Myrick, Ch. 4 (85-144)

The Counselor:
A Developmental
Guidance Specialist
School counselors are developmental Yet, the statement does not mention
guidance specialists who assist students counselors by name or give any hints as
with their educational, personal, and so- to what they will do in their jobs. The
cial development. Counselors understand commitment to developmental guidance
the developmental nature of students and has been reviewed by the association
how they progress toward educational several times, reaffirmed officially in 1980,
and career goals. Counselors are human and revised in 1986 through position
behavior and relationship specialists who statements (Dahir, Sheldon, & Valiga,
provide counseling and guidance services 1998). These statements, however, still fail
to both students and adults. to spell out the role of a school coun-
The American School Counselor As- selor. How does a counselor function in a
sociation (ASCA) was founded in 1953. In developmental guidance and counseling
1979, the ASCA Governing Board defined program?
developmental guidance: During the formative years of the
Developmental guidance is that school counseling profession, there were
component of all guidance efforts very few guidelines regarding how coun-
which fosters planned interventions selors might spend their time on the job.
within educational and other human Even today, school counselors appear to
services programs at all points in the be many things to many people, depend-
human life cycle to vigorously stimu- ing upon the schools in which they are
late and actively facilitate the total employed and how they usually spend
development of individuals in all ar- their time. School counselors have been
eas (i.e., personal, social, emotional, viewed as administrative assistants, school
career, moral-ethical, cognitive, and psychologists, social workers, mental
aesthetic) and to promote the integra- health personnel, educational placement
tion of the several components into officers, academic advisors, and friendly
an individual's life style. disciplinarians-or any combination of
these roles.
School counseling, as a specialty area
of the counseling profession, is still evolv-
ing and has been affected by social, edu-
cational, political, and economic trends.
Paisely and Borders (1995) concluded:
Educational Media Corporation® 85

Developmental Guidance and Counseling
"The appropriate focus for school Counseling Theories

counseling is considered to be on com-
prehensive and developmental programs. Revisited
Such programs include individual, small- Counseling theories help us think
group, and large group counseling, as about the counseling process. They pro-
well as consultation and coordination. vide a systematic way of observing com-
These programs still offer certain types of mon phenomena and they give us a work-
responsive services related to remediation ing framework. We use theories in coun-
and crisis issues, but they now emphasize seling to describe behaviors, illuminate
primary prevention and the promotion of relationships, and develop interventions.
healthy development for all students" (p. They also provide a common language
74). so we can share ideas and communicate
If school counseling is to survive as about our observations and methodology.
a profession, counselors must be able to It has become customary to refer to
describe their unique roles, specify their counseling theories as counseling mod-
job functions, and show how their work els, maybe because people are eager to
is related to helping students learn better. see practical applications of theoretical
School counselors of the future will need constructs. Most of us want a comfort-
a sharper role definition and they will able structure, or a set of guidelines, from
need some new theories and strategies. which to work.
Good theories are like good maps.
They tell us what to look for, what to
expect, and where we might go. They are
explicit and precise, avoiding poetic state-
ments that are inspiring, but fail to give
us direction. Good theories also are com-
prehensive, applicable in many situations,
and yet, specific enough to be feasible in a
particular situation.
The school counselor's basic role as a
helper is found in several counseling the-
ories which are studied by almost every
graduate student in counselor education.
These theories, conceptualized by promi-
nent psychotherapists and educators, are
an outgrowth of attempts to assist people
with their personal problems.
Some classic theories seem to have
stood the test of time. Since they are usu-
ally presented in most counseling theory
courses, they will not be discussed in detail
here. Instead, a few are reviewed briefly to
emphasize their importance to develop-
mental guidance and counseling. To keep
things simple, there are four theories of
counseling you will find particularly help-
ful. Let us look at those first.
86 Robert D. Myrick, Ph.D.

Chapter 4 The Counselor: A Developmental Guidance Specialist
Client-Centered Counseling 5. Conflicts arise when self-concepts

If you have studied counseling theo-
and external events are incongruous.
ries, then you knew this theory would Tension increases and reactions to
be listed here. Carl Rogers' classic book, the realities of the environment may
Client-Centered Therapy (1951), introduced be for better or for worse, depending
an important term and focus to coun- upon one's ability to accept, to cope,
selors and therapists. It started a wave of to adjust, and to integrate.
humanistic-oriented therapists, the effects These five principles are the heart of
of which have been felt in counseling, the theory. It is assumed people have the
therapy, and other areas such as teach- capacity to discover for themselves the
ing, social services, pastoral training, and necessary resources for their growth. If
human relations skills programs (Corey, certain helping conditions are present in
2009; Merry & Tudor, 2006). a client's life, then the person will become
Client-centered therapy or the person- more "self-actualizing" and naturally
centered approach emphasizes "fully move toward more positive and self-en-
functioning" individuals are open to hancing behaviors.
experiences in life and trust themselves to Therefore, counselors do whatever
do those things that "feel right." Gener- they can to provide counselees with
ally, client-centered counseling is based a genuine caring experience that fos-
on the following premises: ters feelings of personal respect, regard,
1. A human being functions as a total
warmth, understanding, and self-worth.
organism and any change to one part According to client-centered theory, a
may produce changes in other parts genuine caring relationship is more im-
(e.g., physical, psychological, behav- portant than techniques.
ioral). When Virginia Axline wrote her
2. Individuals have their own perceptual famous book, Play Therapy, it was based
fields, which is their reality. People on client-centered therapy. Axline's ap-
interact with their environments from proach is still considered relevant today,
their perceptual fields and this leads although there are different approaches
to the development of their self-con- (e.g. Drewes, Carey, & Schaefer, 2001),
cepts. because the premises cannot be improved
upon. She suggested counselors enter the
3. The self-concept is a learned sense of child's world by following the lead of the
self. It is dependent upon what one child. She created the helping conditions
has experienced from outside the self, and set the stage for a child to change and
usually from significant others who grow in a positive direction. It is hypoth-
impose or create personal relation- esized the absence of the helping condi-
ships. tions created the need for therapy in the
4. Any experience that is not consistent first place. Children, like adults, have the
with the self-concept is perceived as a capacity to take responsibility for resolv-
threat, although one can learn to be ing conflicts in their lives and will grow
flexible and accepting of the environ- positively if given the opportunity.
mental realities that come with daily In years past, client-centered therapy
living. was the first and only counseling theory
taught to school counselors while they

were in training. It is considered a simple Rational Emotive

and practical model founded on a demo- Behavior Therapy (REBT)
cratic and humanistic philosophy about
life. It does not require knowledge of com- Albert Ellis, a renown therapist, decid-
plex psychological principles or speci~l ed to become more active and directive in
diagnostic skills. It requires very few, if his therapy sessions. Rather than wait for
any, techniques. It is deceptively simple a client to gain insight, he began pointing
because it appears the clients, or students, out inconsistencies in a client's reasoning
do all the work, as the counselors follow and behavior. He gave homework as-
their leads. The primary focus is on what signments. His theory was first described
a person is experiencing, assuming self- as RT or Rational Therapy, but was later
disclosing talk produces the necessary changed to RET (1962) to avoid incor-
insight for change. rect associations with a philosophical
approach known as rationalism. Finally,
The theory can easily be applied to Ellis settled on REBT (1996) because it
developmental guidance. It emphasizes encouraged clients to put their beliefs into
the counselor is a listener and encourages practice behaviorally and push themselves
the client to talk. Therefore, with limited to act on them (Ellis & Wilde, 2002).
time for preparation, the first counselors
in the schools may have left graduate Most people have problems because
school thinking this was the only theory their belief systems have gone astray. It is
of counseling. assumed we talk to ourselves-thinking in
words, phrases, and sentences-and this
Since the early years of school coun- talk influences how we feel and behave.
seling and Carl Roger's earliest work, People who become dysfunctioning or
there have been many extensions of this emotionally disturbed are really telling
timeless counseling theory. There are themselves a chain of false statements
many practitioners and other theorists that are irrational and personally destruc-
who have embraced most of Rogers' ideas, tive.
although advocating specific skills to help
create therapeutic relationships (e.g., Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy
Carkhuff, 2000). (REBT) recognizes many illogical ideas
permeate our lives-ideas we have learned
It was Carkhuff and his colleagues through our parents, teachers, peers, and
who studied the behaviors of client-cen- society. Our life experiences influence our
tered therapists and concluded, "Coun- self-talk, which can be for better or for
seling can be for better or for worse." It worse. If it is the source of our problems,
often depended on the kinds of responses then self-talk needs to be reevaluated,
counselors and therapists used and how sometimes eliminated, and positive self-
clients perceived the process. talk put in its place.
Client-centered or person-centered The theory fits easily into a develop-
counselors are concerned about the mental guidance and counseling program.
atmosphere in which counseling hap- As in the client-centered approach, you
pens. They want to help students feel first establish a close working relationship
cared about and safe and to experience by attending to student problems. You
empathy, respect, and genuineness from are alert to illogical ideas and confront
the counselor. Such an approach requires them. As ideas are challenged, resistance
patience and relies on students to assume is anticipated and worked through as part
responsibility for their own direction. of the counseling process.

In contrast to the client-centered 4. "Others are responsible for making

model, after forming a therapeutic alli- me unhappy, like my parents, teach-
ance, the counselor plays a more active ers and classmates." Unless you are
role in analysis and teaching. REBT theo- physically abused or deprived, happi-
rists believe the expression of feelings in ness is a function of perceptions, not
a nurturing relationship is not enough to people or events, and perceptions can
get to the root of irrational thinking and be controlled.
client problems. 5. "You cannot overcome your past."
Common irrational thoughts about The past cannot be denied. It is real
self and behavior can be addressed and cannot be changed. But, the past
through developmental guidance units, does not have to determine future
maybe before such thoughts become in- needs, interests, attitudes, or behav-
grained in a student's self-perceptions. For iors. You can change present and
instance, some typical irrational beliefs future behavior independent of what
that can be confronted as part of develop- has happened in the past.
mental guidance or as part of a problem- 6. "There is always a correct and best
solving situation are: answer to every problem." Maybe this
1. "I must be loved by everyone to be could be so, but it is a frustrating and,
happy." Such a belief means you oftentimes, futile activity to search for
would have to be self-sacrificing most the perfect solution to things. Believ-
of the time to please everyone. Even ing there is only one best answer or
then, you cannot be loved and ap- approach to something results in dis-
proved by everyone because there are couragement and dissatisfaction with
so many people in your life who have life.
their own needs and interests. Teachers and counselors might use
2. "I must be perfect and beyond re- these and other illogical beliefs as topics
proach." It is impossible to be totally in a guidance unit, looking for fun and
competent in everything and not creative ways to present them. Some guid-
experience failures. To be unwilling to ance activities can facilitate student think-
receive criticism dooms you to safe- ing about self-talk and how it is related to
guarding yourself until you do not learning in school and getting along with
enjoy the spirit of living. others. Common techniques are con-
3. "People who make mistakes are frontation, reframing ideas, role-playing,
worthless and should be punished." humor, homework assignments, guided
Everyone makes mistakes and to err imagery, and practice activities.
is human. Punishment is not very REBT operates on the premise emo-
effective when it comes to changing tions and behaviors are learned reactions.
behavior. Because it involves cognitive structuring
and restructuring, this theory will ap-
peal to many teachers and counselors
who want to teach students how to take
more responsibility for their thoughts and
actions. To analyze their own perceived
failures and successes with students (Wein-
rach et al., 2001), counselors also can use
the techniques of rationale self-talk.

