have to rule over the local knowledge and experience: i.e.
durability standard analysis (as defined by RILEM standards) requires an
elevated number of water immersions which is good for water resistant building
materials (i.e. concrete for dams, etc.) but not for many other which are never
exposed to continuous flooding.
The critical problem of conventional earth building technologies
performances – such as cob or other earth technologies – needs to be faced
through a transdisciplinary and culturally oriented approach which keeps
together local experience with architectural, technological and structural

requirements.
Focusing on seismic protection of diffused earth architectures, since a few
years many proposals and experimental techniques have been carried out.
The first studies on seismic reinforcing of earth buildings have been
performed in South America where earth blocks (“adobe”) and rammed earth
(“tapial”) techniques are largely diffused in highly seismic areas. The main
researches have been done by the group CERESIS [4], by the Getty Institute and
by Gernot Minke [5]. The results where diffused also through very simplified
guidelines which are very useful in such contexts.
More recent studies have been carried out by a professional group (“Tierra
Viva Foundation”) in a collaborative research project with the Getty Institute.
The group experimented with a seismic reinforcement made by a wooden lath
grid which can be integrated in different parts of the earth structure (outside,
inside, only in corners): the wooden grid reinforcing system is easy to fit to the
existing earth structures, and therefore it is a valid alternative in seismic areas to
the diffuse inappropriate use of reinforced concrete or steel elements additions,
which are not physically compatible with earth structures and often produce
damages in earth buildings by strong earthquakes.
4 Rehabilitation and seismic reinforcing technology

The proposed rehabilitation follows two guidelines: first the preservation of the
original architectural characteristics, (dimensions, position of inner walls, doors,
windows, stairs) through conservation and repair; second a more invasive but
anyway reversible and low-cost structural consolidation to increase load carrying
capacity in case of earthquake.
The preservation of the original building implied the limitation of the
technical plants inside and the location of services out of the cob building, the
ridding of degradation causes (ventilated French drain, outside drainage, renewal
on the roof) repair and reinstatement with cob of the heavy dilavated external
walls. A special earth stabilized plaster has been studied to protect by water
erosion the outside cob walls.
Consolidation design involved also the site of the building with a soil
retaining wall, to avoid further yielding causing heavy structural cracks.
Following the basic design choices and to eliminate the inconformity among
materials, every additional previous intervention (brick, concrete, etc.) to close
cracks and cavities was removed and replaced with the traditional cob.
The stairs, previously a brick structure, and the intermediate floor were
completely rebuilt, using only wood elements. The floor beams were connected
to the walls with an intermediate wood plate, in order to distribute the load and
to prevent stress concentration on the earth walls. The same solution was adopted
for the new roof.
The proposed intervention was aimed to use materials and techniques suitable
with earth structures and to avoid any structural hardly reversible
superimposition such as brick buttresses, concrete columns, concrete slabs
applied on the walls, corner brick reinforcements, reinstatement with steel grids
and concrete, etc.
All these “hard” techniques, very often used to reinforce masonry structure,
are non suitable for the conservation of earth buildings or for their seismic
upgrading. The very different stiffness of the coupled materials strongly modifies
the overall physical and structural behaviour of the building.
Figure 4: Seismic action on original earth structure - VM stress.
The enhancement of the performance to seismic actions is based on the

adoption and deepening of the techniques proposed and experimented by the
Columbian research group “Foundation Tierra Viva”. A numeric modelling
confirms the effectiveness of the adopted methodology (Figs 4, 5).
A reinforcement grid made by vertical and horizontal wood joists at a
distance of about 100÷120 cm is applied to the external walls. It can be modified
following openings position but anyway maintaining the density of reinforcing
grid almost uniform in the different walls; some diagonal joists are inserted for
bracing (Fig 6).
Moreover, in order to obtain a better global box behaviour, the wood frame
should be connected by screws to the wood beams of the intermediate floor and
to those of the roof. This last union is important for the reinforcing of the
tympana, which are generally the first elements to collapse in the experimental
tests performed by the research groups previously indicated.
The critical details of the grid system are the joist joints, the connection at the
building angles, the fixing to the ground of the vertical wood elements.
The joist union was designed as a simple placement side by side on a wood
table under them, fixed to the table with wood pins. The grid connection at the
angles is made by steel angle bars.
Figure 5: Seismic action on grid reinforced earth structure – VM stress.
Figure 6: Design of the reinforcement wood grid integrated into the external
walls.
The fixing to the ground of the vertical splints is made by means of bent steel
plates fastened to the wood elements and drowned in a concrete stringcourse at
the base of the earth walls. This buried external stringcourse is important also to
reinforce the base of the “atterrato” which is completely made with earth cobs,
and has no foundations.
In other cases, these kinds of earth buildings have a stone or a brick masonry
basement, acting as foundation and protection from soil water.
The proposed reinforcing is for many aspects similar to the “sistema
baraccato” a building system proposed by probably the first Italian seismic code,
at the end of the XVIII century in the kingdom of Naples. It consisted, in brief, in
timber frames well connected, with stone/brick masonry inside.
Another important detail is the protection and the strengthening of door and
window openings by means of complete wood frames, connected to the external
grid. Even if the external grid is not adopted, the protection of the openings is
quite important, because the beginning of fractures and crashing happens
generally at the angles of doors and windows, due to stress concentration.
Finally the grid can serve also as a support for the earth plaster.
The effectiveness of the intervention was evaluated by a numerical modelling,
to investigate the most stressed zones of the structure and of the grid.
The analysis was performed considering the seismic spectra of the Italian
norm for Treia.
The applied grid, assuming the adhesion of the joists to the earth walls and an
effective fixing to the ground, yields a good performance; the model suggests
also an additional reinforcing (other vertical elements) near to the angles, where
there are larger stresses.
The global effect obtained by the grid is a 30- 35% lowering of the maximum
stresses in the earth walls.
5 Conclusion
The conservation of the architectural heritage was the aim of the project as the
“atterrato” Cerioli is protected by local regulations, therefore the original
configuration was not modified. Guidelines of the restoration design were the
use of eco-compatible materials, fit for earth cob constructions, and a structural
intervention for seismic protection made with low-cost and low technology
materials which can be removed.
Nevertheless the global good behaviour that can be obtained, depends
especially from good craft-men capability and a high quality technical direction,
that is in paying attention to the details of the project (mainly the connections
between the elements and to the ground) and in an accurate work execution.
The house services and the technical plants, necessary for the use of the
building, will be located in a new small construction made with pre-cast cob
elements, in order to test also the modern evolution of this traditional technique.
References
[1] A.A.V.V., Architecture de terre en Ille-et-Vilaine, Ed. Apogée, Ecomusée
du Pays de Rennes
[2] English heritage research transactions, Earth- The conservation and repair
of Bowhill, Exeter: Working with Cob, Vol.3, English heritage Ed.,
London, 1999
[3] Saracco M., Architettura in terra cruda: il caso delle Marche, Alinea
Ed.,Firenze, 2002. Scudo G., Sabbadini S., Le regioni dell’architettura in
terra, Maggioli Ed., Rimini, 1997. Scudo G., Sabbadini S., Bonomini A.,
Drei A., Il recupero ai fini antisismici del massone, il Progetto
sostenibile, n°8, Edicom 2005.
[4] CERESIS, Centro Regional de Sismología para America del Sur, founded
in 1971 by Argentina, Bolivia, Brasil, Colombia, Chile,Perù, Trinidad,
Uruguay, Venezuela.
[5] Minke G., Construction manual for earth quake-resistant houses built of
earth, Ed. GTZ. Nuevas casas resistentes de Adobe, Pontificia Universitad
Catolica del Perù Centro International de Investigation para el desarollo
(CIID).
Section 8
Water conservation
Rainwater harvesting in Brazil:

