Review To Lec 6

Review up to Lecture 6 2/17/2021
2.3 Internet Layer (IP)

 Systems may be attached to
different networks
 Routing of data
 Routing functions across multiple
networks
 Implemented in end systems and
routers
Note: Systems may be computers, routers,

devices
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2.3 TCP/IP Encapsulation

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1
3.1 Terminology (2)
 Direct link
 No intermediate devices
 Point-to-point
 Provides a Direct link
 Only 2 devices share link
 Multi-point
 More than two devices share the
link
3
3.1 Terminology (3)

 Simplex
 Uni-directional data transfer
 e.g. Television
 Half duplex
 Either direction, but only one way
at a time
 e.g. police radio
 Full duplex
 Both directions at the same time
 e.g. telephone
4
2
3.1 Frequency, Spectrum and

Bandwidth
 Time domain concepts
 Continuous signal
 Varies in a smooth way over time
 Discrete signal
 Maintains a constant level then
changes to another constant level
 Periodic signal
 Pattern repeated over time
 Aperiodic signal
 Pattern not repeated over time
5
3.1 Continuous & Discrete

Signals
Continuous and aperiodic
6
3
3.1 Periodic
Signals
 Peak Amplitude (A)
 maximum strength
of signal
 volts
 Frequency (f)
 Rate of change of
signal
 Hertz (Hz) or cycles
per second
 Period = time for
one repetition (T)
 T = 1/f
 Phase ()
 Relative position in
time 7
3.1 Varying Sine Waves
8
4
3.1 Wavelength
 Distance occupied by one cycle
 Distance between two points of
corresponding phase in two
consecutive cycles
  meters : T (period) is in seconds
 Assuming signal velocity v m/s
  = v.T
 f = v
 v = 3*108 ms-1 (speed of light in free
space)
9
π
sin(2πft)
3.1 Addition of
Frequency
Components
π
(1/3)sin(2π(3f)t)
10
(4/π)[sin(2πft)+(1/3)sin(2π(3f)t)]
10
5
3.1 Frequency
Domain
(4/π)[sin(2πft)+(1/3)sin(2π(3f)t)]
11
11
3.1 Spectrum & Bandwidth

 Spectrum
 range of frequencies contained in a
signal
 Absolute bandwidth
 width of a spectrum
 Effective bandwidth
 Often just bandwidth
 Narrow band of frequencies
containing most of the energy
 DC Component
 Component of zero frequency 12
12
6
3.1 Signal with DC Component
(4/π)[sin(2πft)+(1/3)sin(2π(3f)t)]
13
13
3.2 Analog and Digital Data

Transmission
 Data
 Entities that convey meaning
 Signals
 Electrical or electromagnetic
representations of data
 Transmission
 Communication of data by
propagation and processing of
signals
14
14
7
Asynchronous (diagram)
time
15
15
Synchronous - Block Level

 It needs an indication of both the start
and the end of a block
 Use pre-amble and post-amble strings
 e.g. series of SYN (hex 16) characters

 e.g. Synchronous Data Link Control (SDLC) has a
flag 01111110 for pre- and post-amble
 It is more efficient (lower overhead)

than asynchronous transmission
16
16
8
Synchronous (diagram)
[encapsulation to IP level]
Overhead: e.g. HDLC (at layer 2) has 48 bits in its pre-

and post-amble so the overhead on a 1000 byte (8000
bit) block would be 48x100/8048 % = 0.6%
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3.3 Transmission Impairments

Attenuation (1)
 Signal strength falls off with
distance
 this depends on the medium
 Received signal strength:
 must be enough to be detected
 must be sufficiently higher than
noise to be received without error
 Attenuation is an increasing
function of frequency giving
signal distortion
18
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9
3. 3 Attenuation
 Attenuation at frequency f relative to 1000Hz
19
19
3.3 Delay Distortion (2)
20
20
10
3.3 Noise (1)

 Additional signals are inserted between the
transmitter and the receiver
 Thermal Noise
 Caused by thermal agitation of electrons
 It is uniformly distributed
 It is White noise (broadband noise)
T is temperature in degrees Kelvin

N0 is noise power density in watts per 1 Hz of
bandwidth
k is Boltzmann’s constant = 1.38x10-23 J/K
21
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3.3 Noise (1)
 Intermodulation Noise
 Signals that are the sum and difference of
the original frequencies sharing a
medium
 Crosstalk
 A signal from one line is picked up by
another line
 Impulse
 Irregular pulses or spikes
 e.g. External electromagnetic
interference
22
22
11
3.3 Noise (3)
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23
3.4 Communication Channel