Behavioral Counseling 4. Select and apply the methods to be

used, which are guided by whatever
Until the 1960s, client-centered and
ethical means seem feasible to pro-
cognitive approaches dominated the
duce a change in behavior.
counseling profession. Then, a revolu-
tion in counseling happened (Krumboltz, 5. Assess and evaluate the counselee's
1966) as learning theorists began to progress, making appropriate method-
emphasize how their concepts could be ological changes until the desired goal
applied through behavioral counseling. is obtained.
The most recognized contributor was Behaviorists recognized the value of
B.F. Skinner, who described operant con- the facilitative conditions and relation-
ditioning as a mode of learning. B.F. Skin- ships. But, they concluded that, although
ner had famous debates with Carl Rogers necessary, helping relationships are not
about counseling and therapy. In addi- sufficient in and of themselves as client-
tion, Joseph Wolpe and Arnold Lazarus centered therapists advocated. Rather,
outlined behavioral procedures that could after a working relationship is established,
be used to relax and desensitize anxiety- behavioral techniques are needed.
producing situations. Albert Bandura Behavior theorists focus their atten-
posed a theory of social learning based on tion on what they see and hear (Parsons,
modeling, imitation, and reinforcement 2009). Rather than talk about generali-
principles. ties such as "He's a good listener," they
However, it was the work of John are more likely to give attention to the
Krumboltz and Carl Thoresen (1976) that specific behaviors that lead one to such a
inspired school counselors to take a closer conclusion. Gerber (2001) claimed every
look at behavioral counseling, with its effective counseling intervention works to
focus on modifying behavior instead of the extent it incorporates sound leaning
such internal variables as self-concept or principles.
self-esteem. Behaviorists advocated such Personal interviews with more than
methods as positive and negative rein- 100 school counselors from elementary to
forcement, modeling, contracting, behav- high schools showed counselors tended to
ioral rehearsal, role-playing, and system- favor behavioral counseling approaches.
atic desensitization. They still valued client-centered theory,
Generally, the procedures of behav- but found its application in the schools to
ioral counseling involve precise steps, be too time-consuming, slow, and imprac-
including: tical.
1. Identify the problem in terms of The pressure to show immediate
behavior that can be observed and results and to be more action-oriented has
recorded. encouraged many counselors to use such
2. Assess the problem by collecting techniques as behavioral contracts, role
baseline data and ascertaining any reversal, and simple positive reinforce-
relevant developmental history. ment procedures. In addition, behavioral
counseling approaches are easily account-
3. Specify the goals, usually selecting one able through the collection of baseline
behavior at a time with which to work data and assessment of behavior later.
and remembering little steps (succes-
sive approximations) lead to progress.

Reality Therapy Also, self-awareness is related to

current situations or present behavior
William Glasser (1965) used the term
instead of plodding through the past or
"Reality Therapy" to describe his ap-
trying to guess what the future will be
proach to counseling and therapy. His
like. Therefore, irresponsible behavior is
experiences with institutionalized ado-
confronted. Counselees are encouraged to
lescents led him to conclude the driving
pinpoint what they will do and to make
force for all behavior is the intrinsic goal
a commitment to action. Specific plans
of having a different, distinct, and unique
are formulated and then they implement
identity. However, it is the acceptance of
their plans, with no excuses accepted or
responsibility for uniqueness that is the
punishment administered. The counselor
central theme of his counseling approach.
consistently and willfully conveys a feel-
All students want to believe they are ing of hopefulness and persistence.
unique individuals and there is nobody
Teachers and counselors in the
like them. They all seek an identity. If
schools liked Reality Therapy because
they develop a "failure identity," then
of its many classroom and educational
they believe they have little chance of
applications. For example, "classroom
succeeding at anything. They claim they
meetings" were advocated where students
are no good, worthless, and undeserv-
and teachers learn to know one another
ing of anything positive. Consequently,
better and explore their mutual interests
they often have a distressing or nega-
tive attitude about school and life. They and goals.
become critical of themselves and others I
Glasser (2000) also talked about
adopting irrational thought patterns in the power of first developing a helping
defense of themselves. They do not want relationship and then fostering positive
to assume responsibility for themselves addiction and emphasizing control. After
and frequently become apathetic, indiffer- decades of success, he introduced "choice
ent, uninvolved, and show little concern theory" to supplement the original theory
for themselves and others. of reality therapy. It focused on help-
ing students develop routine behaviors
If students develop a "success iden-
and habits that enhanced their lives. It
tity," then they believe they are good and
also made them feel more in control and
can accomplish things in life. They are
responsible for the consequences of their
sensitive and can assert themselves, as-
actions.
suming leadership when it is appropriate.
Others value their positive attitudes and Middle and high school teachers
like to be around them. working in TAP, and elementary school
teachers in their regular classrooms, might
The key to putting this theory into
have "open meetings" in which thought-
practice is first building a positive re-
provoking questions are asked and stu-
lationship and then emphasizing each
dents explore issues that are relevant
person assumes responsibility for their
to their lives. Or, they could have an
own behavior. While attention is given to
"educational-diagnostic meeting" where
behavior change, individuals are encour-
attention is given to evaluating student
aged to understand themselves and oth-
strengths and weaknesses, teaching
ers, to set goals, and to make responsible
techniques and concerns, and the value
decisions.
of ideas and information presented in
the curriculum. "Social problem solving

meetings" are a third type of classroom in some of the conclusions and recom-
meeting where individual or group prob- mendations. In a series of investigations,
lems are discussed. Problem solving is the it appeared low functioning counselors
priority in these meetings as students talk either did not facilitate growth in others
about issues and problems that play an or they impeded it. This led many coun-
important part in their lives. selor educators to conclude only certain
Reality Therapy is a common sense counselor responses were helpful and oth-
theory for helping people (Christensen, ers were hurtful. Further, the analyses of
2002). It fits into a developmental ap- typescripts from tape-recorded counseling
proach and is specific about problem solv- sessions were used too often as a means of
ing when crises occur. It is a rational and judging the worth of a counselor.
cognitive approach based on "here and Some of the counselor responses
now," personalizing behavior, and accept- advocated by Carkhuff were conflicted,
ing responsibility for one's self. such as suggesting a comment contain-
ing a feeling word and a reason for that
Human Technology feeling as the prototypical best response.
Some theorists believed the theories For instance, "You feel (emotion) because
of the counseling profession, such as (reason for the feeling)." This, however,
those by the humanists and behaviorists, is more of an interpretation (a low fa-
should be combined and integrated. Being cilitative response) since it attempts to
eclectic is a trend in school guidance and explain why the client is feeling a certain
counseling because counselors are looking way. Such a response is more risky than
for practical and productive models. Some a simple feeling-focused response that
view the helping process as an applica- reflects only what the facilitator believes
tion of "human technology." (Aspy et al., the client is experiencing.
2000). When Carkhuff's work was first being
Robert Carkhuff (1993) assumed coun- touted, some words and phrases, often
seling and the helping or learning process taken out of context, were denounced
moved through three phases: exploration, as always destructive of the counseling
understanding, and action. These phases process and the client's well being. To
and the interaction that took place were the contrary, it is possible any number of
derived from client-centered, psychody- statements may be facilitative at one time
namic, and behaviorist theories. It made or another, including those where the
sense clients would first explore their per- probability of being perceived as helpful
sonal experiences, thoughts, and feelings is low.
and would gain some personal insight Although the core of the facilitative
or understanding in the process. It fol- model advocated in this book is close to
lowed clients could then construct some the work of Carkhuff and his associates,
concrete actions that would improve their there are some significant differences.
situations. These are discussed in more detail in
This kind of thinking is similar to the Chapter 4 where the counselor as a facili-
developmental guidance and counseling tator is described.
strategies offered in this book. However,
Carkhuff and his associates went too far

Other Theories Adlerian psychology has found a

home in many schools because the
A few other theories may be rel-
concepts are so closely related to parent-
evant for guidance and counseling in the
ing and teaching young children and
schools. Their application often is more
adolescents. In addition, there are several
limited, but they might help the counselor
structured programs that incorporate the
to conceptualize client or student behavior
theory that are practical for use in school
and to think of some counseling strategies.
guidance and counseling programs (Pryor
Psychoanalytic theory, for in- & Tollerud, 1999).
stance, has been around since the end of
For example, Developing Understanding
the 1800s when Sigmund Freud began to
of Self and Others (Dinkmeyer & Dinkmey-
explain his classic approach to psycho-
er, 1982) was the most popular guidance
analysis. It is a fascinating theory that
program in the elementary schools for
suggests behavior is the product of mental
many years. This classic set of materi-
forces and impulses that have their origin
als based on Adlerian theory, provided
in childhood. Nothing happens by acci-
dent and all human behaviors are goal-
ex~ellent examples of how counselors and
teachers might lead classroom guidance
oriented and can be explained. However,
groups. It helped children learn about
the theory proposes we do not always
themselves and others through group ac-
have access to their antecedents because
tivities, songs, role-playing, and classroom
they are buried in the unconscious part of
discussions. Programs based on Adlerian
our personality.
principles also were developed to help
Psychoanalytic or psychodynamic parents learn more about children's be-
theories are important to understand behavior and misbehavior (Slavik & Carlson,
cause they often are used to describe devi- 2005).
ant behavior. The Diagnostic and Statistical
Gestalt theory (Houston, 2003)
Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition
has appealed to many school counselors
(DSM-IV) IV-TR (American Psychiatric As-
because it is based on perceptual psychol-
sociation, 1990) features a new emphasis
ogy and the assumption people respond
upon behaviors, but it is still replete with
according to various levels of awareness.
psychoanalytic language. It is the refer-
Awareness can shift, giving some things
ence book used in most mental health
more importance than others and this de-
centers and by private clinicians. The fifth
pends upon personal needs and choices.
edition will be released in 2013.
The active, confronting, and creative tech-
Adlerian psychology also provides niques of "here and now" Gestalt counsel-
an interesting framework in which to ing are intriguing because they focus on
view behavior. The behavior of students, personal congruence, nonverbal behavior,
for example, is assumed to be purpose- and the use of imagery to cause change.
ful and goal-directed. By understanding Techniques such as talking to an empty
a student's goal, one can understand the chair or drawing attention to incongru-
meaning of the person's behavior. There- ous statements and behaviors have been
fore, Adlerians focus on goal orientation incorporated into many counselors' styles
within a social context, emphasizing of helping (Weiner & Craighead, 2010).
people must see themselves as unique in-
dividuals who have the capacity to make
decisions and choices. Consequently,
students are assisted to gain insight into
behavior and alternatives for solving
problems (Weiner & Craighead, 2010).

Lazarus (1971) coined the term Initial results indicated positive ben-
"multimodal" to describe a broad view of efits in building working relationships,
looking at behavior and counseling in- structuring sessions, and engagement in
terventions. Keat (1990) showed how the the therapeutic process. Since most young
basic modes of such a theory (i.e., behav- people love to play computer games, such
ior, affect, sensation, imagery, cognition, an innovative approach may have prom-
interpersonal relationships, drugs-diet- ise for the future, as it provides a frame-
the BASIC ID) could be used to work with work around which to build computer
parents and children. He added education programs and games.
and learning modes (BASIC IDEAL) to em- Strength-based counseling focuses
phasize the role of the school learning en- on what is going right in a person's life.
vironment. These multimodal approaches The counselor and client work together
draw upon several resources. to find past and present successes and
Solution-focused therapy has use these to address current and future
captured the attention of both therapists challenges. Positive thinking or learned
and counselors (Davis & Osborne, 2000; optimism is about learning a positive per-
O'Connel, 2005; Littrell & Peterson, 2001; spective-focusing on what can go right
Sklare, 2005). However, it is not neces- (Smith, 2006; Vera & Shinn, 2006).
sarily a theory as much as an approach Strength-based counseling draws
to brief counseling. There is a focus on upon an individual's innate and learned
techniques and guidelines that are espe- strengths in dealing with life's challenges.
cially relevant for short-term work. It is It tries to emphasize the positive aspects
action-oriented, emphasizing what can of addressing "problems" without mini-
be done in the near future to resolve a mizing them and builds upon past suc-
problem rather than what contributed to cesses and coping strategies. The task is to
the problem behavior. help people recognize their own ability to
The key question to be answered by a identify solutions and then help them put
client or student is "Where do I want to those solutions into action. Counseling
be?" The person is asked to envision how relationships still are built upon trust and
the future will be different when the prob- respect (Carr, 2004).
lem is no longer present (Elliott, 2009, One counselor said, "In my work with
Parsons, 2009). children, I focus on helping kids under-
Many adolescents resist traditional stand and change the behaviors that are
face-to-face counseling approaches. The causing them problems. I primarily use a
watchful eyes of an adult might seem reality-based, cognitive-behavioral ap-
too intrusive. Personal Investigator (PI) is a proach to achieve this." In many cases, cli-
3D computer game specifically designed ents are asked to take inventories that help
for use with teenagers. The game imple- identify their personal strengths and times
ments a model based on solution-focused when they have felt successful. They also
therapy. A counselor and adolescent sit might be asked to think of the positive
together at a computer and play the game things others might say about them. Or,
together. Issues raised in the game serve "What are some things for which you are
as a context for more detailed discussions grateful?" "What are some things you're
between the counselor and client/student looking forward to?"
(Coyle & Sharry, 2009).