investigating the viability of rainwater
harvesting for a household in Brasília
D. Sant’Ana
Oxford Institute for Sustainable Development,
Department of Architecture, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, UK
Abstract
This paper addresses the issue of harvesting rain for later use, as part of a
decentralised sustainable urban water management scheme, by adapting an
existing house in order to study the viability of rainwater harvesting (RWH)
systems. The goal of this study was to investigate the potential solutions for the
application of a domestic RWH system for a household in Brasília and identify
the most favourable system for such, considering water conservation and its
economic viability. Based on the investigated the household’s total annual water
consumption and rainwater yield capacity, two RWH systems were proposed: a
treated and a potable indirectly pumped system. The treated RWH system, used
for toilet flushing, dish washing, clothes washing and sink washing, is capable of
conserving 222.65m3/yr of potable water. Considering the total annual savings of
R$1,962.54 (US$882.71), this system has a payback period of approximately 11
years. The potable RWH system, applied to the existing plumbing, supplies
potable rainwater into a pre-existing water tank for all uses. This system
presented a lower payback period of 9½ years, is able to conserve 456.25m3/yr of
mains water and contains a total annual savings of R$3,659.29 (US$1,645.88).
The potable RWH system conserves more water, and has a lower payback period
than the treated RWH system because it harvests and uses more rainwater.
Although, there is a setback, the potable system contains a much higher capital
cost and operational cost, requiring a higher initial investment capital and annual
expenses.
Keywords: rainwater use and harvesting systems, rainwater tank performance,
potable water savings, cost-benefit analysis, viability of rainwater harvesting in
Brazil.
doi:10.2495/ARC060381
1 Introduction
Water is the most precious of all resources, to sustain it, is to preserve life.
According to the Agencia Nacional das Águas -ANA (National Water Agency), it
is estimated that the capacity to supply fresh water to the city of Brasilia will be
exhausted by 2007 [1]. In order to meet the demand, the construction of a fifth
water catchment system, the Corumbá IV water dam, is taking place. The
implementation, operation and maintenance of large scale systems are becoming
complex and costly. Because of this, most environmental specialists believe that
future urban water management will have to be decentralised, with small scale
systems such as rainwater harvesting, in order to preserve and maintain precious
ecosystems threatened by the large scale urban water and waste management
schemes. The exploitation of further hydrologic resources, as well as being
environmentally unfriendly, could only solve the supply issues for the city on a
mid-term level. The actual problem lies within the exceeding water consumption
of the city, where for example, the enormous water consumption rate of
829L/person/day at the Lago Sul neighbourhood of Brasília [2] is four times
larger than the generous average quota of 200L/person/day estimated by Gould
and Petersen [3].
Collecting rainwater from buildings is a simple concept promoting self-
sufficiency, water conservation and minimises local erosion or flooding caused
by run-off. A mass scale use of rainwater harvesting on buildings may possibly
aid on minimising the impact of floods on cities as well as reducing the demand
of freshwater by storing storm water to be consumed later on. Precipitation has
the advantage of being relatively pure, oxygenated and free. Treated rainwater
can be safely used for toilet flushing, washing and irrigation [4]. Therefore the
use of rainwater on buildings could play an important role on water conservation
and sustainability.
2 Objective
The idea of retaining rainwater for reuse as part of a decentralised sustainable

urban water management scheme for the city of Brasília, addresses the issue of
adapting existing buildings in order to apply such systems. This study shall
investigate the possibility of adapting a typical house at Lago Norte, as well as
identifying the optimal rainwater system for it. Formulating the possibilities of
rainwater system for domestic supply depends largely upon its water
consumption patterns and the volume of gathered rainfall. As the price for water
rises, due to the limited offer and the growing demand, a cost-benefit analysis
linked with the amount of water harvested and therefore conserved, should also
be analysed in conjunction with the system’s cost. The overall aim of this
investigation is to analyse the possible solutions towards the application of a
rainwater harvesting system for a house in Brasília, Brazil and pinpoint its
optimum harvesting system considering water conservation and feasibility.
3 Methodology
Initially, with the intention of determining the optimal rainwater harvesting
system for the investigated house, an overview of existing system types and
possible configurations linked with an estimated annual rainwater yield capacity
is necessary. By assembling the site’s rainfall data and assessing the existing
catchment area, an estimated monthly rainwater supply can be determined. With
this, a cross reference of rainwater supply patterns and possible domestic water
demand can be done to propose a potential rainwater harvesting system. The
estimated water savings can be obtained through modelling the recommended
rainwater system, followed by an annual simulation of monthly harvesting and
consumption patterns of rainwater. This simulation shall also assist on sizing the
storage tank of the system, considering its security of supply. In order to assess
the proposed rainwater harvesting system’s feasibility, the comparison of the
estimated total capital cost of equipment and installation together with the cost of
mains water saved, provides the predicted payback period of the system at hand.
4 Case study
The investigated five bedroom house, with a total area of 483m2, is located on an
8,000m2 plot of land near the banks of Brasília’s artificial lake, Lago Paranoá,
situated in the neighbourhood of Lago Norte. Within the site, a swimming pool
is topped up with mains water on the average of once a year. The house is mains
connected, receiving potable water from the local water facilities company
CAESB, which supplies potable water for a total of six people. This water is fed
to a 2,000 litres mains water tank located within the loft of this residential
construction, which is later delivered to points of use in the house by gravity.
External consumption of water, such as garden irrigation, car and floor washing,
is supplied by an underground water well located within the site. The
underground water is extracted via water pump and is fed to external taps located
throughout the garden.
4.1 Domestic water demand
The metered data collected from the investigated house for the period of one year
indicates that the average daily water consumption is 1.25m3 from the total
annual consumption of 455m3, fig. 1. Having six household members living in
the house, the daily water consumption per capita for the period of August 2004
to July 2005 is of 207.8 L/person/day.
4.2 Estimating rainwater supply
The average volume (L) of the annual rainwater yield Yt can be calculated by the
product of the amount of rainfall (mm) available over a period of time Rt, its
possible collection from a catchment area A (m2) in relation to its runoff
coefficient Cr and the system’s filter efficiency coefficient Cf [4].
Aug-04 36
Sep-04 62
Oct-04 39
Nov-04 38
Dec-04 28
Jan-05 31
Feb-05 34
Mar-05 40
Apr-05 39
May-05 34
Jun-05 40
Jul-05 34
Figure 1: Metered mains water readings of the site (m3 per month).
Yt = Rt x A x Cr x Cf (1)
4.2.1 Rainfall data

Brasilia’s average annual precipitation is 1,502mm, and its rainfall patterns
consists of dense tropical rains during the summer, specially in the months
between November to February with precipitation reaching up to the average
250mm, and dry winters, having only an average 5mm of rain in the month of
June, fig. 2.
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Precipitation (mm)
Figure 2: Brasília’s average annual precipitation. Source: METEONORM V. 4.0.
4.2.2 Catchment surface area

