34
STRENGTH
In general, there exists a fundamental inverse relation-
ship between porosity and strength of solids which, for
simple homogeneous materials, can be described by the
expression
S = S0 e−kp (3.1)
where S is the strength of the material which has a given
porosity p; S0 is the intrinsic strength at zero porosity;
and k is a constant. For many materials the ration S/S0
plotted against porosity follows the same curve. For in-
stance, the data in Fig. 3-1a represent normally cured ce-
ments, autoclaved cements, and a variety of aggregates.
Actually, the strength-porosity relationship is applicable
to a very wide range of materials, such as iron, stainless
steel, plaster of paris, sintered alumina, and zirconia (Fig.
3-1b).
Powers1 found that the 28-day compressive strength
f c of three different mortar mixtures was related to the
gel/space ratio, or the ratio between the solid hydration
products in the system and the total space:
f c = ax 3
where (a) is the intrinsic strength of the material at zero
porosity ( p) and (x) the solid/space ratio or the amount
of solid fraction in the system, which is therefore equal to
(1 − p). Powers’s data are shown in Fig. 3-1c; he found
the value of (a) to be 34,000 psi (234 MPa). The simi-
larity of the three curves in Fig. 3-1 confirms the general
validity of the strength-porosity relationship in solids.
Whereas in hardened cement paste or mortar the
porosity can be related to strength, with concrete the sit-
uation is not simple. The presence of microcracks in the
transition zone between the coarse aggregate and the ce-
ment paste matrix makes concrete too complex a material
for prediction of strength by precise strength-porosity re-
lations. The general validity of strength-porosity relation,
however, must be respected because porosities of the com-
ponent phases of concrete, including the transition zone,
indeed become strength limiting. With concrete contain-
ing the conventional low-porosity of high-strength aggre-
gates, the strength of the material will be governed both
by the strength of the cement paste matrix and the strength
of the transition zone. Typically, at early ages the transi-
tion zone is weaker than the matrix, but at later ages the
reverse seems to be the case.
FAILURE MODES IN CONCRETE
With a material such as concrete, which contains void
spaces of various size and shape in the matrix and mi-
crocracks at the transition zone between the matrix and
coarse aggregates, the failure modes under stress are very
complex and vary with the type of stress. A brief review
1 T.C. Powers, J. Am. Ceram. Soc., Vol. 41, No. 1, pp. 1-6, 1958.
CHAPTER 3.
of the failure modes, however, will be useful in under-
standing and controlling the factors that influence con-
crete strength.
Under uniaxial tension, relatively less energy is need
for the initiation and growth of cracks in the matrix. Rapid
propagation and interlinkage of the crack system, consist-
ing or preexisting cracks at the transition zone and newly
formed cracks in the matrix, account for the brittle fail-
ure. In compression, the failure mode is less brittle be-
cause considerably more energy is needed to form and to
extend cracks in the matrix. It is generally agreed that
in a uniaxial compression test on medium-or low-strength
concrete, no cracks are initiated in the matrix up to about
50 percent of the failure stress; at this stage a stable sys-
tem of cracks, called shear-bond cracks, already exists in
the vicinity of coarse aggregate. At higher stress levels,
cracks are initiated within the matrix; their number and
size increases progressively with increasing stress levels.
The cracks in the matrix and the transition zone (shear-
bond cracks) eventually join up, and generally a failure
(3.2) surface develops at about 20 to 30◦ from the direction of
the load, as shown in Fig. 3-2.
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH AND FACTORS AF-
FECTING IT
‘The response of concrete to applied stress depends
not only on the stress type but also on how a combination
of various factors affects porosity of the different struc-
tural components of concrete. The factors include proper-
ties and proportions of materials that make up the concrete
mixture, degree of compaction, and conditions of curing.
From the standpoint of strength, the water/cement ratio-
porosity relation is undoubtedly the most important factor
because, independent of other factors, it affects the poros-
ity of both the cement paste matrix and the transition zone
between the matrix and the coarse aggregate.
Direct determination of porosity of the individual
structural components of concrete – the matrix and the
transition zone – is impractical, and therefore precise
models of predicting concrete strength cannot be devel-
oped. However, over a period of time many useful em-
pirical relations have been found which for practical use
provide enough indirect information about the influence
of numerous factors on compressive strength (compres-
sive strength being widely used as an index of all other
types of strength). Although the actual response of con-
crete to applied stress is a result of complex interactions
between various factors, to simplify and understanding of
these factors they are discussed separately under three cat-
egories: (1) characteristics and proportions of materials,