Brief counseling. This term has A Personal Theory

become the norm in many counseling Most counselors and therapists look to
practices because the number of sessions the theories described above or others for
that can be devoted to clients is limited general leads. Some use combinations of
(Feltham & Dryden, 2006). It can refer theories and strategies. They like to have
to counseling that lasts from one to 20 something with which to identify or "to
sessions, although the latter is not prac- hang their hats on." A theory can be com-
tical or feasible in most schools. It has forting, as it provides some understanding
sometimes been referred to as "action" or and direction, especially if it matches a
"time-limited" counseling and typically person's style of working with others.
draws upon techniques associated with
REBT and basic learning approaches. The However, few people seem to be com-
emphasis is on using efficient methods to fortable with just one theory. They might
help resolve problems or to help a client experiment with the use of a theory for
gain personal insights. It uses such tech- an extended time, but soon they begin
niques as goal setting and homework. drawing upon other theories and related
techniques (Mobley, 2005). Drawing upon
Many student mental health coun- ideas and strategies from different theo-
seling services report they see clients on rists has led to the term "eclectic."
average for only two, three, or five ses-
sions. This is by the client's choice, even There is no eclectic theory, per se.
when the service is free and there are no But, counselors do pick and choose from
time limits set, and how many sessions things that seem to work for them and
are available. This has led contemporary others (Parsons, 2009). Selecting and us-
counselors to advocate brief counseling ing various techniques can be very much
by design, while also being prepared for a like moving down a cafeteria line. There
relative minority of clients who genuinely are many choices and those who make
need long-term counseling. wise choices undoubtedly have a basic
theory about nutrition and balanced di-
Because school counselors are limited ets. Those who do not hold to such a ba-
in terms of setting and role expectations, sic premise may select only entrees, only
brief counseling is an appealing concept. liquids, or only desserts. Working without
It also opens the door for pursuing eclec- a theory is interesting, but it can be risky.
tic approaches where counselors assess
their own personality, skills, and ability to Developing a personal theory is ap-
engage students in a helping process. pealing to many counselors (Spruill, &
Benshoff, 2000). When pressed to identify
a theory of counseling, most say, "My
own, which I have developed from my
experiences." When pressed to continue,
they began to draw upon common theo-
ries such as the ones cited above.

The Need for We also need new counseling theories

New Theories and Strategies that are related to special populations.
Think for a moment how students are
The premises of classic theories of different in age, sex, and ability. Yet, it
counseling and therapy are stable enough is assumed what works for one group of
that they will be used for many years to students will work for all students. In fact,
come. However, knowledge of human students come from different cultural
behavior increases every day and this new backgrounds, hold different religious
knowledge will inevitably influence our beliefs, are influenced by different family
thinking about teaching, counseling, and experiences, grow up in different econom-
therapy. For example, the mystery of the ic and social environments, have different
brain and how it functions is still being intellectual levels and abilities, and have
unraveled. Perhaps, future neuro-psychol- progressed through some common devel-
ogists will develop theoretical models that opmental stages at a different pace and
incorporate more biological data to assist with different success.
us in gaining new insights into human
behavior. Some students have the verbal skill
and personal inclination to respond to
Classic theories are valuable starting some of the more intellectual approaches
points. Yet, many counselors are frus- to counseling, such as cognitive restruc-
trated when they try to adapt them to a turing or self-insights. They may have
school setting. There is a need for some the verbal capacity to work with coun-
new counseling theories, ones that are selors in traditional ways. Other students
school based. They would, most likely, be who are less verbal need a more concrete
short-term and time-limited approaches and operational form of assistance, one
that focus on the particular needs and in which they learn by doing instead
interests of students. They most likely will of talking. Some students have learning
be based on problem-solving models. disabilities that cannot be ignored. Still
Likewise, psycholinguistics of the other students need to be motivated and
future may provide us some new insights to identify with the positive aspects in
regarding how language development their schools. Special school populations
affects our thinking and behaving. We may need to be singled out for counseling
know certain cultural experiences predis- theories and techniques that are practical
pose us to perceive and describe experi- for them.
ences in different ways. With the help There also is a need for theories and
of sophisticated computers, it may be strategies that focus on "contextual coun-
possible, eventually, to diagnose language seling." Some theories in family coun-
and thought patterns and learning styles seling in which a "systems approach" is
that influence behavior. applied might lead us to discover how
behavior can be changed and personal
growth can be fostered within the family-
type systems of a school.

Time is precious. Time for counseling The Professional Counselor

students often is difficult to obtain and it
can be wasted if not managed carefully. Being a professional counselor obliges
There is a need to develop brief coun- one to be a member of the state and na-
seling approaches that can be used in tional professional associations. You get
schools where time is limited and the de- the most benefit from belonging if you
mand for services is high. The basic phi- take an active part in meetings and events.
It is a productive networking base, espe-
losophy of a theory may remain the same.
But, goals may have to.be limited and cially as proceedings and information can
techniques may have to be condensed, be shared via the internet.
intensified, reorganized, and presented The primary organization for school
within time limits. counselors is the American School Coun-
Finally, there is a need for theories selor Association (ASCA). With a member-
that describe how people interact with ship of more than 25,000, ASCA focuses
objects and props, such as computers and on providing professional development,
play media. Counseling is primarily a talk- enhancing school counseling programs,
ing process, but counseling theories need and researching effective school counsel-
to embrace nonverbal elements, including ing practices. Its mission is to represent
the interactive forces and dynamics that professional school counselors and to
are involved in a helping process. promote professionalism and ethical prac-
tices.
School counselors need a comprehen-
sive theory. The theory needs to be practi- There are various special interest
cal and simple enough for many people to groups in the field of counseling. Profes-
understand and apply it. It was Stefflre, in sionals and counselors in training gather
a classic statement (1965), who reminded as a group to share ideas about testing,
multicultural needs, or a particular inter-
us:
vention such as group counseling or the
We make the best of theories ... by re- challenges of the primary population they
membering they will not long remain serve. Almost all have valuable contribu-
useful. Since they are bound by space tions to make to school counseling. Many
and time and the present level of our of these groups have formed professional
knowledge, the best theories will not organizations and have become divisions
long serve. If we should accept this of the American Counseling Association
limitation, we should teach our stu- (ACA).
dents not only presently held theories
but ways of building new ones (p. 9). In 1952, four independent groups
established the American Personnel and
All theories, traditional and personal, Guidance Association (APGA), which in
play a valuable role in counseling and 1983, changed its name to the American
guidance. They help us conceptualize our Association of Counseling and Devel-
goals, develop interventions, and influ- opment. On July 1,1992, the associa-
ence our style of working. Which estab- tion changed its name to the American
lished and widely recognized theories Counseling Association (ACA) to reflect
will you draw upon? What is your own the common bond among association
personal theory? members and to reinforce their unity of
purpose. One of the hallmarks of the as-
sociation is its code of ethics (ACA Code of
Ethics, 1995).

There are 19 divisions within ACA. • Association for Counselors and Educators
They elect officers who govern their in Government (ACEG)
activities independently, publish journals Originally the Military Educators and
and newsletters, and have a voice in ACA Counselors Association, ACEG was
governance. The divisions provide pro- chartered in 1984. ACEG is dedicated
fessional strength and satisfy the diverse to counseling clients and their fami-
needs of the counseling community. lies in local, state, and federal govern-
Among the ACA divisions are: ment or in military-related agencies.
• Association for Assessment in Counseling • Association for Counselor Education and
and Education (AACE) Supervision (ACES)
Originally the Association for Mea- Originally the National Association
surement and Evaluation in Guid- of Guidance and Counselor Train-
ance, AACE was chartered in 1965. ers, ACES was a founding association
The purpose of AACE is to promote of ACA in 1952. ACES emphasizes
the effective use of assessment in the the need for quality education and
counseling profession. supervision of counselors for all work
• Association for Adult Development and settings.
Aging (AADA) • Association for Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual
Chartered in 1986, AADA serves as a and Transgender Issues in Counseling
focal point for information sharing, (ALGBTIC)
professional development, and ad- This division educates counselors to
vocacy related to adult development the unique needs of client identity
and aging issues; addresses counseling development and promotes a non-
concerns across the lifespan. threatening counseling environment
• Association for Creativity in Counseling by aiding in the reduction of stereo-
(ACC) typical thinking and homoprejudice.
The Association for Creativity in • Association for Multicultural Counseling
Counseling (ACC) is a forum for and Development (AMCD)
counselors, counselor educators, cre- Originally the Association of Non-
ative arts therapists and counselors in White Concerns in Personnel and
training to explore unique and diverse Guidance, AMCD was chartered
approaches to counseling. ACC's goal in 1972. AMCD strives to improve
is to promote greater awareness, ad- cultural, ethnic and racial empathy
vocacy, and understanding of diverse and understanding by programs to
and creative approaches to counsel- advance and sustain personal growth.
ing.
• American Mental Health Counselors As-
• American College Counseling Association sociation (AMHCA)
(ACCA)
Chartered in 1978, AMHCA represents
ACCA is one of the newest divisions mental health counselors, advocating
of the American Counseling Associa- for client-access to quality services
tion. Chartered in 1991, the focus of within the health care industry.
ACCA is to foster student develop-
ment in colleges, universities, and
community colleges.

• American Rehabilitation Counseling As- • Counseling Association for Humanistic

sociation (ARCA) Education and Development (C-AHEAD)
ARCA is an organization of rehabilita- C-AHEAD, a founding association of
tion counseling practitioners, educa- ACA in 1952, provides a forum for the
tors, and students who are concerned exchange of information about hu-
with enhancing the development of manistic-oriented counseling practices
people with disabilities throughout and promotes changes that reflect the
their life span and in.promoting excel- growing body of knowledge about hu-
lence in the rehabilitation counseling manistic principles applied to human
profession's practice, research, consul- development and potential.
tation, and professional development. • Counselors for Social Justice (CSJ)
• American School Counselor Association CS] is a community of counselors,
(ASCA) counselor educators, graduate stu-
Chartered in 1953, ASCA promotes dents, and school and community
school counseling professionals and leaders who seek equity and an end
interest in activities that affect the to oppression and injustice affecting
personal, educational, and career clients, students, counselors, families,
development of students. ASCA communities, schools, workplaces,
members also work with parents, governments, and other social and
educators, and community members institutional systems.
to provide a positive learning environ- • International Association of Addictions
ment. and Offender Counselors (IAAOC)
• Association for Spiritual, Ethical, and Re- Originally the Public Offender Coun-
ligious Values in Counseling (ASERVIC) selor Association, IAAOC was char-
Originally the National Catholic tered in 1972. Members of IAAOC
Guidance Conference, ASERVIC was advocate the development of effective
chartered in 1974. ASERVIC is devoted counseling and rehabilitation pro-
to professionals who believe spiritual, grams for people with substance abuse
ethical, religious, and other human problems or other addictions, as well
values are essential to the full develop- as adult and juvenile public offenders.
ment of the person and to the disci- • International Association of Marriage and
pline of counseling. Family Counselors (IAMFC)
• Association for Specialists in Group Work Chartered in 1989, IAMFC members
(ASGW) help develop healthy family systems
Chartered in 1973, ASGW provides through prevention, education, and
professional leadership in the field of therapy.
group work, establishes standards for • National Career Development Association
professional training, and supports (NCDA)
research and the dissemination of
knowledge. Originally the National Vocational
Guidance Association, NCDA was one
of the founding associations of ACA
in 1952. The mission of NCDA is to
promote career development for all
people across the lifespan through
public information, member services,
conferences, and publications.