The investigated household at hand contains a sloped roof, having a plan area of
468.63m2, and is covered with terracotta tiles. The roof does not contain any
gutters and down pipes, therefore the installation of such would be required for a
RWH system, which would add up to its final cost.
4.2.3 Runoff coefficient

Runoff coefficients of varied catchment surfaces have been developed by
researchers and system manufacturers in order to identify the possible rainwater
losses of every roof and ground catchment type. Having a sloped terracotta tile
rooftop, a runoff coefficient of 0.8 was adopted for the investigated household.
4.2.4 Filter efficiency coefficient

With a plan roof area of 468.63m2, the optimal filter for the given situation
would be to use a subsurface filter, which is able to deliver filtered rainwater
with 90% efficiency for catchment areas up to 500m2.
4.2.5 Annual rainwater yield

In theory, the estimated volume of 506.80m3 of rainwater harvested, would be
able to completely supply the annual household demand of 455m3. Further
investigation of monthly rainwater supply and domestic water demand would be
necessary due to the unstable rainfall patterns, where dry months could pose a
supply issue.
4.3 Identifying possible rainwater use
4.3.1 Untreated Rainwater Use

Untreated rainwater can be used for garden irrigation and external washing.
However, in this case, the household already makes use of free underground
water for such purposes and therefore investing on a RWH system would bring
no pay back.
4.3.2 Treated rainwater use

Treated rainwater could be used in the house for toilet flushing, dish washing,
clothes washing and sink washing providing some refurbishment to the building
is done. By adopting previous studies on water consumption patterns for
Brazil [5], where the WC flushing, dish washer, washing machine and washing
sink represents a total of 49% of the entire domestic water use, it is possible to
estimate the overall volume of rainwater required for such supply. Having a
mean annual water consumption of 455m3, for such system, the household would
require an average of 222.95m3 of rainwater supply.
The overlapping total estimated potential rainwater yield of 507.80m3 implies
that, for the system at hand, a partial runoff catchment from the roof area could
provide the necessary volume. By using the 228.85m2 portion of available roof
area, the total average annual rainwater yield of 247.50m3, would offer the
required water volume.
4.3.3 Potable rainwater use

Due to a series of possible contaminants and pathogens encountered within
rainwater, suitable disinfection is necessary after a microfiltration process, if
such water is to be used for potable purposes and other domestic uses such as
bathing and washing. In this case, an indirectly pumped system could be easily
applied to the pre-existing plumbing with minor refurbishment, by supplying
potable rainwater into the existing water tank. Although this would represent a
lower cost in refurbishment, safety issues such as electronic fail-safe controls
and equipment which are extremely crucial to provide the necessary health safety
guard, can raise the cost of the system. Another factor to take into consideration
for analysing this system’s cost-benefit would be periodical maintenance such as
UV lamps replacement and system check-up.
4.4 Proposed rainwater harvesting systems
4.4.1 Treated RWH system

The schematic flow diagram of such RWH system represents the design and
treatment process of this proposed system, fig. 3. As rainfall is collected by the
gutters, an initial screen filtration removes coarse debris as a prevention of
downpipe clogging. A subsurface filter provides a finer filtration with a 0.44mm
grid and is connected to the stormwater drain pipe, where debris is washed away
through a self-cleaning action. The calmed inlet delivers the filtered rainwater to
an underground collection tank without disturbing the sedimentation layer of
settled impurities, as well as providing slight aeration to the stored water. An
overflow unit removes suspended impurities of the water during rainy season,
having a backflow protection valve and a grill to prevent unwanted contaminants
and animals within the tank. During dry periods, mains water is toped-up to the
collection tank when necessary. A float switch located inside the collection tank
triggers a magnetic valve, feeding mains water into the tank through the calmed
inlet. The floating suction filter provides fine filtration with its 0.23mm filter
mesh and extracts rainwater where it is cleanest, therefore reducing the wear of
the pump, which is activated by a float switch when required, located within a
distribution tank. This water can then be fed to points of use through gravity.
Figure 3: Flow diagram of proposed treated RWH system.
4.4.2 Potable RWH system

The schematic flow diagram of such potable RWH system represents the design
and treatment process of this proposed system, fig. 4. This system contains the
same filtration process as the previously proposed treated RWH system, but
before the filtered rainwater is fed to the distribution tank, disinfection is crucial.
Therefore, a 25 and a 5 micron microfiltration is necessary before UV
sterilization can take place. In order to guarantee a fail safe system, the
ultraviolet treatment unit is equipped with an automatic shut-off control. In case

rainwater does not receive the appropriate level of UV radiation, this device
automatically prevents the untreated rainwater from entering the distribution tank
by restricting its flow. The disinfected, therefore potable water, delivered to the
distribution tank, can be fed to points of use through gravity.
Figure 4: Flow diagram of proposed potable RWH system.
4.5 Sizing the rainwater tank
Gould and Petersen [3], indicate a practical and effective graphical method of
mass curve analysis to identify the most appropriate tank volume. This method
makes use graphics to illustrate the volume of harvested rain and water
consumption, over a time interval. By plotting the cumulative average rainwater
supply, and cross referencing this information with the average cumulative water
demand, it is possible to identify the volume of storage needed. This graphical
representation also aids on pointing out periods the tank would need top-up from
mains water in order to provide the necessary volume of water.
4.5.1 Treated RWH system tank

In order to determine the necessary tank volume for the proposed treated RWH
system, a cumulative mean rainwater yield is cross referenced with the average
rainwater consumption for the period of one year, fig. 5a. So as to simplify the
model, the assumption a constant daily consumption of 0.61m3 is used, given the
estimated total 222.95m3 of rainwater consumption for toilet flushing, dish
washer, washing machine and washing sink. For one year, the graph
demonstrates that from August to November, mains top-up would be required to
supply the necessary water for consumption.
When this graph is to be plotted for a period of five years, it indicates a
progressive rainfall yield compared to the constant rainwater consumption. As a
result, mains water top-up would not be required after the simulated second year
because by the end of each year approximately 25m3 of rainwater would add up
to the following year. Considering that a commercially available 30m3 rainwater
tank is applied to the system, its performance is simulated by determining how
much rainwater it contains through a period of five years, assuming the above
supply and consumption factors. Such performance indicates rainwater
overflows at its maximum level of 30m3, and after the third year, the tank
reaches its maximum efficiency, fig. 5b.
300 40,00
250 30,00
200 20,00
10,00
150
0,00
100 1 2 3 4 5
-10,00
50
-20,00
0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec -30,00
Cumulative Av. Rainwater Yield (m3) Cumulative Water Consumption (m3) 30 m3 Tank Volume
(a) (b)
Figure 5: Monthly cumulative supply and demand (a) and rainwater tank
performance (b).
600 80,00
500 60,00
400 40,00
20,00
300
0,00
200
1 2 3 4 5
-20,00
100
-40,00
0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec -60,00
Cumulative Av. Rainwater Yield (m3) Cumulative Water Consumption (m3) 60 m3 Tank Volume
(a) (b)
Figure 6: Monthly cumulative supply and demand (a) and rainwater tank
performance (b).
4.5.2 Potable RWH system tank