Capacity: Nyquist Channel
Bandwidth : 1
 Data rate of a binary signal

 2Bc bits per second (1 bit per
half cycle or signal element)
 Bandwidth required is
 Bc Hertz
 A 3100 Hz voice channel can
therefore carry 6200 bps
24
24
12
3.4 Communication Channel

Nyquist Bandwidth : 2
 Data rate of an Multi-level
signal in signal element
 Each signal element carries one
of M voltage levels representing
the value of log2 M bits [this is
not the same as PSK or QPSK or
FSK ]
 2Bc log2 M bits per second
 M = 8 gives 6B bits per second and
a 3100 Hz voice channel could then
carry 18,600 bps
25
25
3.4 Channel Capacity

 Signal to Noise Ratio
26
26
13
3.4 Shannon capacity
 Maximum channel capacity C
C = Bc log2 (1 + SNR)
for a bandwidth of Bc Hertz

(note SNR is a ratio here and not
dB)
 The ratio C/Bc is the maximum
theoretical bandwidth efficiency
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27
3.4 Shannon capacity

Example: Spectrum of 3 to 4 MHz
SNRdB = 24dB then
Bc = 4-3 MHz = 1 MHz
SNRdB = 24dB = 10 log10(SNR)
SNR = 251
C = Bc log2(SNR+1) = 1x106log2(252) =>
8Mbps
Also from Nyquist Bandwidth relationship

C = 2 Bc log2M
where M is levels per signal element
so log2M = 8/2 = 4
so M = 16 levels
Also remember Signal Energy /bit to Noise power density per Hertz is
important
28
28
14
4.1 Point-to-point Transmission

Characteristics of Guided Media
29
29
4.1 Attenuation of Typical

Guided Media
30
30
15
5 Encoding Schemes
 Binary data is encoded for

transmission using, for example
 Nonreturn to Zero-Level (NRZ-L)
 Nonreturn to Zero Inverted (NRZI)
 Bipolar -Alternate Mark Inversion (AMI)
 Pseudoternary
 Manchester
 Differential Manchester
 Details follow in later slides
31
31
Comparison of Encoding
Schemes : 2 Signal Spectrum
32
32
16
Non-return to Zero: 2
NRZ-L : 1
 Two different voltages for 0 and 1 bits

 The voltage is constant during a bit interval
 no transition i.e. no return to zero voltage
 e.g. NRZ can use the absence of voltage for a zero, and
a constant positive voltage for a one
33
33
Non-return to Zero: 2
NRZ-L : 1
 Two different voltages for 0 and 1 bits

 The voltage is constant during a bit interval
 no transition i.e. no return to zero voltage
 e.g. NRZ can use the absence of voltage for a zero, and
a constant positive voltage for a one
34
34
17
Multilevel Binary : 1
 Use more than two levels
Opposite levels
(Alternate Mark Inversion)
Opposite levels
 See following slides
35
35
Biphase : 1
Manchester
 Used by IEEE 802.3
 A transition occurs in the middle of each bit period
 A transition serves as both clock and data
 Low to high represents a binary one
 High to low represents a binary zero
36
36
18
Biphase : 2
Differential Manchester
 Used by IEEE 802.5
 A mid-bit transition is clocking only
 A transition at the start of a bit period
represents a binary zero
 No transition at the start of a bit period
represents a binary one
 Note: this is a differential encoding
scheme
37
37
Scrambling techniques : 4
B8ZS : 1
 Based on Bipolar-Alternate Mark Inversion
 If an octet of all zeros is present,
 and the last voltage pulse preceding it was positive,
encode as 000+-0-+
 and last voltage pulse preceding it was negative,
encode as 000-+0+-
V- violation
- + 0+-
of alternating 1’s
38
38
19
Scrambling techniques : 6
High Density Bipolar 3 Zeros
 HDB3
 Based on bipolar-AMI
 String of four zeros changed with one
pulse for an odd # pulses or two pulses
for an even # pulses since last
substitution (V causes voltage on line)
even even
Violation: same as previous different from last V

different from last V 39
39
5.2 Modulation
Frequency Shift Keying : 1
 Values are represented by
different frequencies (near carrier
frequency)
40
40
20
5.2 Digital Data, Analog Signals

FSK on Voice Grade Line
1170 2125
Full Duplex transmission
41
41

Phase Shift Keying : 3
 Differential PSK
 Phase shifted relative to previous
transmission rather than some
reference signal
 “0” is same phase as previous bit
 “1” is opposite phase of previous bit
Differential Phase Shift Keying
42
42
21

Quadrature PSK : 1
 More efficient use of bandwidth as
each signal element represents
more than one bit
 e.g. shifts of /2 (90o)
 Each element represents two bits
43
43

Quadrature PSK : 3
 A 9600bps modem use 12 phase angles ,
four of which have two amplitudes
 each signal element represents 4 bits
 D = R/(bits per signal element)