• National Employment Counseling Asso- In 1981, the Council for Accredita-

ciation (NECA) tion of Counseling and Related Educa-
NECA was originally the National Em- tional Programs (CACREP) was established
ployment Counselors Association and by the Board of Directors of ACA and
was chartered in 1966. The commit- charged with the evaluation of four types
ment of NECA is to offer professional of counselor preparation programs: (1)
leadership to people who counsel in school counseling; (2) student personnel
employment and/or career develop- services in higher education; (3) coun-
ment settings. seling in community and other agency
settings (entry level); and (4) counselor
A school counselor may belong to
education (doctoral level).
more than one division. In addition,
these same divisions are usually found at CACREP is a legally separate organiza-
state and local levels, each with a special tion, but affiliated with ACA and ASCA.
interest and purpose. Some divisions and University counselor education programs
regional affiliations, depending upon voluntarily submit a self-study that is
counselor membership, are more active reviewed against the CACREP standards
and influential than others. by counselors and counselor educators to
ensure students receive a quality educa-
Professional Preparation tional experience.
Helping school counselors define their In addition, The International Regis-
profession and gain respectable recogni- try of Counselor Education Programs (IR-
tion is a continuing challenge. Profession- CEP), is a subsidiary program of CACREP
alism assures the public certain standards designed to create a global community of
are being fulfilled. Counselors at all counselor education programs. Research
school levels need to receive the best kind shows CACREP graduates perform better
of professional preparation. on the National Counselor Examination
for Licensure and Certification (NCE).
The American Counseling Association
(ACA) currently recognizes three profes- All of these efforts emphasize how the
sional credentials: (1) accreditation; (2) relatively new counseling profession is be-
certification; and (3) licensure. What is coming solidified and how, until recently,
counselor certification? Should school it was possible for many school counselors
counselors be licensed? Should they be to enter the schools with minimal or in-
licensed at a national level? How is licen- adequate training. New standards require
sure related to the current practices of school counselors to graduate from ap-
state certification? Where are the accred- proved programs with at least 48 semester
ited counselor education programs? hours. Many institutions, recognizing the
complexity of preparing counselors and
In 1967, the American School Coun- the difficult nature of their work, offer full
selor Association (ASCA) issued guidelines two-year programs, ranging from 64 to
for the preparation of secondary school 72 semester hours and ending in either a
counselors. In the following year, addi- master's or educational specialist degree.
tional guidelines were adopted for el- Others, because of tradition and lack of
ementary school counselors. By 1979, the resources, have struggled to meet the stan-
Association for Counselor Education and dards and their future could be in doubt
Supervision (ACES) adopted standards for since students want to attend fully accred-
preparation of counselors by universities ited programs.
and colleges.

As accreditation is to university As states consider procedures for

programs, certification is to individu- giving merit to counselors and teachers,
als. Certification is professional recogni- a national standardized test is almost
tion granted to a school counselor when always part of such procedures. The
certain predetermined qualifications have NBCC examination may provide a valu-
been met. Most states have certification able service to state or district groups who
programs that grant guidance certificates, must provide evidence of competence for
enabling a person to be employed in a counselors who are to be hired or who are
public school. However, the requirements to receive merit. Because the NBCC also
for certification among states can vary publishes a national registry of counselors
considerably. Some states require as few who are certified by the organization, it
as 24 hours beyond a teaching certifi- could be used by potential employers.
cate. Others require two years of teaching Certification by NBCC does not imply
experience and then a master's degree in a counselor can do any particular type
school counseling. Sixteen states do not of counseling, but the counselor knows
require previous teaching experience, but about fundamental counseling activities
do require a master's degree with exten- applicable to a variety of settings. To ob-
sive field experiences. tain certification, a person must provide
Certification of school counselors is evidence of academic and experiential
still done by state governmental agen- activities (minimum requirement is a
cies, which are responsible for affirming master's degree) and successfully com-
applicants have the necessary credentials plete a written examination. Many school
and related qualifications to be granted a counselors have obtained this profes-
standardized certificate for employment. sional certification in order to be part of
These state agencies review college tran- a national registry and to emphasize their
scripts and rely on universities to set and professional potential.
measure the standards that are needed to Licensure, as it affects most school
be a school counselor. counselors at this time, is designed to
A counselor certification process was help regulate the practice of mental
initiated in 1982 by ACA when it created health counseling outside of school hours.
the National Board for Credentialing of School counselors who want to be in
Counselors (NBCC). NBCC concentrates private practice with paying clients may
on generic counseling competencies obtain licensure in some states, which en-
applicable to all professional counselors ables them to open offices and to charge
and does not attempt to certify types of for their counseling services. Ethically,
counselors or counselors for specialty school counselors in private practice do
areas, such as school counseling. How- not meet with students or parents in the
ever, NBCC appears to be building a school systems where they are assigned or
reliable foundation that could be used employed.
by school districts and state divisions of
education as a certifying agency because
of its national scope and national testing
procedures.

Continuing Education Another alternative, although a

for Counselors discouraging one, is to reduce the entry
requirements for counselors, allowing
The preparation and training of teachers to take a few counseling courses
school counselors reached a crisis in 1986. beyond their bachelor's degree to meet
There were fewer students enrolled in minimum state standards for employ-
graduate counselor education programs ment. However, this is risky business.
pursing school counseling, despite the First, it could mean many schools would
increased demand for more school coun- employ counselors who were neither
selors. Currently, there are more jobs knowledgeable nor skilled enough to
available than there are students graduat- build and implement a comprehensive
ing from accredited university programs developmental guidance and counseling
in almost every state. As more retirements program. Once a position is filled, it is
occur, the shortage may become acute. very difficult to remove a person, even if a
One alternative is for counselor educa- more qualified person is available. Second,
tion departments to recruit more students it circumvents professional standards and
for school counseling. However, this is accredited university programs. If this
not easy to do, especially in those states kind of alternative became a reality, a
where counselor certification is depen- massive staff development effort would be
dent upon at least two years of teaching needed in the school districts.
experience. It is difficult to convince some Some universities are attempting to
teachers to return to a two-year gradu- offer more off-campus courses and degree
ate program at a university, giving up programs through continuing and dis-
or substantially reducing their incomes tance education. Online courses also have
during that period. It is more of a sacrifice become available.
when school systems do not pay coun-
selors an extra stipend or a salary that Professional organizations have
makes it worthwhile for an individual to become more responsive to counselors'
attend graduate school and earn a degree needs for skill development and offer
in counseling. extended training workshops as part of
the conference proceedings each year.
To complicate matters, within the past Yet, most staff development programs are
several years, the vast majority of coun- typically one-time meetings and there is a
selor education programs in the United lack of follow-up. Staff-development train-
States have been geared toward mental ing for counselors should be a continuing
health and agency counseling. They are process.
not as well prepared to accommodate
teachers who want to pursue a school
Professional Ethics
counseling degree as they once were. It is
not likely they will change in the next few A school counselor's conduct is gov-
years without some substantial incentives, erned by a set of professional ethics. Pro-
such as extra funding from national or fessional organizations (ACA and ASCA)
state sources. The concept of "counselor have published ethical standards by
institutes," such as the NDEA of 1958, which counselors function. A copy of the
may need to be revived in order to avoid a ethical standards for school counselors, as
national crisis. adopted by ASCA and revised in 2004, can
be seen in Appendix C.

One of the first ethical obligations of Counselors also must be aware of their
counselors is to determine whether or not ethical responsibilities regarding student
they are qualified to provide a particular records and parental authority. Students
service. If they do not have the training, have rights which have been extended
skill, or experience to assist a counselee, to them through various court rulings.
then they are obligated to refer the person There will probably be other court deci-
to someone else. This is usually not a sions in the future to further define and
problem for school counselors, but, on clarify the rights of students as they relate
occasion, a difficult case (e.g., suicide, dys- to parental and school authority. If any
functioning parents) may be encountered school procedures seem questionable, it
where consultation, direct assistance, or a is the counselor's obligation to confront
referral is needed. and challenge them, reaching agreement
In general, precautions are taken whereby the welfare and integrity of a
to protect individuals from physical or student is protected.
psychological traumas resulting from the ASCA (http://www.schoolcounselor.
work of a counselor. The counseling rela- m:g) developed position statements on
tionship and confidential information are a number of school counseling-related
considered private, unless a counselee's issues. Among these are those with such
condition or situation indicates an im- topics as:
minent danger either to the counselee or • Acquired Immune Deficiency Syn-
someone else. In this case, the counselor drome (AIDS)
is obligated to take reasonable action and
to inform responsible authorities. Some • Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disor-
state laws (e.g., regarding child abuse or der
suicide) may dictate some professional • Censorship
actions. Even then, however, a counselor • Character Education
must inform the counselee and assume
• Child Abuse/Neglect Prevention
responsibility for the procedures that are
followed. Ethical responsibilities respect • College Entrance Test Preparation
the integrity and welfare of counselees. • Comprehensive School Counseling
If a student is involved in a therapeu- Programs
tic relationship with a therapist in the • Conflict Resolution Programs
community, it is assumed school guidance • Confidentiality
and counseling activities will not inter-
fere with that process. School counseling, • Corporal Punishment in the Schools
although focusing on personal and social • Counselor Supportive Staff
issues, is related to learning in school and • Credentialing and Licensure
general development. School counselors
and therapists are not obligated to confer • Critical Incident Response in the
with one another or to receive approval Schools
from whoever first started working with • Cross/Multicultural Counseling
a counselee. School counseling is not • Discipline
therapy. However, with the counselee's
• Dropout Prevention/Students-at-Risk
permission, there are many times when
consultation between a therapist and a • Educational Planning
school counselor would be appropriate • Evaluation
and practical. • Family/Parenting Education

• Gender Equity ASCA has position statements that

• Gifted Student Programs help parents and administrators iden-
tify counselor roles and functions. These
• Group Counseling general guidelines provide a base upon
• Home Schooling which to build a developmental guidance
• Military Recruitment program, to identify priorities, and to gain
support for a professional role.
• Parent Consent for Services
The job description of the school
• Peer Helping counselor and the counselor/student
• Promotion of Safe Schools ratio affects the outcomes of a guidance
• Role of the Professional School Coun- program. Each school district is unique
selor and what may be an ideal caseload in one
district may be untenable in others.
• Sexual Orientation of Youth
ASCA recommends a counselor/
• Special Needs Students
student ratio of 1 to 250. However, the
• Student Assistance Programs National Center for Education Statistics
• Students-at-Risk (2010) surveyed states and reported a na-
• Student Safety on the Internet tional average of 1 to 467. This was based
on data from 105,519 counselors during
• Nonschool Credentialed Personnel the 2008 school year. Nearly half of the
Hyperlinks to all of the statements public schools reported rising counselor
can be found at the ASCA website - caseloads and increased work demands.
http://www.schoolcounselor.org/library/ Among the states with the highest ra-
positionstatements.doc. They can be tios were California (1:986 students per
downloaded from the Web as a file. counselor), Minnesota (1:799), and Utah
(1:720).
Determining Counselor The use of the internet and comput-
Role and Ratios erized counseling packages is increasing
Who determines the role and func- because of the high student-counselor ra-
tion of school counselors? Practically tios, especially in high schools. Some high
speaking, school counselors usually decide school programs have interactive com-
their own roles and functions. This may ponents, charts and graphic information,
involve some negotiation with adminis- fill-in-the-blank counselor recommenda-
trators, but it is typically the counselors tion forms, as well as lists of colleges and
themselves who help others learn and resources based on a mix of GPA and past
make decisions about what they do. performance. These programs can beef-
ficient, save time, and make it possible
At first, counselors were drawn into for schools with high student-counselor
the idea of following therapy models. ratios to better meet student needs and
It didn't take long to see this was inap-
demands, especially in career planning.
propriate. The idea of spending most of Only time and research will tell if such
their time doing individual counseling an approach is effective, but it is clearly a
was appealing but impractical because of future trend.
high student-counselor ratios. Interviews
in some schools were averaging less than Counselor role and student ratio can
10 minutes. "Hi, how's it going?" "You be influenced by the nature of a school's
know I'm here to help you if you need program. In Lincoln, Nebraska, the coun-
assistance." seling staff in one high school agreed to
move away from a traditional therapeutic

model to a service-based developmental & Mitchell, 2005) indicated urban school

program for all students. The new model counselors were participating in typical
enabled students to be assisted by dif- school counseling activities (e.g., counsel-
ferent counselors and each counselor, in ing, consulting, coordinating) as pre-
turn, was able to focus on their unique scribed by Gysbers and Henderson (2001)
skills and talents. Both students and coun- and Myrick (2003).
selors benefited. Burnham and Jackson (2000) pointed
It is most likely schoDl counselors to the discrepancies between actual
will continue to have higher student- practice and existing models. They found
ratios than those that are recommended a role ambiguity that was present in the
and desired. This suggests counselors in early days of the guidance movement still
the future will put a higher premium on remained an issue. Existing models were
time-management in their counseling and considered viable and they contrasted two
guidance activities as well as time spent (Gysbers and Myrick), upon which most
with students. Certain student and parent state departments of education were draw-
populations will get more time than oth- ing ideas for their state guidelines. It was
ers. In addition, there will be a need for evident from this study school counselors
more large and small group approaches, were performing the functions described
as well as drawing more upon the help in current program models. However, dis-
of paraprofessionals, volunteers, student crepancies and wide variations did exist.
helpers, teachers, and other staff. The authors also acknowledged there were
Some states have proposed legislation some national initiatives for transforming
that outlines and dictates what coun- the counselor role.
selors should do. Professional organiza- In 2001, national leaders from school
tions have lobbied long and hard against districts and universities met to offer
such mandates. Most legislators were not their recommendations on what a na-
privileged to experience a comprehensive tional model of school counseling should
developmental guidance and counseling include. Other meetings and thoughtful
program in the schools they attended. discussions followed. Eventually, Trish
Many never worked closely with school Hatch, San Diego State University, and
counselors, especially those who have Judy Bowers, Tucson Unified School Dis-
implemented the role and function as trict, provided the leadership needed to
described in this book. They simply did put things into writing. They spent two
not exist in many places. Therefore, coun- years assembling, synthesizing, and de-
selors and their professional organizations scribing the collection of information and
must take the lead in determining their ideas. In addition, state models and the
own destiny, rather than accepting one professional literature were reviewed.
dictated by law. Subsequently, the ASCA National
Do guidance programs differ depend- Model (2005) was approved by the ASCA
ing upon whether they are in a rural, membership. The model presented guide-
suburban, or urban area? Does the setting lines for a framework suited for develop-
affect how effectively counselors fulfill mental guidance programs. It pointed
their roles? Apparently not, although the counselors in a direction that would help
amount of time allotted and given to vari- define and clarify their role around four
ous counselor functions tends to differ. fundamental components:
The results of one study (Holcomb-McCoy