Using the same technique as above, a cumulative mean rainwater yield is cross
referenced with the average rainwater consumption for the period of one year in
order to determine the required reservoir volume for the proposed potable RWH
system, fig. 6a. Assuming the total average daily consumption of 1.25 m3, the
graph demonstrates that during the months of August to November, the
collection tank would be empty and such system would require mains top-up
during this period.
The five-year simulation of its cumulative supply and demand reveals an
arithmetic progression of around 50m3 rainfall yield per year due to annual
surplus, compared to its constant rainwater consumption. Due to such
progression, mains water top-up is only necessary for the first two years.
Considering two commercially available rainwater tanks of 30m3 are applied to
the system, the tanks’ performance can be simulated by determining the
rainwater volume contained within through a period of five years, assuming the
above supply and consumption factors, fig. 6b. Such performance indicates
rainwater overflows at its maximum level of 60m3, and after the third year, the
tank reaches its maximum efficiency.
5 Cost-benefit analysis
The cost-benefit analysis of the RWH systems includes an analysis upon the total
cost of a system, in relation to present and future mains water cost. In order to
identify the payback period of a system, its total cost should be divided by the
annual savings the system in hand generates.
Payback Period (yr) = Total System Cost (2)

Total Annual Savings
Predicted annual savings of RWH system can be identified by the product of the
volume of monthly water saved and the price of mains water within one year,
where:
12
Savings (R$/yr) = ∑ (Monthly Volume Saved (m3) x Mains Water Cost (R$/m3)) (3)
1
Operational costs should also be considered in order to obtain a more precise

prediction of annual savings. Many RWH systems consume energy, require
specialised labour and demand parts replacement. These annual expenses
contribute to the deduction of a system’s annual savings, where:
Total Annual Savings (R$) = Annual savings – Operational cost (4)
5.1 Treated RWH system analysis
The proposed treated rainwater system has a total cost of R$21,044.56

(US$9,465.46), with an annual operating cost of R$188.26 (US$84.67) and
generates an annual savings of R$2,150.80 (US$967.39). Having a total annual
savings of R$1,962.54 (US$882.71), this system’s payback period is of almost
11 years.
5.2 Potable RWH system analysis
The proposed potable rainwater system generates a savings of R$4,407.18

(US$1,982.26) per year, has an annual operating cost of R$748.09 (US$336.48)
and needs an initial investment of R$34,336.95 (US$15,444.10). With the total
annual savings of R$3,659.29 (US$1,645.88), this system has a payback period
of approximately 9½years.
6 Conclusion
This study proposes two types of indirectly pumped systems: a treated RWH
system and a potable RWH system. Since the site already makes use of
underground water for irrigation and other external uses like car and floor
washing, such untreated uses were ruled out. The proposed treated RWH system
costs R$21,044.56 (US$9,465.46), conserves 222.65m3 of water and saves
R$2,150.80 (US$967.39) per annum. Considering the system’s annual operating
cost of R$188.26 (US$84.67), that reduces its annual savings to R$1,962.54
(US$882.71), leads to a payback period of approximately 11 years. The proposed
potable RWH system presented a lower payback period of just about 9½ years,
being able to conserve 456.25m3 per year. The potable system would require a
higher investment of R$34,336.95 (US$15,444.10) to install it, having an annual
operational cost of R$748.09 (US$336.48). The potable RWH system conserves
more water, and has a lower payback period than the treated RWH system
because it harvests and uses more rainwater. Although, there is a setback, the
potable system contains a much higher capital cost and operational cost,
requiring a higher initial investment capital and annual expenses. Actually, both
systems present a medium term payback period and perhaps it would be
necessary some sort of public financing with low interest rate and long-term
credit in order to convince households to invest on them. Or, what is the same,
introduce a discount in the water and sewage bill for the households who have
installed it.
References
[1] Fonseca, A., A ordem e economizar água, Correio Braziliense, 16
February 2005.
[2] CAESB, http://www.caesb.df.gov.br/.
[3] Gould, J. and Petersen, E., Rainwater Catchment Systems for Domestic
Supply: Design, construction and implementation. London: ITDG
Publishing 1999.
[4] Leggett, D., Brown, R., Brewer, D., Stanfield G. and Holliday, E.,
Rainwater and greywater use in buildings: Best practice guidance.
London: CIRIA, 2001.
[5] Santos, G. and Poledna, S., Meio Ambiente, Reciclagem e Tratamento de
Resíduos. Sistema Brasileiro de Resposta Técnica. Ministério da Ciência e
Tecnologia: SENAI, 2005.
Reliability of rainwater harvesting

J. W. Male & M. S. Kennedy
School of Engineering, University of Portland, USA
Abstract
The increased emphasis on sustainability has resulted in an effort to reduce the
reliance on municipal water in favor of the use of collected rainwater. This
paper addresses the reliability of rainwater collection and use for residential
buildings. It describes a procedure that utilizes a water balance based on the
amount of collected rainfall, household demand, and storage tank capacity. The
probabilistic nature of rainfall is incorporated by establishing weekly exponential
distributions based on historical data. These rainfall distributions are used in a
Monte Carlo simulation along with characteristics of the residential system
(catchment area, storage tank size, household demand, etc.). Results show that
along with the size of catchment area, the storage tank capacity is critical in
determining the reliability of the system. The procedure is illustrated with data
from Portland, Oregon.
Keywords: rainwater harvesting, reliability, residential water supply.
1 Introduction
With increasing water rates, a growing number of homeowners are considering
the use of rainwater to help lessen the reliance on municipal water. While the
practice is more common in other countries, it is far from widespread in the U.S.
In addition, water supply utilities are also looking for ways to reduce water use
and forestall the need for capacity expansion. Judicious use of rainwater has the
potential to address both concerns. The intent of this paper is to assess the
potential use of rainwater for domestic purposes in Portland Oregon, paying
particular attention to the reliability of rainwater collection.
1.1 Previous work
The use of rainwater has been addressed by a number of individuals and
organizations, but usually from the practical viewpoint of design. There are a
doi:10.2495/ARC060391
number of publications that emphasize overall sustainable practice with sections

on rain harvesting (e.g., City of Austin [1], Barnett and Browning [2]). Others
are specific to water supply (e.g., Milne [3], Pacey and Cullis [4]). Several
publications are aimed specifically at developing countries, where safe
distribution systems may not be in place (e.g., Fok et al. [5], Minnigh et al. [6],
Schiller and Latham [7]), or where rainfall is minimal (e.g., NAS [8], Minnigh et
al. [6]). Much of the published work on rain-water harvesting pertains to the
practical aspects of systems, including component design, code issues, and
expected water yield. The Texas Water Development Board [9] presents a step-
by-step approach to estimate how much rain might be collected, along with
rainfall frequency curves for several cities in the state. Few approaches have
attempted to incorporate the reliability of rainfall by analyzing the variability and
sequencing of rainfall on a period-to-period basis. Schiller [10] presented a
method using monthly time increments and historical rainfall data.
1.2 Rainwater collection components
While there are several variations, a basic rainwater collection system