= R/log2(#signal levels)
 D = modulation rate (baud rate)
 R = data rate in bps = 9600
 number of different signal levels = 16
(M in Ed10)
 bits per signal element= 4 (L in Ed10)
 D = 9600/4 = 2400 baud
44
44
22
Performance of Digital to
Analog Modulation Schemes : 4
( )
d
B
Eb/N0 = (S/R)/N0
= [S/R]/[N/BT]
= [S/N][BT/R]
[Eb/N0]dB = ( [S/N] /[R/BT] )dB
45
45
5.3 Now Change point of view to

the baseband user Analog Signal
 Digitization
 Conversion of analog data into
digital data
 Digital data can then be
 transmitted using
 NRZ-L or
 a code other than NRZ-L
 converted to an analog signal using
modulation techniques
46
46
23
Analog Data, Digital Signals : 2
 Digitization
 An analogue signal is
converted to a digital
signal using a quantizer
 The first step produces
samples in a Pulse
Amplitude Modulated
Signal
(PAM samples)
47
47

Digitization
Equal quantization steps
48
48
24

 A PAM signal may converted to
 Pulse code modulation (PCM)

3 bit converter
Ts
49
49
Nyquist Sampling Theorem

applied to baseband analog
user signals Bu
 If a signal is sampled at regular
intervals at a rate higher than
twice the highest signal
frequency, the samples contain
all the information of the
original signal
 Voice data is limited to below
4000Hz
50
50
25
Pulse Code Modulation(PCM) : 2

changes a sampled baseband
user signal to a binary signal
 Bu = 4000Hz requires at least

8000 samples per second
according to the Nyquist
baseband sampling theorem
 8-bit samples
 8*8000 => 64 kbps
 Each PAM sample is assigned a
digital value
51
51

 An n = 4-bit system gives 24 =
16 quantization levels
 Quantized signal issues
 Quantizing error or noise is added
 SNRQuantization = (20 Log10(2n) + 1.76)dB

 = (6.02n + 1.76)dB
52
52
26
 An n=8 bit sample gives 28 =

256 levels
 SNRQuantization = 49.92 dB
 For telephony
 8000 samples per second of 8 bits
each gives 64 kbps
 Quality is comparable to analog
transmission
53
53
At this point the course content

looked at advanced analog
modulation/digital modulation
schemes
 These are the basis for analog
carrier systems.
 The first one is sufficient for
understanding the original idea
behind the telephone channels
and the modulation to higher
frequencies to carry more voice
channels. Others need to be
known for general questions.
54
54
27
Analog
Modulation
55
55
Ch17.3 Spread Spectrum
 Analog or digital data

 Analog signal
 Spread data over a wide bandwidth
 Makes jamming and interception
harder
56
56
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Spread Spectrum
 Frequency hopping
 The signal is broadcast over a
pseudo randomly chosen set of
frequencies
 Direct Sequence
 Each bit is represented by multiple
bits in the transmitted signal
 this is called a chipping code
 the original data stream is XOR’d with
a pseudo random bit stream which
causes phase shifts in the transmitted
carrier
57
57
Spread Spectrum
Frequency Hopping
s(t)
Lookup table
58
58
29
Spread Spectrum
Frequency hopping
FSK: Frequency Shift Keying

BPSK: Binary Phase Shift Keying
59
59
CH.17.4 Spread Spectrum

Direct Sequence
60
60
30
S6.3
Error Detection - Parity Bit
 Additional bits added by the
transmitter for an error detection
code
 Parity
 Value of the parity bit is such that the
character has even (even parity) or
odd (odd parity) number of ones
 111001 => 1110011 for odd parity
 111001 => 1110010 for even parity
 The problem is that an even number
of bit errors goes undetected
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0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1
0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0
1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0
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31
6.4 Internet Checksum

 This uses the one’s complement addition
of unsigned binary numbers
 For example:
1101
0011 1011
11000
+110 + 1
0 1001
Here there
1111 is an end
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Example Of Internet Checksum
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6.5
Cyclic Redundancy Check
 For a block of k bits the transmitter

generates an n bit sequence
 Transmit k+n bits which is exactly
divisible by some number P
 The receiver divides the frame by
that same number P
 If there is no remainder, assume there is
no error
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Error Detection - Modulo 2

Cyclic Redundancy Check : 6
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Error Detection - Modulo 2

+R
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Error Detection - Polynomial

The form of Ed.10 is different and less intuitive
P= 110101
FCS bits
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Polynomial C R C : 4
P= 110101
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Problem 6.11
 The continuation of the table in Fig.6.6

looks like this:
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6.6 Error Correction
71