• Foundation: Beliefs and philosophy. for school counselors. Yet, this message
• Delivery system: Curriculum, student has not reached all the decision makers in
planning, and responsive services school districts. Many school counselors
(e.g., counseling, consultation and find themselves engaged in functions that
referrals), and system support. are remotely related to the professional
model.
• Management system: Analyzing data,
evaluation, action plans and orga- Despite some encouraging findings
nized activities. (e.g., Chata & Loesch, 2007), principals
continue to rate many inappropriate
• Accountability system: Measuring counselor activities as significant. In a
progress. survey of future principals (Fitch et al.,
In addition, Gysbers & Henderson 2001), over 50 percent of participants
(2006) outlined how counselors might rated registration, record keeping, testing,
distribute their time, especially in the and special education assistance as signifi-
delivery system component. Percentages cant or highly significant activities.
of recommended school counselor time School administrators, unless they
varied among three school grade levels. once were counselors, know very little
Unfortunately, studies have consis- about school guidance programs. The
tently found school counselors are not topic receives such slight attention in the
spending their time as they prefer and courses designed to prepare administra-
much of what they do is not reflective tors that it could be viewed as irrelevant.
of what is currently advocated as best For better or for worse, most principals
practice (Scarborough, 2005). Preferred follow the model and examples of previ-
activities refer to school counseling activi- ous administrators or those with whom
ties recommended by the ASCA National they have worked in other settings. At the
Model, including consultation, coordina- same time, they are ultimately respon-
tion, counseling, and curriculum inter- sible for all school programs, including
ventions. guidance. They evaluate the program and
With the help of state departments of counselor performance.
education, counselor education depart- Most counselors, in order to keep
ments, and professional organizations, the their jobs, will follow the lead of their
role and function of school counselors has building principals or district policy.
slowly moved toward a uniform identity. Most principals expect their counselors
Until the emergence of the ASCA National to take responsibility for developing a
Model, counselor identity was depen- comprehensive developmental guid-
dent upon university training programs, ance and counseling program. Therefore,
the professional literature, and examples considering history and given the man-
drawn from exemplary schools. ner in which administrators learn about
At all grade levels, school counselors the work of counselors, principals need
are encouraged to spend the majority (or to learn more about the ASCA Model and
approximately 80%) of their time provid- how counselors can best function in their
ing direct services to students through job. Studies show principals are respon-
guidance curriculum, individual student sive, can change their views, if necessary,
planning, and responsive services. Less and have been able to prioritize appropri-
time should be spent providing indirect ate and inappropriate school counselor
services through system support activi- activities according to ASCA recommen-
ties. The ASCA Model also includes a list dations (Bringman, Muller & Lee, 2008).
of appropriate and inappropriate activities

A Practical Approach to For many years, especially during the

formative years, the counselor's role was a
the Counselor's Role frequent topic of conversation and debate
In a comprehensive developmen- in the profession. There was much con-
tal guidance and counseling program, fusion. Books and articles were written,
a counselor's work can be described in papers and programs were presented at
terms of job functions and tasks. These conferences, and committees and com-
vary from one school to another and missions were appointed to study the role
often depend upon expectations from dif- issues, but the counselor's role was still
ferent sources and circumstances. As the not fully understood.
job functions or tasks performed by the Counselor educators, for example,
counselor become evident, it is possible to argued for a role that might be compared
have a better idea of the counselor's role. to a counseling psychologist or a mental
Hopefully, the role that emerges is compa- health counselor. The counselor, in this
rable to the one advocated by professional case, was to provide a unique relationship
organizations and educators. to students by virtue of not being aligned
The term "role" is an elusive one. It with authority. It was assumed students
generally refers to the part one plays in a would be more inclined to communicate
given situation, such as the role assumed openly and honestly with counselors who
by a professional worker. Function, as refrained from passing judgments and
differentiated from role, refers to the way who were permissive and unconditionally
in which the worker carries out their part. accepting. Thus, the counselor was to set
Function gives attention to various behav- up interviews where students could talk
iors or tasks that might be performed in about their problems and concerns. The
the role. counselor, often following client-centered
Over the years, many studies have at- counseling theory, tried to enter the
tempted to examine the counselor's role. student's frame of reference and provide
They concentrated primarily on student, assistance by being a good listener.
teacher, parent, and administrator percep- Most administrators, on the other
tions and they also compared these per- hand, saw counselors in a different light.
ceptions to one another. However, taken They needed help in managing the
together, the studies seem incomplete and school, disciplining students, meeting and
ambiguous because of varying and lim- communicating with parents, and orga-
ited samples, questionnaires, and research nizing curriculum. There were many day-
methodologies. to-day problems that needed attention
Some unanswered questions are: and counselor time was flexible. Teachers
How do role perceptions develop? Which were less available to help because they
comes first, role perceptions or job func- were assigned classes that met at regu-
tions? How do role and function interact? larly scheduled times. It seemed inap-
What have school counselors been doing propriate to interrupt teachers, especially
that contribute to current perceptions? when counselors were ready and willing
Who determines the counselor's functions to assist. Although they liked the idea of
and role? How can a person's role percep- counseling and having a guidance special-
tion be changed? ist in the school, most administrators saw
counselors as their assistants.

Professional counselor organiza- In addition, the issues of privacy and

tions, such as ASCA and ACES, tended to confidentiality were prominent as coun-
align themselves with counselor educa- selors talked about their unique role in
tors. They took the position counseling the school. Counselors were to be "stu-
students was the primary responsibility dent advocates" and holders of confi-
of counselors. Although some unrelated dential information. They increasingly
guidance tasks would be part of a counsel- secluded themselves in their offices, form-
or's job, counseling was a unique service. ing an inner chamber within the school
Avoiding specification of duties and per- where students could unload their secrets
formance standards, professional leaders and reveal their problems. Such a position
often spoke in generalities when empha- inevitably created the image counseling
sizing how counselors were to assist stu- was a hidden and mysterious process. It
dents in decision making, career choices, also placed counselors in an adversary
and personal development. In addition, role with many teachers who believed
test interpretation, career information, counselors always sided with students.
educational placement, and consultation Wrenn (1957) reported people in the
with teachers and parents were frequently profession did not agree on the role of
mentioned as counselor responsibilities. the counselor in a school. Ten years later,
Counselors, themselves, seemed according to Bentley (1968), the situation
unsure of their role and most mistakenly had not changed. Now, more than four
assumed someone in the school system decades later, the same issues are being
would know what they should do and tell discussed and there is still concern about
them. When counselors were the "new the role and image of the school coun-
kids on the block, nobody in education
11
selor.
was sure what to expect from them. Since Can and should the counselor's role be
most counselors were minimally prepared, defined? Some suggest it already has been
it followed most also were skeptical about defined by virtue of what counselors have
their abilities and skills in counseling. been doing for the past several decades. In
They were uncertain about how to estab- this case, the role is a restrictive one, espe-
lish a guidance program in which they cially in the secondary schools. And, if we
functioned as specialists. Although the studied the weekly schedules of counselors
idea of providing counseling services to and compiled a list of their job functions,
students was appealing, they had difficul- it is likely we would conclude many have
ty putting counseling theory in practice. become administrative assistants or clerks.
Counselors often found it easier and The exception might be elementary school
more expedient to advise or even lecture counselors, who usually have had more
students on their behavior, instead of tak- training and who have had more latitude
ing the role of a listener to help students in developing their role and functions.
behave in responsible ways. For many Herman Peters (1962), an early leader
counselors, performing administrative in the profession, was concerned and
duties seemed one way of justifying their cautioned, "If we (counselors) do not
jobs and this, in turn, accounted for the define our duties, we will be saddled with
lack of time to engage students in coun- tasks and responsibilities that not only
seling. take away from our primary concerns,
but actually interfere with the guidance
function." And, even more, if those who
are involved in the counseling profession

do not take responsibility for defining the Managing Counselor Time:

counselor's role, then others will, or the
role may be eliminated all together. A Practical Approach
The role of the school counselor Generally, there are six fundamental
continues to be poorly defined in many interventions most counselors use in their
school districts and there are many dis- jobs. Because counselor time, behaviors,
crepancies in role implementation based skills, and activities can be related specifi-
on models (Burnham &Jackson, 2000). cally to these interventions, they can be
In response to a call for more standards used to gain a picture of the role or image
and models upon which counselors could of a developmental school counselor.
agree, ASCA formed a task force that
examined the standards it was promoting
and how they might be implemented.
If counselors know their role, then
they have a reference point to help them
understand the issues related to the job.
They can then communicate their role to
others more effectively, especially to those
with whom they work. This, in turn, clari-
fies expectations, opens doors for creative
innovations, and improves the chances
counselors will be seen as part of the team
of educators in the school.
While there have been some attempts
to differentiate the school counselor's
role by grade level, very little seems to be
gained by such an approach. It evades the
fundamental professional issue: What is
the job of a school counselor? In addition,
the only way a comprehensive guidance
and counseling program-kindergarten
through high school-can be imple-
mented is to have some agreement on the
fundamental role of a school counselor.
For many years the generic roles of
a school counselor have been counselor,
consultant, and coordinator. Within these,
there seems to be a specialist's role related
to specific kinds of job functions and in-
terventions. The nature of student prob-
lems, guidance topics, and focuses of dis-
cussion may change from one grade level
to another. However, the way in which
counselors define their roles and manage
their time around basic job functions and
interventions will not change significantly
from one grade level to another.