incorporates the following components: (1) catchment – an impervious surface
that collects rain, usually a roof, (2) collection – gutters and downspouts to direct
the water from the catchment area to storage, (3) first flush diverter – a device to
divert the initial fraction of rainfall, (4) storage – a reservoir that stores collected
rainwater for future use, (5) overflow – a means of removing excess water from
the tank, (6) conveyance – a delivery pipe from the tank to the end use, and (7)
treatment – a means to improve quality to meet end use requirements.
The important components for this study are the catchment and storage. The
size and surface characteristics of the catchment are important in determining the
quantity of water entering the tank. Naturally, there is a linear relationship
between the catchment area and the amount of rainwater collected. For every
one inch of precipitation, roughly 2/3 of a gallon of water is collected per
horizontal square foot of the catchment. However, some initial rain is lost
through the wetting of the roof. In addition, for better water quality, the
collection sys-tem is often designed to divert away from the tank the initial
portion of the runoff (first flush). The storage tank is a critical determinant of
the system reliability. A larger storage tank will allow for a longer water
delivery period through dry months.
1.3 Portland’s rainfall
Portland’s precipitation averages approximately 37 inches per year, with most of

it falling as rain between October and June. Daily rainfall values for Portland
exist for 62 years, from which weekly averages were determined, as shown in
Figure 1. The resulting table of 52 values for each of 62 years was used to
determine statistical parameters, appropriate distributions, and correlation
coefficients.
1.80
1.60
1.40 Average Weekly Rainfall
Precipitation (in.)
1.20
1.00
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00
13
17
21
25
29
33
37
41
45
49
1
Week of the year
Figure 1: Histogram of weekly average rainfall amounts for Portland Oregon.
2 Reliability analysis
2.1 Water balance
A spreadsheet program was created to account for water inflow, outflow and
storage in the system. For each of the simulations several user-defined
parameters were required, including: daily demand, catchment (usually roof)
size, storage tank capacity, percent-age lost to first flush, and the status of the
tank (full or empty) at the start of simulations. A simple water balance, shown in
Equation (1), was used to deter-mine the volume stored at the end of the current
week by adding weekly rainfall to the storage carried over from the previous
week, and subtracting the weekly demand. The rainfall, in inches, was selected
from an appropriate statistical distribution, described later.
0 if Si +1 < 0

Si +1 = Si + (1 − flush )( I i ) − Di = CAP if Si +1 > CAP
S
(1)
 i +1 otherwise
where: Si+1 = storage at end of week i,
Si = storage at beginning of week i,
flush = the fraction of a rainfall event diverted from
storage tank,
=   ( 7.48 gal. / ft.3 )( roof size in ft.2 ) ( rainfall in inches ) ,

Ii = inflow during week i
1
 12 
Di = water demand during week i, and
CAP = capacity of tank.
•
Input Monte Carlo
•
Average weekly rainfall data Simulation
•
Rainfall distribution function
Correlation coefficients
Simulated weekly rainfall
•
Input Water Balance
•
Roof area
•
Storage tank volume
•
Consumptive water demand
•
Water losses (first flush, Output Distribution
Number of weeks that
•
evaporation, etc.)
•
Unit costs storage tank is available
Revenue losses
Figure 2: Diagram of the procedure.
Figure 2 shows a schematic diagram of the procedure. For each week, the
spreadsheet recorded tank availability (i.e., non-zero storage at the end of the
week). The water balance was conducted for 52 weeks of the year, and the total
number of weeks that the tank was available for use was determined. The water
balance was performed on a yearly basis, starting each new simulation with the
beginning of each calendar year. This assumption corresponds to the practice of
not using the tank when it is empty during the later summer and early fall
months, and allowing the tank to fill during the fall. Therefore, week number
one was assumed to be the first week in January, starting the water balance with
a full tank.
2.2 Reliability analysis
The reliability of a rainwater collection system cannot be determined using only

the weekly average rainfall. Examination of the average precipitation data for
Portland indicates that when averaged over the historical record, each week of
the year receives some rainfall. However, closer examination of all the data
shows that in some years Portland can go several weeks during the summer
months without any significant precipitation. A storage tank designed using
average weekly precipitation data may not be adequate during dry summers. In
order to determine the reliability of a storage tank during dry periods, the
variability in rainfall must be incorporated into the water balance analysis. A
stochastic component was incorporated into the analysis by defining probability
distributions for each week of rainfall included in the water balance and
beginning of each calendar year. This assumption corresponds to the practice of

not using the tank when it is empty during the later summer and early fall
months, and allowing the tank to fill during the fall. Therefore, week number
one was assumed to be the first week in January, starting the water balance with
a full tank.
2.3 Reliability analysis
The reliability of a rainwater collection system cannot be determined using only

the weekly average rainfall. Examination of the average precipitation data for
Portland indicates that when averaged over the historical record, each week of
the year receives some rainfall. However, closer examination of all the data
shows that in some years Portland can go several weeks during the summer
months without any significant precipitation. A storage tank designed using
average weekly precipitation data may not be adequate during dry summers. In
order to determine the reliability of a storage tank during dry periods, the
variability in rainfall must be incorporated into the water balance analysis. A
stochastic component was incorporated into the analysis by defining probability
distributions for each week of rainfall included in the water balance and
performing a Monte Carlo simulation. The simulations were performed using a
proprietary software, Crystal Ball (Decisioneering [11]) which allows the
designation of input probability distributions and selection of output variables.
The simulation used the 52 distributions determined from the historical data,
along with the week-to-week correlation coefficients.
To incorporate rainfall probability distributions, each of the 52 weekly data
sets was analyzed using both Chi Squared and Kolmogorov-Smirnov tests. The
exponential distribution generally provided an excellent approximation of
weekly rainfall frequencies.
Results of 10,000 Simulations
1,200
1,000
Roof area = 1000 sq. ft.
Storage = 500 gallons
800
Frequency
600
400
200
0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25
Number of Weeks
Figure 3: Frequency distribution for 10,000 simulations of tank availability

for roof area of 1000 sq. ft. and tank size of 500 gallons.
2.4 Interpretation of simulation output

Monte Carlo simulations consisted of 10,000 iterations of the water balance,
each based on 52 weeks of rainfall data generated from 52 exponential
distributions. The output from these simulations is presented as a distribution
representing the number of weeks in a calendar year that the storage tank is
available for use. From these distributions, a reliability can be associated with
the specific number of weeks that the tank is avail-able.
The results of one simulation for a roof area of 1,000 ft2 and a tank size of
500 gallons are shown in Figures 3 (probability distribution) and 4 (cumulative
distribution). As can be seen the results are sym-metrical, resembling a normal
distribution. For a particular combination of roof area and tank size, the
reliability associated with the number of weeks that water is available can be
predicted. For example, there is a 90% chance that water will be available in the
tank eight weeks of the year. Where as, the probability that the tank will be
available 12 weeks of the year, is only 50%. At the other extreme, there is only a
10% chance that the tank will be available for 17 weeks.
100%
Model Simulations
Percentage of Simulations Exceeding
90%
10%
80%
50%
70%
90%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
0 5 10 15 20 25
Number of Weeks
Figure 4: Cumulative distribution 10,000 simulations of tank availability for