 Block Code Principles
Hamming Distance d(V1, V2)

between two n-bit binary sequences is the
number of bits in which the numbers
disagree (are different).
 011011 and
110001 gives a Hamming Distance of 3
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36

 Block Code Principles
A k-bit data sequence is coded into an n-

bit code word, (n,k)
The minimum Hamming Distance of a code

is
dmin = min[d(wi,wj)] for i NE j
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Energy/bit point of
uncoded comparable to
10-6 coded point
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Hamming (7,4) code

(This code has 112 invalid codewords and a Hamming Distance
of 3 = weight of non-zero codeword with smallest weight
Information Codeword Weight
b1 b2 b3 b4 b1 b2 b3 b4 b5 b6 b7 w(b)
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 4
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 3
0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 3
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 3
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 3
0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 4
0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 4
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 3
1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 3
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 4
1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 4
1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 4
1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 4
1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 3 75
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Stop and Wait
 Source transmits frame

 Destination receives frame and
replies with an
acknowledgement
 Source waits for an ACK before
sending the next frame
 Destination can stop flow by not
ACK’ing
 Works well for a few large
frames 76
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Sliding Windows Flow Control

 Allows multiple frames to be in transit
 The receiver buffer is W frames long
 The transmitter can send up to W
frames without an ACK
 Each frame is numbered
 An ACK includes the number of the next
frame expected
 The sequence number is bounded by
the field size (k)
 Frames are numbered modulo 2k
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At this point we can amongst other things

1 Determine bandwidths of mathematical expressions, understand
and apply noise relationships, signal distortion, handle
encapsulation in stacks
2 recognize and interpret and apply encoding techniques, bit
encoding, and modulation techniques
3 answer any question given a baseband user signal of bandwidth Bu
and requiring the bit rate R given an oversampling rate (multiple
of Nyquist sampling rate) to meet a SNRquant . We can also work
out any problem with any combination of knowns and unknowns
for the above and use quantization.
4 work out the theoretical capacity C in bps of a Communication
Channel of bandwidth Bc given the SNR of the channel. Or any
combination problem using known and unknown C, Bc and SNR.
5 move between 2 and 3, and we can
6 determine the Nyquist bit rate’s multilevels required in a signal
element to transmit a required bit rate R over a communication
bandwidth BC
7 solve parity and checksum calculations
8 calculate and apply CRC and FCS and show how it works in
hardware
78
78
39

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Review up to Lecture 6 2/17/2021

2.3 Internet Layer (IP)

Note: Systems may be computers, routers,

For/from William Stallings Data & Computer Communications

2.3 TCP/IP Encapsulation

For/from William Stallings Data & Computer Communications

3.1 Terminology (2)

3.1 Terminology (3)

3.1 Frequency, Spectrum and

3.1 Continuous & Discrete

Continuous and aperiodic

3.1 Varying Sine Waves

3.1 Spectrum & Bandwidth

3.1 Signal with DC Component

3.2 Analog and Digital Data

Synchronous - Block Level

 e.g. series of SYN (hex 16) characters

 It is more efficient (lower overhead)

Overhead: e.g. HDLC (at layer 2) has 48 bits in its pre-

3.3 Transmission Impairments

3.3 Delay Distortion (2)

3.3 Noise (1)

T is temperature in degrees Kelvin

3.3 Noise (1)

3.3 Noise (3)

3.4 Communication Channel

 Data rate of a binary signal

3.4 Communication Channel

3.4 Channel Capacity

3.4 Shannon capacity

 Maximum channel capacity C

for a bandwidth of Bc Hertz

3.4 Shannon capacity

Also from Nyquist Bandwidth relationship

4.1 Point-to-point Transmission

4.1 Attenuation of Typical

 Binary data is encoded for

 Two different voltages for 0 and 1 bits

 Two different voltages for 0 and 1 bits

(Alternate Mark Inversion)

Violation: same as previous different from last V

5.2 Digital Data, Analog Signals

Full Duplex transmission

5.2 Digital Data, Analog Signals

Differential Phase Shift Keying

5.2 Digital Data, Analog Signals

5.2 Digital Data, Analog Signals

 D = R/(bits per signal element)

 D = 9600/4 = 2400 baud

5.3 Now Change point of view to

Analog Data, Digital Signals : 2

Analog Data, Digital Signals : 3

Analog Data, Digital Signals : 4

Nyquist Sampling Theorem

Pulse Code Modulation(PCM) : 2

 Bu = 4000Hz requires at least

Pulse Code Modulation(PCM) : 3

 SNRQuantization = (20 Log10(2n) + 1.76)dB

Pulse Code Modulation(PCM) : 4

 An n=8 bit sample gives 28 =

At this point the course content

Ch17.3 Spread Spectrum