Figure 4.1
Counselor Interventions
(Weekly Scheduling Plan)
Counselor General Hours Per

Intervention Caseload Week
Direct Services
Individual 4-6 cases, high priority or target students 2-6
Counseling meeting twice a week for one grading period
Small Group 3-5 groups, meeting twice a week for 6-12 3-10
Counseling sessions over 3-6 weeks
Large Group 2-4 large groups, meeting once or twice a 2-3

Classroom Guidance week
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Indirect Services
Peer Facilitator Trainer/Coordinator of PF program and/or 1-4
Programs and Projects projects
Consultation Individual: Teachers or parents 1-2

(20-30 minutes)
Group: Teacher or parent seminars or 1-2
or conferences (30-45 minute)
Minimal Weekly Time Commitment 10 hours
Coordination Specific coordination activities or events 2-4

highlighted in the counselor's annual plan
(career development, character education,
accountability study)
Flexible Time Unscheduled time to be used at the
counselors's discretio (additional direct and
indirect services, other coordination
responsibilities) Variable

Six Basic Counselor or more. In a few ideal cases, counselor-

student ratios in high schools have been
Interventions known to be as low as 1:250. If the ratio
The six basic counselor interventions were 1:100, the task of providing individ-
are shown in Figure 4.1. The interventions ual counseling to all students would still
outline the work of a school counselor. be formidable. It is simply unrealistic and
They have been described as counselor impractical to rely on individual counsel-
functions, services, approaches, tasks, ing as the only counselor intervention.
activities, or jobs. Sometimes they have Individual counseling by certified pro-
been referred to as roles themselves. For fessional school counselors is becoming a
our purposes, the term "intervention" is luxury in most schools. It cannot be pro-
preferred because it best describes what a vided to everyone. Some students require
counselor does or can do in a comprehen- it because of the nature of their concerns
sive guidance and counseling program. or their inability to work in groups.
Each of the interventions is discussed As a counselor, you might think of
in greater detail in other chapters of this individual counseling on a small caseload
book. However, take a brief look at them basis. More specifically, about six to eight
now, including some related concepts and students might be seen individually for
general recommendations. In addition, a given period of time. Individual coun-
consider how these interventions are as- selees, targeted for your caseload, might
sociated with counselor role and image. meet you for as many as 12 sessions in
a six-week grading period, or about two
Individual Counseling times a week.
Individual counseling involves a per- This caseload would be reflected in
sonal interaction between the counselor a weekly schedule or plan for manag-
and a student when just the two of them ing your time. The estimated individual
are working together on a problem or top- counseling session is about 30 minutes,
ic of interest. It is one-to-one. The helping although it could be longer or shorter,
relationship and counseling experience is depending upon the problem and the type
more intense. There is more opportunity of counseling procedures that are being
to interview a student in greater depth used. This also varies from one counselor
than in other interventions. to another because of counselor personali-
Working with individuals was once ty, working style, and school organization.
thought to be the only way to do coun- Individual counseling time on your
seling. The private, face-to-face meeting weekly schedule is not the "crisis hour;"
was considered to be the best situation in rather, it is for students with whom you
which to form a close personal relation- are working regularly and who have
ship and to solve personal problems. It scheduled appointments. These are stu-
was assumed in individual counseling dents on whom you are concentrating
counselees would "open up" and disclose and taking more time to provide assis-
more than if they were in a group. tance.
Even if individual counseling were the As part of your job, you would con-
most desirable intervention, there are too tinue to have "one-time" interviews with
many students to serve. One elementary other students. They might drop in for a
school counselor, for example, might be quiet chat or to explore something quick-
assigned to a school with 700 to 1,000 ly. Sometimes a brief individual meet-
children. Middle and high school coun- ing is scheduled as part of a follow-up
selors typically have ratios of 1 to 500 to another intervention. Some students

simply want to say a friendly "hello." If all students are to have an oppor-
These one-time sessions vary in serious- tunity to receive counseling, then group
ness and intent, but they usually lack work must be part of the counselor's job.
continuity. Each one has its own purpose Small group counseling, for example,
and moments of closure. Follow-up may makes it possible for you to see several
or may not be needed, depending upon a students at one time and, eventually,
situation. But, one-time, drop-in, sponta- more of the students assigned to you.
neous sessions are not considered a part Group relationships offer a different di-
of a working "case load." These meetings mension to counseling that is needed and
are simply part of the business of being a beneficial.
counselor in a school. Some students go to extraordinary
and inappropriate measures to be recog-
Small Group Counseling nized and accepted by their classmates.
Small group counseling involves a These students may be rejected or thought
counselor working with two or more of as "weird." Since their behaviors are
students simultaneously. Small group intended to receive attention, they need
counseling in the schools most often honest reactions from others about their
happens with five or six students. This attitudes and behaviors, especially from
provides group members an opportunity their peers. Because behavior is generally
to explore ideas, feelings, and behaviors as reinforced or extinguished by the reac-
they relate to one person or to all group tions of others, a group of people re-
parti ci pants. sponding to a person's feelings, ideas, and
Counselors who think it would be behaviors is potentially more powerful
ideal to see all students on an individual than the response of one person, espe-
basis assume more positive things can cially if the group members are viewed as
happen when a counselee receives the un- significant persons in their life.
divided personal attention of a counselor. Common concerns and interests can
This position, however, underestimates provide a foundation for most groups.
the power of group dynamics and ignores When there is a feeling of mutual support
the fact most learning happens in the and a sense of belonging, a group identity
context of groups (e.g., families, class- emerges which enables group members to
rooms, and social groups). risk exploring ideas, feelings, and behav-
When children reach school age, iors at deeper levels. Honesty and genu-
peer influence plays an important part in ineness permeate small group counseling
reinforcing and discouraging behaviors sessions. There is a realization one is not
and building self-concepts. This influence alone and people do care. These are pow-
increases as students become older and erful healing forces and they contribute to
more socially conscious. Students want the learning process.
to be liked and accepted by their peers. Rushing ahead without considering
They frequently turn to their classmates the consequences was a problem to Sarah,
and friends for assistance before seeking a ninth grade student. Parents lectured
an adult. They are interested in what their and teachers criticized, but when a group
peers think about them. of peers gave her some personal feedback
on her behavior, she listened attentively.
She did not want to be perceived as some-
one who was irresponsible and lacked
control. With a heightened sense of
awareness, she set about trying to change.

Group counseling provides an oppor- Limiting the number of counseling

tunity for several students to be part of sessions also enables you to meet with
an interpersonal process that is directed more students. Although most students
to the four facilitative processes of self- would probably benefit if they met more
disclosure, feedback, increased awareness often, it is more realistic to take whatever
and decision making, and responsible gains have been made and move on to
action. If the facilitative conditions, such another group. There are always excep-
as trust, caring, understanding, and accep- tions and you may want to meet with a
tance are part of the group climate, then group for a more extended time. Getting
students will explore their feelings, ideas, some group closure within ten or twelve
and behaviors with the group. sessions is considered practical. The group
Group counseling will be discussed could always meet again later for some
in more detail in Chapter 7. However, a follow-up sessions.
few factors need to be noted here as we Small group counseling is usually
consider the counselor's role in a compre- structured. While there will be times
hensive developmental guidance plan. when group sessions are spontaneous
Small group counseling is time lim- and free-flowing, most school counselors
ited. Students are usually not available lead groups where members participate in
for more than ten or twelve meetings. structured learning activities. These group
Even this may not be realistic in some activities are designed to encourage partic-
schools where academic schedules make ipation and to promote self-disclosure and
it difficult for counselors to have access to feedback. Although similar activities may
students. Students are usually willing and be used, each group has a special unique-
responsive, but the daily schedule in a ness of its own and may react differently.
school can dictate the way in which small Target students can be identified for
group counseling is organized. participation in small groups. Some stu-
It is recommended you meet with dents are difficult to work with individu-
your small counseling groups no less than ally and may respond better to counsel-
four sessions, and preferably six to eight ing in a group. Small group counseling,
times. It also is preferable to meet the especially when it has a developmental
group twice a week, although once a week focus, can make them feel more accepted
is typical. The group sessions are usually and less like a problem. In addition, you
completed during one school grading pe- can use small group counseling to build
riod. Thus, it is possible to provide a series a personal working relationship with
of six to eight group sessions within three individual students, so they might later
to four weeks. be more responsive to other counseling
interventions, if needed.
On occasion, if students are accessible,
you might meet with a group for ten or As part of your weekly schedule, you
twelve sessions, but seldom beyond this might meet four to six small groups of
number. If students are taken out of their students a week, preferably twice a week
academic classes, small group counseling for about 30 to 45 minutes each time.
in some schools might be limited to four This means budgeting about four to ten
sessions. Any less time makes it difficult hours a week for small group counseling
to create a close working relationship sessions (see Figure 4.1). Some counselors
within a group and more time can penal- prefer to work with more groups and are
ize students because of class absences. able to do so because of their personali-

ties, interests, and stamina. Most counsel- In large group guidance, cooperative
ors, on the other hand, find it too difficult learning methods are used in which stu-
to work with more than ten groups a dents work together in small groups and
week, even if small group counseling were with the total group. This helps person-
the preferred mode of intervention and alize and individualize activities. It also
time were available. encourages all students to participate.
Large group guidance, for the most
Large Group Guidance part, has been ignored in the secondary
Meeting with individuals and small schools. Sometimes occupational materi-
groups of students is still not enough, als have been disseminated or general in-
considering the high student-counselor formation about college or vocations have
ratios. There are too many students who been presented to large groups. Yet, even
need guidance and counseling services. in these situations, counselors have relied
Therefore, you also will want to meet with on meeting students individually as their
students in larger groups. customary mode of intervention.
Large group guidance consists of The infrequent use of large group
meeting 15 or more students in a group. guidance in the secondary schools has
Many counselors consider anything above been blamed on lack of teacher coopera-
eight students to be large group work. tion, lack of space, and the difficulty of
Typically, a classroom group of about 25 organizing large group meetings. The
to 30 students is the basis for large group problem, however, seems more related to
work. However, it also is possible to meet counselors working from a crisis, rather
and work with as many as 150 students or than a developmental approach. Far too
more. many counselors are uncomfortable with
Classroom guidance, for example, is large groups and unprepared to work with
a typical counselor intervention at the them.
elementary level. A counselor may meet Although large group guidance has
with an entire class and work with the not been a common practice in junior
classroom teacher in providing group and senior high schools, it has been a part
guidance activities. These can be inte- of many middle schools. Teacher as advi-
grated into the daily or weekly schedules sor programs (TAP) provide an organized
of classroom teachers. guidance curriculum for all students,
Students are familiar with working much like that in the elementary schools.
and learning in large groups. This can be Again, there are still too many teachers
a problem if students have experienced and counselors who are unfamiliar with
teachers who depend primarily on lectur- how to work with students in large group
ing or independent study and who are guidance.
unfamiliar with group procedures that Meeting with students in large groups
encourage students to interact. Most is common sense. The activities that take
teachers, for example, seat students in place in the meetings need to be personal-
long rows of chairs. Group participation ized and this requires careful planning. As
and discussion is limited because of this a counselor, you will give attention to the
seating arrangement. Even when classes topics to be discussed, group participa-
have been organized for more discus- tion, cooperative learning activities, and
sion, teachers tend to talk too much and time available.
students talk with one another through
the teacher.

Currently, elementary school counsel- As we know, counselors cannot see

ors schedule more large group guidance all the students in the school who need
than do other counselors. Their weekly individual attention. Sometimes students
schedules may show them working with prefer to talk with peers instead of adults.
as many as five or six classes. However, When peer facilitators work as special
most counselors at all levels could typi- friends, they are matched with students
cally schedule two to three large groups who need to talk with someone who will
for guidance (see Figure 4.1). listen to them. Peer facilitators are not
Large group meetings are generally trained to be counselors, but they can
scheduled for 20 to 30 minutes in the help other students to think about their
elementary schools and 30 to 4S minutes problems, concerns, or special interests
in the secondary schools. Some counsel- and assist them in finding help, when ap-
ors in high schools meet for a class period propriate.
(e.g., 4S to SS minutes), because it is Peer facilitators can work as small
convenient with a teacher or within the group leaders too. Working together,
school's daily schedule. TAP provides a counselors and peer facilitators can make
regular large group meeting time. large group guidance a practical approach
to meeting many of the guidance and
Peer Facilitator counseling needs of students.
Training and Projects For example, five peer facilitators
Students as helpers to other students worked with six students each in a large
is a valuable concept that has been in room where a counselor was able to super-
education for many years. Many young vise all six groups. The counselor began
people are learning how to help others with a general presentation about coping
through peer facilitator training programs. with stress. Students then were organized
These might even be viewed as leadership into five small groups. Peer facilitators,
training groups. working as small group leaders, helped
group members share ideas. Instead of a
As we shall see later (Chapter 9), most few assertive students dominating a large
of what peer facilitators do can be classi- group discussion while others listened, all
fied into four roles: (1) student assistants 30 students actively participated.
to counselors and teachers; (2) tutors; (3)
special friends; and (4) small group lead- Peer facilitators do not take the place
ers. Students learn how to help others and of counselors. They help extend guidance
participate in supervised projects where services throughout the school by work-
these roles are used. ing closely with teachers and counselors
in supervised projects and activities. Con-
Peer facilitators can assist counselors sequently, counselors-with peer facilita-
in a guidance office with many routine tors as their helping hands-can reach
tasks and they also can be assigned as more students who need guidance.
special tutors to work with students who
are having academic problems, perhaps
because a student is new to the school
or was sick and absent. Counselors who
take time to train and organize tutoring
projects win support from teachers and
parents.
Educational Media Corporation® llS