roof area of 1,000 sq. ft. and tank size of 500 gallons.
3 Results
Simulations were performed for roof sizes of 1,000, 2,000, and 3,000 sq. ft. and
for tank sizes varying from 200 to 1,500 gallons. Reliability results for these
combinations of roof area and storage tank volume are summarized in Figures 5,
6, and 7. Also shown in these figures is the number of weeks of available
storage obtained by simply using the 62-year average rainfall for each of the 52
weeks of the year. As would be expected, for a desired reliability, as the tank
size and roof size increase, the number of weeks that the tank is available for use
also increases. It is interesting to note that the relationship of the “aver-age
results” (those calculated from a single simulation using the 62-year average
weekly values) to the reliability results, changes with different roof sizes. In
particular, for the 1,000 ft2 roof, using an average value significantly
underestimates the utility of the systems for all tank sizes. For the 2,000 ft2 roof,
the “average results” show relatively good agreement with the reliability
predictions. With the 3,000 ft2 roof, the utility of the system is overestimated for
smaller tank sizes using “average results,” but both the “average results” and
reliability predictions are in agreement for larger tank sizes. Thus, not only is
there an apparent disagreement between “average results” and reliability
predictions, this discrepancy is a function of both roof area and storage tank
volume. This seemingly anomalous result is addressed further in the discussion
section.
30
Weeks of Available Storage
10% Reliability 50% Reliability

25 90% Reliability Average
20
15
10
0
0 500 1000 1500
Tank Size, gallons
Figure 5: Reliability results for a 1,000 sq. ft. roof area.
4 Discussion
4.1 Reliability
As can be seen from Figure 5, for a specified number of available weeks (a
horizontal line on the figure), the reliability increases with tank size. Likewise,
for increasing roof size (Figures 5, 6, and 7), the reliability increases. However,
when comparing the results using average values to the median results (50%
reliability), a different trend is apparent. The effect of the difference is most
dramatically seen in Figure 7, where for a small tank (200 gallons), the
calculation using weekly average rainfall amounts yields an available supply for
34 weeks, whereas the median simulation result yields only 26 weeks. In
contrast, for a large tank, the two approaches yield about the same result. One
can draw the conclusion that, for Portland’s rainfall data, the average and median
results are not significantly different for large roofs and large tanks, but they are
for small tanks.
45
10% Reliability
50% Reliability
40 90% Reliability
Average
35
Number of Weeks
30
25
20
15
10
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Tank Size, gallons
Roof Size = 3000 sq. ft.

50
10% Reliability
45 50% Reliability
90% Reliability
Average
40
# Weeks Available
35
30
25
20
15
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Tank Size, gallons

These results can be explained by the fact that the mean value for the heavily
skewed exponential distribution of precipitation values is higher than the median
value. While it is true that the median value is not used as an input value (as the
mean is), many more of the input values that are selected from the input
distribution tend to be closer to the lower, median value. During the dry summer
months when rainfall is low, mean values do not represent a likely sequence of
low rainfall; a sequence of values quite likely at, or close to zero. For a small
tank, the mean values (larger relative to the values close to the median) have a
more pronounced effect on filling a tank, particularly a small tank. For example,
for week 25, which leads into the dryer summer weeks, the average weekly
rainfall of 0.4 inches will fill a 500-gallon tank to almost 85% of its capacity.
The median value only provides only about 59% of the tank capacity. Note that
for each of these calculations, 15% is subtracted for first flush.
4.2 Water savings
The simulation procedure is likely to underestimate the amount of water that can
be utilized by a rain harvesting system. Because the computational routine is set
up with weekly increments, the maximum amount of water that can be provided
on a weekly basis is equal to the capacity of the tank. In reality, even though it
may not rain continuously and water may not be used continuously, the tank is
not emptied and filled only once a week, as is done in the routine. Therefore,
depending on rainfall and demand, the amount of water available for use over a
week’s time could exceed the tank volume. For example, for a 1,000-gallon
tank, the procedure can utilize at most 1,000 gallons a week. Yet if the problem
is addressed on a daily basis, it is theoretically conceivable that the tank could
refill every day, allowing the use of up to 7,000 gallons a week. This scenario
assumes a 3,000 sq. ft. roof and 0.8 inches of rainfall a day, seven days in a row.
This rainfall is higher than normal for Portland. However, when picking a
rainier-than-average week (week 48) and the median value from that week
(1966), the daily rainfall values of 0.03, 0.04, trace, 0.19, 0.27, 0.21, and 0.18
inches yield a usable volume of over 1,350 gallons, higher than the 1,000 gallons
the procedure would have determined. This calculation assumes the first three
daily values never reach the tank and the others are reduced by the first flush
amount of 15 percent. There are many weeks during the historical record that
have far greater weekly rainfalls. The continuous-use scenario assumes that the
user takes advantage of the system daily; for example it is connected
permanently to the household supply, allowing use of the municipal water if the
tank goes dry during a day. A procedure using daily time increments is an area
for further research.
5 Summary and conclusions

This study assessed the reliability of residential rainwater harvesting systems to
supply water for different catchment areas and storage volumes. In particular,
the procedure determines the number of weeks that such a system is available to
supply a given demand. Results of the approach show that for rainfall patterns
similar to those seen in Portland Oregon, combinations of roof/tank sizes from
1,000 sq. ft./500 gallons to 3,000 sq. ft./1,500 gallons have a 50% probability of
reducing annual municipal water use by 8,000 to 27,000 gallons, respectively,
for each system installed.
Several conclusions can be drawn from the study:
• Median (50% reliability) storage availability can not be predicted based on
•
average weekly rainfall data,
Reliability analysis gives a more complete picture of the effects of roof area
•
and storage tank size on performance of rainwater harvesting systems, and
Rainwater harvesting can reduce water use.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the Portland Water Bureau for providing support
for the project. They would also like to thank Jim Doane and Marie DelToro of
the Water Bureau for their valuable contributions. At the University of Portland,
four students contributed to the project: Robb Lukes, Lara Karamatsu, Ashley
Cantlon, Brendan O’Sullivan, and David Shunk.
References
[1] City of Austin, Sustainable Building Sourcebook, City of Austin Environ-
mental and Conservation Services Department, Austin, TX, 1995.
[2] Barnett, D.L. and W.D. Browning, A Primer on Sustainable Building,
Rocky Mountain Institute, Snowmass, CO, 1995.
[3] Milne, M., Residential Water Re-Use, Water Resources Center, Davis CA,
1979.
[4] Pacey, A. and A. Cullis, Rainwater Harvesting: The Collection of Rainfall
and Runoff in Rural Areas, Intermediate Technology Publications.
London, 1986.
[5] Fok, Y.S., E.T. Murabayashi, and R.H.L. Fong, “Rainwater Roof-
Catchment Cistern Systems for Residential Water Supply,” Third World
Congress on Water Resources Proceedings, Vol. IV, International Water
Resources Association, Mexico City, 23-27 April, 1979.
[6] Minnigh, H., H. Mark, M. Diaz, and J. Meyers, SWAP for Rainwater:
Experience in the U.S. Virgin Islands, presented at American Water
Resources Association 2003 International Congress, 29 June – 2 July,
2003.
[7] Schiller, E. J., and B. G. Latham, A Generalized Method for Designing
Rainwater Collectors, Canadian Water Resources Journal, Vol. 17, No. 2,
1992.
[8] NAS, More Water for Arid Lands, National Academy of Sciences,
Washington DC, 1974.
[9] Texas Water Development Board, Texas Guide to Rainwater Harvesting,
Austin TX, 1997. www.twdb.state.tx.us/publications/reports/RainHarv.pdf
[10] Schiller, E. J., Rooftop Rainwater Catchment Systems for Drinking Water
Supply, Water Supply and Sanitation in Developing Countries, Ann Arbor
Science, 1982.
[11] Decisioneering, Inc. Crystal Ball: Forecasting and Risk Analysis for
Spreadsheet Users. CG Press: Broomfield, Colorado, 1996.
User experiences with decentralised water