As Myrick and Erney (2000) ex- Peer facilitator programs vary in

plained: terms of the time required of a trainer.
Very few students can learn to For instance, in some high schools, a
counsel other students. Counseling counselor teaches a peer facilitator class
is a special skill that takes extensive which meets about one hour every day
training, study, and practice. Howev- of the school week. While many projects
er, all students can learn to facilitate can happen during this class period, some
other students. Some will be more projects require a commitment of other
effective than others, especially those times during the week. Some counselors
who have received training in com- meet their groups two days for one hour
munication skills and interpersonal each. Other counselors have trained their
relationships, who are participating peer helpers outside of school hours and
in a peer facilitator program (p. 1). meet with them over lunch on different
occasions for planning, supervision, and
Peer facilitator training programs of follow-up training.
all kinds have developed over the years.
Some have been successful despite very A few schools have designated teach-
little planning and this often is attrib- ers as peer facilitator trainers because
uted to the personalities and styles of the an elective class is offered to students
students and program coordinators. They through the regular social studies curricu-
have energy and enthusiasm and they lum. In this case, successful counselors
are committed. They show interest and a work closely with those teachers, both in
caring attitude that makes their programs presentations to groups and helping them
work. identify projects in which their peer facili-
tators can use their skills.
There are other programs, however,
that are more consistently successful As TAP becomes more accepted in
because they have developed a systematic secondary schools, the TAP periods could
approach to preparing students as peer be used to train peers and help them with
facilitators and there are some well-orga- their projects. But, generally, counselors
nized projects in which the peer facilita- need to plan between one and five hours
tors can participate. Students learn about a week to work with peer facilitators as
facilitative conditions and helping char- either a trainer or a coordinator of peer
acteristics. They develop peer facilitator facilitator projects, or both.
interventions around them.
Who should be responsible for such
Consultation
programs? Who should train and super- Consultation with teachers, parents,
vise students in helping projects? Ideally, students, administrators, and commu-
this person is a school counselor. nity helpers is part of the counselor's job.
Generally, it is the process of helping
There are many places throughout
someone to think about a work related
the United States where school counselors
problem. More specifically, the counselor-
do not pick up the challenge and peer
consultant helps consultees talk about
facilitator training is left to teachers or
problems they are having with a third
other support personnel. Sadly enough, it
party. Consultation is an essential part of
often happens in schools where counsel-
developmental guidance.
ors are not held in high regard. After all,
school counselors should be, by training
and professional specialization, in the
best position to develop and organize peer
facilitator training programs.

One teacher was experiencing prob- selor/consultant acts as mediator. At other

lems with a disruptive girl in her class. times, difficult situations are facilitated
The girl was talking loudly and at inap- so parents, teachers, and others can take
propriate times, making sarcastic remarks action.
to the teacher and classmates, and refus- Counselors as consult an ts are part of
ing to follow classroom procedures. The exceptional education staff meetings and
teacher was frustrated and annoyed. This child study groups. They offer their obser-
situation led her to seek out one of the vations and contribute their knowledge
counselors in her school and talk about on a case that is being considered. They
the problem. In this case, the teacher be- consult with administrators and teachers
came the consultee as the counselor acted about many matters. This might include
as a consultant. They talked about the girl discussions about curriculum, evaluations,
and tried to find some solutions for the or referrals.
teacher.
It is not uncommon for the principal
Perhaps the reason consultation is giv- of a school to rely upon an effective and
en so much emphasis in a developmental supportive counselor to be a confidante.
approach to guidance is because the total "I need to talk with you about a mat-
learning environment of the school is ter.... " was one way a principal alerted
always the first consideration. Consulting the school counselor that it was time for
with teachers helps improve learning en- some consultation. The counselor was the
vironments in classrooms and throughout consultant.
the school. Moreover, consultation with
teachers enables a counselor to benefit Consultation can take place with
more students since helping one teacher individuals. Many counselors mark times
who is responsible for thirty or more stu- on their weekly schedules when teach-
dents is an efficient use of time, perhaps ers and parents can meet with them to
more than trying to see all thirty students discuss special concerns or interests. These
individually or in small groups. times are usually immediately before or
after school. Teachers also have planning
Sometimes student problems arise periods when consultation could hap-
from ineffective teaching procedures or pen. Most counselors try to accommodate
a lack of understanding between teacher teachers who have less flexible time.
and student. The counselor may not need
to counsel a student about a problem Consultation also can take place in
if teacher-student relationships are im- groups. Teacher seminars, for instance, of-
proved through consultation. fer opportunities for counselors to consult
with teachers in small or large groups.
The same thing might also be said These meetings often are scheduled before
about parent-child relationships. Parent or after school. They also can take place
education can be part of a counselor's with a team of teachers during school. In
responsibilities and some counselors are most cases, the counselor as consultant
very active in this respect. For instance, will facilitate a discussion instead of offer-
they might provide or arrange for paring expert advice.
ent education courses and seminars to be
offered in the evenings at their schools.
They might meet privately, usually upon
parent or teacher request, with parents
during school hours to discuss concerns
about their children. Sometimes the coun-

For instance, a group of teachers de- Coordination of

cided they wanted to meet and talk about Guidance Services
academically talented students who were
disruptive and acted as "class clowns." Finally, we come to the sixth coun-
They met for three 30-minute sessions selor intervention-guidance coordina-
after the last class of the day on Wednes- tion. The counselor is a coordinator and
days. The counselor as consultant started administrator of guidance services in the
the meetings, focused the topic, encour- school and this involves many activities.
aged teachers to share their thoughts and You might, for example, be involved
feelings, summarized ideas, and ended in coordinating a school's standardized
the meetings on time. The teachers felt testing program, although you do not
supported and understood in an accept- administer tests. You could choose to ad-
ing group. They had an opportunity to minister individual or group tests for your
learn about how others worked with such own purposes, but school-wide testing
students and, subsequently, they had new is preferably done by teachers and other
ideas to try. support personnel. Yet, many counselors
Consultation is a viable counselor schedule standardized tests, arrange for
intervention and it needs to be scheduled their administration and interpretation,
as part of a counselor's workload. Howev- and handle the routine procedures and
er, just because it usually involves adults paper work. It might be one of the most
is no reason it should take priority over visible aspects of the counselor's job,
other counselor interventions. For in- although it's not listed as a recommended
stance, it is not advisable to cancel a small counselor function.
group counseling session with students Some counselors are responsible for
to consult with a parent who happens to coordinating the data that go into cumu-
drop by the school. To excuse or cancel lative folders, although this responsibility
the group would communicate whatever is primarily given to teacher aides or a reg-
you are doing is not important and adult istrar in most schools. It is possible that,
interests supersede student interests. as a counselor, you could be assigned to
There are several consultation ap- coordinate the procedures and oversee the
proaches that might be used by counselors. storage and retrieval system, especially if
Consultation as a counselor intervention is there is no registrar or other support per-
described in more detail in Chapter 10. sonnel available. Clerical assistance is es-
sential if you are to avoid being entrapped
in coordinating duties.
Counselors usually help coordinate
the educational placement of students.
This might involve coordinating staff
meetings. At the secondary level, espe-
cially, it might mean working with class
schedules to meet student needs. Coun-
selors across the nation complain about
how much of their time is "wasted" in
scheduling procedures. Although the use
of computers has simplified some tasks,
there is still a demand on time for data
management.

Working as a liaison between the The coordination of guidance services

school and social agencies, such as mental takes time. Unfortunately, tasks that are
health centers and health services, also unrelated to guidance and counseling
is a coordinating function. For instance, often become part of a counselor's job.
if you suspect one of your counselees is Administrative expectations and the guid-
a victim of child abuse, most states have ance needs of a particular school influ-
laws that require you to inform state wel- ence how much time a counselor gives
fare and health agencies, which may then to administrative and coordination tasks.
follow-up with an investigation. A social Administrator and teacher expectations
worker may consult with you and ask for can be negotiated, especially if you have a
your assistance in coordinating a meeting plan for how you will be using your time.
with the child's teachers. Using a planned schedule enables you to
Coordinating staff-development or build in "protected time" for implement-
in-service meetings can be a counselor's ing the five other interventions.
responsibility. Counselors can help iden- To avoid being overwhelmed by
tify staff-development needs and appro- administrative tasks, you will want to edu-
priate resources. They also might arrange cate or remind others about counseling
meetings and work closely with external and guidance interventions, the nature of
consultants who provide seminars and a developmental guidance program, your
workshops for the school faculty. weekly schedule, and the priorities you
Obviously, this coordinating function have set. Otherwise, it may appear you
or intervention is the "catch all" category. are always available to "pick up" and "go
Counselors are expected to do many for" a host of things, many of which are
things in a school, often because there is a unrelated to your work as a counselor in a
shortage of administrative personnel and developmental guidance and counseling
there are so many administrative tasks program.
that must be done. Coordinator is a better
term to use in describing this function
than administrative assistant. However,
the plight of most counselors is too much
of their time is spent in administrative
and coordinating tasks.
One way to avoid being overloaded
with certain duties is to arrange your own
weekly schedule so some coordinating
tasks are dealt with on certain days of the
week and within specific blocks of time.
For instance, changing class schedules by
a high school counselor might be limited
to Fridays only or Fridays and noon hours
on other days. This enables a counselor to
schedule other interventions and experi-
ence fewer interruptions and distractions,
especially as students and teachers learn
when a counselor is available.

Managing If you want control of your work and

your time, then you need to approach
Counselor Priorities your work schedule systematically. To
There will never be enough school start, here are a few ways to think about
counselors to meet all the guidance needs how priorities can be set.
of students. School budgets are limited
and administrators prefer to look for less Priority-setting by
expensive ways to manage existing pro- Developmental Needs
grams and personnel. They expect coun-
selors to work within the limits of their One way to begin is to ask the stu-
abilities, the resources that are available, dents and faculty to help you identify
and the time they have available. the guidance needs in your school. This
might be done by interviewing teach-
Considering the range of guidance ers and administrators and noting their
services and the different counselor awareness of the problems facing students
interventions that are possible, identify- in the school. It might be helpful to iden-
ing priorities is essential when planning a tify some students who, because of their
comprehensive developmental guidance personal circumstances, need extra help
and counseling program. It also is a prac- beyond what might be given by most
tical means for personal and professional teachers.
survival.
A needs assessment in the form of a
As a counselor, you will be asked to do written questionnaire could be distributed
many things, some of which are directly to students and teachers. Students, for ex-
related to counseling services and some ample, might check their most important
that are not. You will not be able to meet concerns on a list of common problems
everyone's expectations. To feel a sense and issues. They could suggest guidance
of control and to gain some satisfaction topics of interest to them and their class-
from your work, you have to set priorities mates. When a middle school counselor
and manage your time carefully. administered a one-page survey to stu-
How do you set your priorities? dents, it was learned that many students
Should you give most of your attention to wanted to talk about "Girl-boy relation-
students who voluntarily come to your of- ships," "How to get along with teachers,"
fice and ask for help? Or, should you work and "How to make friends."
primarily with students who have been re- A guidance committee composed of
ferred? Should you concentrate your work teachers and counselors also can be help-
on a few students who especially need as- ful. This committee, for instance, might
sistance? Or, should you try to distribute informally interview other teachers or
your time equally among all the students listen for special needs as they emerge
who have been assigned to you? Should in team meetings. The committee might
it be a first-come first-serve basis? Or, are work with curriculum committees to see
there certain students who, above all oth- how guidance could be integrated into
ers, should be assisted? Do you wait to see classroom activities.
what administrators and teachers have in
mind for you? Or, should you have your Parents and community members can
own plan? help identify priorities and suggest topics
about which they are concerned. Parent-
teacher organizations could survey par-
ents and report their findings.