systems in an ecological residential area
A. A. E. Luising
Delft University of Technology, Faculty of Architecture,
Environmental Design, The Netherlands
Abstract
EVA-Lanxmeer is an ecological residential area in the centre of The
Netherlands. An integrated (waste) water concept was an essential part of the
design. On the incoming side two water streams are distinguished: drinking
water and household water. On the outgoing side the household wastewater is
divided into two streams: black water and grey water. This paper discusses the
attitude of the users on water saving and water treatment systems. The central
theme is the relation between the physical implementation of the water systems
in the design and the use of it by the inhabitants of the area. For this research
interviews were held with the inhabitants of the project. The water concept was
an important part of the concept of the project and it added to the visible quality
of the area. Furthermore, the people considered the systems very reliable even if
the systems had not yet been put into practice.
Keywords: grey water, black water, wastewater, decentralised sanitation, user
experiences, ecological residential area.
1 Introduction
Central end of pipe wastewater management causes various environmental and
social problems. Integrated water management can offer an opportunity for
residential areas to improve building and living quality.
Centralised wastewater concepts are not sustainable: they use water for
flushing, need for infrastructure, loss of valuable nutrients in the wastewater and
a lack of user consciousness. Decentralised wastewater concepts can be a
solution for these problems. The change from central to decentralised systems
means that wastewater systems come closer or even in the built environment.
doi:10.2495/ARC060401
This causes a new view on the subject. How are these systems to be integrated in
the built environment? Which new challenges are to be met? What function do
these systems have except for cleaning wastewater. How have they to be used
and maintained.
This paper describes a research about the implementation of decentralized
systems and user aspects. Lanxmeer, an ecological area in Culemborg, was used
as a case study. In this area an integrated water system was part of the design.
Some parts of the system were functioning at the time of the research; some parts
just existed on drawings.
Goal of the research was to find relations between user aspects and the
physical implementation of the system. For a successful application of a
decentralized system a good technical design is essential. But after building the
system the user and maintenance phase are just as important for success. Aspects
as trust, responsibility, information, physical appearance and location play an
important role.
1.1 Location
EVA-Lanxmeer is located in Culemborg in the centre of the Netherlands. The

project is realized in cooperation with future inhabitants.
Goal was to create an integrated design in which sustainable development and
a high quality of the living environment played a central role.
The houses and buildings lay horseshoe shaped round a water collection area
and consist of three neighbourhoods, fig. 1. The area is characterised by a
spacious and green lay-out.
The program consists of two hundred houses, office space, a city farm and a
multifunctional congress and educational centre. Except for attention for
renewable materials and an energy neutral concept an integrated water system
was implemented [1, 2].
Figure 1: Location of Lanxmeer.
Figure 2: Water made visible in Lanxmeer: open rain water gutters.
1.2 Process and organisation
Lanxmeer was founded in 1996 by a project team formed by the municipality of

Culemborg and the EVA-Foundation. In 1998 the inhabitant’s organisation BEL
was founded. It looks after the interests of the inhabitants. It consists of various
working groups, for example traffic, gardens and car sharing. The project office
is responsible for the organisation of the building project and informs the
inhabitants of Lanxmeer about the progress.
1.3 Water system
The plan location in the middle of a water collection area was the basic principle
for the urban design. The water systems take a very prominent role in the area.
The water systems take considerable space on prominent positions. Water is
visible everywhere in Lanxmeer, fig. 2. Because the area is situated in a water
collection area this made special demands on the building manner related to the
water system. At the same time this offered opportunities to show many aspects
of sustainable water management. The houses are built on a foam concrete
foundation in stead of building on piles to prevent contact between drinking
water layers in the soil with contaminated water layers. The water collection area
is protected from dirty water inlet by creating a constant overpressure in the area.
The wastewater flows away from the water collection area.
Figure 3: Reed bed filter. Figure 4: Rainwater collecting

pond.
The basic principle was to save and reuse as much water as possible and
protect the vulnerable water collection area. Every of the three neighbourhoods
have their own water system for grey, black (toilet water) and rainwater.
Rainwater is collected in retention ponds situated around the water collection
area, fig. 4.
The grey water is treated in one of the three reed bed filters, fig. 3. The
effluent infiltrates in wadi’s. These wadi’s are used as well to infiltrate a part of
the rainwater. The retention ponds for collecting the rainwater are situated
around the water collecting area. The black water is collected from the whole
area and in the future it will be treated in a biogas treatment plant. At this
moment it flows to the sewer which was added as a back up system in the design.
Part of the plan is a multifunctional conference and education centre.
The wastewater of this centre will be treated separately in a Living Machine.
2 Methods
In order to investigate the relation between implementation and the user aspects
of the water systems, a research frame was set up.
Firstly the water systems in the area were studied. This included the technical
specifications, the implementation in the design of the area and the process from
design to implementation and use of the water systems.
Inhabitants of the area where interviewed about their attitude to decentralised
water systems and their experiences so far. A list of questions was set up using
key themes from the system analysis and former inhabitant research. 102 letters
were sent to all the inhabitants of EVA-Lanxmeer. Fifteen in depth interviews
were held. Because of the small number of interviews the results are just
interpreted qualitatively.
The interviews consisted of five parts:
• Common questions about the residential area
• Decision-making, participation and process: the commitment and opinion of the
respondents regarding the water system was checked
• The wastewater treatment system: knowledge and point of view was tested.
• Maintenance
• Application: these questions go in to the practical use of the systems and final
products.
Figure 5: Wastewater systems in Lanxmeer, picture Paul de Graaf.
3 Results and discussion

3.1 Trust
Most respondents trusted the project office to take the right decisions regarding
the water system. When they were asked if any health risks were involved with
the system, nobody expected any problems. They even planned to use the future
compost of the anaerobic digester in the communal gardens. Although many of
the respondents were not satisfied with the information they received during the
process, this did not lead to a decreased level of trust in the water system itself.
For a functioning grey water system it is important that users do not contaminate
the reed beds by disposing toxic materials in the kitchen sink. For example no
chlorine or remains of paint can be disposed. There was some distrust between
inhabitants; they were afraid that others would not treat the grey water system
with care. The residents are responsible for the water system together and
therefore dependant on each other’s behaviour.
3.2 Information
Inhabitants are informed about the water system by the project office of
Lanxmeer. Information about the household water is the responsibility of the
supplier of the household water. Respondents wanted to be informed about the
water systems by meetings and mail.
During the interviews it was not clear if the household water network would
be brought into use. The information provision by the supplier of the water was
considered poor. None of the respondents was informed about this process. Due
to a governmental regulation it was prohibited to use household water in houses.
3.3 Identity
There seems to be a separation between inhabitants of the various

neighbourhoods. The difference between owner-occupied houses and rented
houses is not clearly present although some house-owners show their concern
about tenants not visiting information meetings. This could cause problems when
they have to be informed about using the water system. Inhabitants who not
considered themselves as environmental friendly were influenced by their
neighbours; good examples were taken over. In general the respondents believed
that the water system is an integrated part of Lanxmeer. In spite of the fact that a
considerable part of the system was not yet brought into use (no household water
and black water system) they would be very disappointed if this was not going to
happen.
The water system is considered as one of the essential projects in the area.
The area would have failed if the decentralized water system would not be
completed according to most of the respondents. Previous research [3, 4] showed
that most of the inhabitants moved to Lanxmeer because of the ecologically
sound character. Besides, the water system has important social control function.
The sensitivity from the grey water system means that users have to treat it with
care. If the grey water system would not be put into use there would be no
necessity to use ecologically sound products and with it the solidarity would
decrease
3.4 Location of the water system
At the time of the interview the grey water system was constructed. The motives
of the designers to locate the system on a certain place diverged.
The location involved accessibility, safety and educational reasons. One the
one hand the water system is an important visiting card of the area. For this
reason it should be visible to as many people as possible. For example places on
the border along a busy cycle track where many people pass on their way to the
Station, fig. 6. On the other hand the water system is vulnerable and the system
could be better situated in a sheltered place.
Figure 6: Information board reed bed filter along cycling track.
3.5 Maintenance
Most respondents do not want to be involved in the maintenance of the water

system. It takes too much time and many of them already are a member of other
teams. Some of the respondents doubt if they have enough knowledge of the
water system.
3.6 Scale
The level of social cohesion is highest on the smallest level of scale in

Lanxmeer: the courts. Inhabitants are responsible together for the system, use
and maintenance. Therefore the optimum level of scale for the water system
would be the court level, fig. 7. This would involve the users more in the system,
although respondents indicated that they did not consider themselves qualified
for maintenance tasks. Furthermore the infrastructure can be more efficient.
The recycled water could be used in de court as well.
3.7 Selection of water system
Saving water is the main motive for inhabitants to have a decentralised water
system. Saving costs is not an issue. Respondents expect that using a
decentralised water system will improve the (environmental) quality of their
living environment. In selecting a water treatment system a number of aspects
are of concern for inhabitants. To what extent the system can be integrated in
Figure 7: Communal garden in court.
the situation is of importance. Respondents choose for a system that merges in its
surroundings. A helophyte filter is a good example of a merging system because
the plant fit well in the green design. However, because Lanxmeer aims to be a
model for a sustainable area in which sustainable techniques are shown, systems
are made visible in the area. Rainwater flow through open gutters to the retention
ponds and in de future educational centre a Living Machine is planned.
References
[1] Website inhabitants EVA-Lanxmeer (BEL), www.bel-lanxmeer.nl.
[2] Website EVA-Lanxmeer Foundation, www. eva-lanxmeer.nl.
[3] V&L Consultants, Bewonerservaringen EVALanxmeer te Culemborg,
Rotterdam, 2003.
[4] Ger de Vries, Bewoners in EVA-Lanxmeer. Dik tevreden, Magazine Puur
Bouwen, nr. 5, 2004.
Author Index
Anselm A. J. ............................ 195 MacBurnie I............................... 63
Armpriest D. ............................ 133 Male J. W................................. 391
Marletta L. ....................... 267, 319
Baker N........................................ 3 McCabe C................................ 237
Bojórquez-Morales G. ............. 205 Metallinou V. A......................... 15
Bosman G. ............................... 297
Brebbia C. A. ........................... 215 Ochoa-Corrales J. .................... 205
Bt Omar D. ................................ 83 Ott B. ......................................... 45
Chen C.-J. .................................. 73 Quale J. ...................................... 53

Connors K................................ 287
Corona-Zambrano E. ............... 205 Richarde R. .............................. 195
Costanzo E............................... 361 Robertson S. ............................ 351
Rojas-Caldelas R. .................... 205
Drei A. ..................................... 369 Rosenhouse G. ......................... 331
Rossi P. .................................... 247
Evola G. ........................... 267, 319
Sala N. ..................................... 163
Garrison M............................... 155 Sant’Ana D. ............................. 381
Gorst J...................................... 215 Scudo G. .................................. 369
Seyler C. .................................. 227
Haglund B................................ 133 Sicurella F........................ 267, 319
Harwood P. .............................. 103 Soria López F. J. ........................ 23
Stevenson F. ............................ 257
Ibrahim R................................. 185 Stoy C. ..................................... 227
Straka V. .................................. 277
Kennedy M. S. ......................... 391 Swensen G. .............................. 123
Kilby P..................................... 115
Kirschner U.............................. 143 Thompson M. .......................... 351
Koester R. J.............................. 175 Tsianaka E. ................................ 93
Kytzia S. .................................. 227
van Hal A................................... 35
Lawton M. ............................... 341 van Timmeren A...................... 309
Luising A. A. E........................ 401
Luna-León A............................ 205
Lützelschwab I......................... 227
Flow Phenomena in Design and Nature III
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Section 1: Ecological and cultural sensitivity

Cultural responses to primitive needs

Ecological propriety and architecture

Architecture and nature at the end of the 20th century: towards a

The keyword is quality not ecology

In-between architecture and landscape, from theory to practice

Ecological, modular and affordable housing

Flexi-Living: adaptable property, adaptable housing, transforming lives

The study of restoring an eco-habitat of the traditional Paiwan tribe

Urban planning and the quality of life in Putrajaya, Malaysia

Evaluating the sophistication of vernacular architecture to adjust to

Examining line as a heuristic device in the design ethos of Alvar Aalto

Historical influences of wind and water in selecting settlement sites

Unity, simplicity and balance: sustainable management of

Poetic water images in architecture

Section 3: Design with nature

The 2005 Solar D house

Fractal geometry and architecture: some interesting connections

Symbols, metaphors, analogues: seeding, modelling and achieving

A methodology for sustainable design analysis of large scale buildings

Developing designs in balance with nature

Outdoor residential landscape design in an arid natural conservation area:

Indicators for the ecological planning of buildings

Sustainable building design in Australia

Design and construction: changing the role

Section 4: Assessment and selection of materials

Natural materiality – the people’s choice

Environmental impact of materials used in technical equipments:

Designing for longevity

Natural building systems: experiments in urban ecology

Promoting sustainability of earth constructed private and

Section 5: Natural technologies

Heteronomy and (un)sustainability of essential technical infrastructures

Eco-design of technological systems in buildings

Section 6: Design by passive systems

Sound barriers to enable open windows and integration in landscape

Guidelines for sizing roof windows

Section 7: Building operation and maintenance

Building defects: survey and impact over sustainability

Cob seismic rehabilitation

Section 8: Water conservation

Rainwater harvesting in Brazil: investigating the viability of

Reliability of rainwater harvesting

User experiences with decentralised water systems in an

Author index ....................................................................................................409

Cultural responses to primitive needs

2.1 Thermal comfort: the two models

2.2 Field studies

The role of adaptive behaviour in achieving thermal comfort has received

Even in more extreme climates, adaptive actions are often sufficient to

Figure 2: Chosen temperature (heavy line), i.e. the temperature at the

4 The luminous environment