In addition, state and community re- the school's student body think about the
ports by governmental agencies may pro- needs of the community, their classmates,
vide some clues regarding student needs. and what they might do to make things
One community was especially concerned better for everyone.
about a drug abuse problem that was in- When the space shuttle Challenger ex-
creasing in the area. Another community ploded, many counselors and other guid-
experienced several unexplained teenage ance personnel changed their schedules to
suicides, while still another community respond to a national crisis. It was a time
was aware of the high number of "latch- to help students through the shock. The
key" children who attended their schools. nation grieved. It also was an occasion for
In each of these communities, it was timely teaching when students could talk
thought schools provided a base where about life, death, and how people respond
the issues could be addressed. to grief. For some students, it was an op-
A list of guidance needs could be portunity to talk about some unresolved
elicited from teachers and parents, focus- feelings and experiences in their own lives
ing on both developmental and problem- (Myrick, 1986). The same kind of action
centered concerns. Those needs could be was called for in the year 2001 after the
matched with the developmental needs terrorist attacks in New York (9/11) that
and interests that are a part of the school's shocked and threatened the nation.
developmental guidance curriculum, such In another case, parents seriously
as the objectives of TAP. It is then possible neglected a young boy and his two sisters.
to see where the needs might be addressed They had inadequate lodging and little or
in the regular program and where special no food. The parents were alcoholics and
guidance services might be added. they sometimes were abusive of the chil-
dren. When this came to the attention of
Priority-setting by Crisis a teacher, the counselor in the school met
There are times when a student or with the children and talked with person-
teacher experiences a personal crisis and nel in community agencies to get help.
immediate attention must be given to the The situation called for special and im-
situation. There also are occasions when mediate attention and it was given high
an intense situation happens in a school priority. The nature of the case required
or community and counselors react by sensitivity and confidentiality.
giving it high priority (Fein, Carlisle, & Students have many kinds of prob-
Isaacson, 2008). lems and some are more critical than
When a tornado ripped through a others. Crisis interventions are part of a
small community, many families suf- counselor's job, but sometimes the stress-
fered hardships. Death and economic ful events in a student's life can be met
depression suddenly became a part of through developmental guidance. Events
the students' lives. This called for urgent and circumstances do not have to escalate
action and priorities were shuffled as the to a crisis before help can be obtained and
school and community began the process they do not have to be confronted direct-
of adjusting and rebuilding. The school ly. Sometimes developmental guidance
counselor and some counselors from activities, taking a less direct approach,
the mental health center consulted with can help students to focus their attention
teachers and parents. Small group coun- on a problem that is developing and to
seling was done with students who had take responsibility for doing something
experienced severe losses. Large group about it.
guidance activities in classrooms helped

A school counselor was aware that Faust (1968), on the other hand, listed
Ron, a seventh grade student, was wor- first and second level priorities in terms of
ried about his parent's pending divorce. roles. More specifically, a developmental
There was a lot of stress in the family and guidance counselor is first concerned with
Ron was unsure about his future. He was consultation, and in the following order:
"targeted" for special attention within (First Level Hierarchy) groups of teachers,
the context of a developmental guidance with an individual teacher, with groups
unit that was offered during TAP. The unit of children, with an individual child;
focused on communication with adults and (Second Level Hierarchy) curriculum
and problem solving. Students were asked development, with administrators, with
to think of how they might apply the parents, with school personnel special-
ideas that were being discussed and ex- ists, and with community agencies. Faust
perienced. The counselor and the teacher believed consultation was the key to a
were particularly alert for opportunities to counselor's work because the rationale for
help Ron during this unit. developmental programs was based on
improving the learning environment. He
Priority-setting by also suggested an order of other counsel-
Counselor Intervention ing interventions: counseling teachers in
groups, counseling teachers individually,
Priorities also can be set according to counseling children in groups, and coun-
the interventions a counselor can deliver. seling children individually. This hierar-
This places an emphasis upon the kinds of chy of counseling roles for counselors was
guidance services that are offered and on an attempt to maximize counselor time
the counselor's role and image. and counseling relationships.
Some professional writers have advo- Actually, it is difficult to prioritize
cated a "hierarchy of services" approach counselor interventions beyond the
to setting priorities. They give the highest emphasis group work is preferred over
priority to working with groups of people work with individuals. If interventions are
rather than individuals alone. Dinkmeyer equally effective, then group work de-
and Caldwell (1970), for example, ranked serves more priority, especially in schools
the following as major areas for counselor where the number of counselors is lim-
intervention: (1) Pupil Appraisal and ited.
Child Study; (2) Teacher Consultation;
(3) Counseling; (4) Classroom Guidance; Gysbers and Henderson (2000) wrote
(5) Parent Consultation; (6) Curriculum about developmental guidance and
Involvement; (7) In-service Education for managing a comprehensive program.
Staff; and (8) Administration and Coordi- They described a 44-hour week in which a
nation. counselor would manage certain program
components and related tasks: systems
service (6 hours of coordinating activi-
ties), responsive (16 hours of direct coun-
seling with students), planning (4 hours),
and the guidance curriculum (18 hours of
consulting with teachers and classroom
guidance). This later became the frame-
work for the ASCA National Model (2005).

Priority-setting by The advantage of scheduling interven-

Time Management tions by the time you have available is it
assures you of a balanced program, one in
There is only so much time in a which you are not consumed by any one
school day. Though you may arrive early particular guidance service or interven-
and leave late, a regular school day is tion. It enhances your image if you are
about seven hours, from approximately seen providing all six basic interventions.
8:00 AM until 3:00 PM. The starting and Without a balanced program in which all
ending times vary from one school to six are represented to some extent, the
another and are frequently affected by faculty, students, and general public may
bus schedules, classroom space available, get a distorted picture of your job.
and administrative preferences. Regard-
less, there are only so many hours in your Because priorities are eventually based
regular workday that can be allotted to on how much time you have in your job,
various kinds of interventions (Walsh, you could begin by drawing up a weekly
Barrett, & DePaul, 2007). schedule showing the time available in a
school day. Then, the six basic counselor
One way of prioritizing counselor interventions can be put on the schedule
time and energy is to decide how much by blocks of time until a realistic schedule
time might be spent delivering each of has been developed.
the six basic counselor interventions dur-
ing a typical week. That is, if you work An alternative approach to managing
in a school 35 to 40 hours a week, how time is found at the Wisconsin Depart-
much of your time should be spent doing ment of Public Instruction website (2010).
individual counseling? Small group coun- Worksheets may help school counselors
seling? Large group guidance? Peer facili- when calculating their time commitments
tator training and projects? Consultation? and program ratio within the four deliv-
Coordination? ery components of a comprehensive pro-
gram along the lines of the ASCA Model.
You might decide, for example, the A school counselor time analysis provides
maximum number of times you want to a means of establishing the time spent
meet with small groups for counseling is across the four areas. A time/task analysis
ten sessions a week. This averages to two log provides a tool for school counselors
group meetings a day. You also might to track their percentage of time across
decide you want to arrange the meetings typical school counseling activities.
on two days a week. Therefore, you could
schedule five groups for Tuesday and
another five on Thursday. The frequency
has been set and the time of each meeting
limited to 30 to 45 minutes.
Likewise, the other counselor inter-
ventions might be scheduled accordingly.
For instance, if you decided upon a casel-
oad of six students for individual counsel-
ing and to meet each one for 30 minutes
twice a week, then those 12 half-hours of
individual counseling time would have to
appear on your weekly schedule.

Managing Interventions These individuals are given high prior-

ity in your caseload. That is, they are seen
It is the management of interventions
regularly, usually for one grading period.
within the time that is available that can
Because it is preferable to see them twice a
determine whether you have a realistic
week to have a more intense intervention
and practical program in your school. It is and more continuity, the schedule in Fig-
what you do, more than what you want
ure 4.2 shows a counselor meeting each
to do, that creates your role and image.
student two times during the week. The
To help manage your interventions, you
middle and high school schedules (Fig-
might organize them into a weekly sched-
ures 4.3 and 4.4) also include individual
ule. This schedule also must reflect events
counseling, some students meeting twice
on the annual guidance calendar.
a week and others once a week.
The Counselor's The three weekly schedules each
show four groups that are targeted for
Weekly Schedule small group counseling: GP 1, GP 2,
The basic planning outline is shown GP 3, and GP 4. In Figure 4.2, the four
in Figure 4.1. Counselor interventions groups are scheduled to meet with the
are listed on the left and some minimum counselor twice a week and the meetings
time commitments are suggested on the will be completed within three weeks.
right. Other groups of students then will take
You might begin by making yourself a their place in the schedule at the same or
weekly schedule similar to the ones found different time blocks. Groups might be
in Figures 4.2, 4.3, or 4.4. First, you will scheduled once a week over a longer time.
see a school day has been divided into Instead of twice a week for three weeks,
half-hour blocks of time. The time periods a group might meet once a week for six
could just as easily be divided into what- weeks (Figure 4.3). Or, a group might
ever times a particular school has sched- meet once a week for ten weeks. General-
uled for class periods. ly, the number and frequency of meetings
The next step is to place a set of coun- depend upon the purpose of the group
selor interventions on the schedule. For and the counseling strategy.
example, the weekly schedule in Figure
4.2 shows an elementary school counselor
meeting with five individuals, twice a
week for one half-hour each. Individual
counseling is provided for students ICl,
IC2, IC3, IC4, and ICS. In your own
schedule, the names of students could
appear instead of numbers, but you also
could assure the anonymity of your case-
load by continuing to use the numbers
or some other code. The essential consid-
eration is you have scheduled five target
students for individual counseling.

Figure 4.2
Elementary School
Counselor Schedule
Time Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday
7:30 - 8:00 Consult Consult FT Consult FT
8:00 - 8:30 Consult FT FT FT FT
8:30 - 9:00 FT FT FT FT FT
9:00 - 9:30 IC1 IC4 IC1 IC4 Class 3
9:30 - 10:00 FT IC5 FT IC5 FT
1 0:00 - 1 0:30 IC2 FT IC2 FT FT
10:30 - 11 :00 FT GP2 FT GP2 FT
11 :00 - 11 :30 GP1 GP3 GP1 GP3 FT
11 :30 - 12:00 FT FT FT FT FT
12:00 - 12:30 Lunch Lunch Lunch Lunch Lunch
12:30 - 1 :00 Class 1 Class 2 ESE Consult Class 4
1 :00 - 1 :30 FT FT ESE Consult FT
1 :30 - 2:00 FT GP4 ESE GP4 FT
2:00 - 2:30 IC3 FT ESE IC3 Peer Pj.
2:30 - 3:00 FT Teacher ESE FT Peer Pj.
3:00 - 3:30 Consult Seminar FT Consult Peer Pj.
IC= Individual Counseling

FT= Flexible Time
GP= Group Counseling
Class= Classroom Guidance
ESE= Exceptional Student Education Planning Team
Consult= Teacher/Parent Consultation
Peer Pj. = Peer Training and Projects

Figure 4.3
Middle School
Counselor Schedule
8:00 - 8:30 Consult FT Consult Consult FT
8:30 - 9:00 TAP TAP TAP TAP TAP
9:00 - 9:30 GREEN FT FT FT FT
9:30 - 10:00 TEAM IC4 FT IC4 Staff
10:00 - 1 0:30 FT FT IC2 FT Meets
10:30 - 11 :00 FT GP1 FT FT FT
11 :00 - 11 :30 IC1 FT RED GP4 IC7
11 :30 - 12:00 FT GP2 TEAM FT FT
12:00 - 12:30 Consult Consult Consult Consult Consult
12:30 - 1 :00 Lunch Lunch Lunch Peer Lunch
1:00 - 1:30 IC2 ICS GP3 Proj. BLUE
1 :30 - 2:00 FT ESE GP3 Lunch TEAM
2:00 - 2:30 IC3 ESE FT FT FT
2:30 - 3:00 FT FT IC6 Teacher Consult
3:00 - 3:30 Consult Consult Consult Seminar Consult

FT= Flexible Time
TAP= Teacher-Advisor Group Meetings
Team= Grade Level Team Meetings
Staff= Counselor and Student Services Team

Figure 4.4
High School
Counselor Schedule
7:30 - 8:00 Consylt Consult FT Consult FT
8:00 - 8:30 TAP TAP TAP TAP TAP
8:30 - 9:00 FT FT FT FT FT
9:00 - 9:30 IC1 ICS ESE ICS Staff
9:30 - 10:00 Consult FT ESE IC6 Meets
10:00 - 1 0:30 Consult FT ESE FT FT
10:30 - 11 :00 IC2 GP1 FT GP1 FT
11:00-11:30 Peer Peer Peer Peer Peer
11 :30 - 12:00 Facil. Facil. Facil. Facil. Facil.
12:00 - 12:30 FT FT FT FT FT
12:30 - 1 :00 Lunch Lunch Lunch Lunch Lunch
1 :00 - 1 :30 IC3 GP2 GP3 GP2 GP3
1 :30 - 2:00 FT GP2 GP3 GP2 GP3
2:00 - 2:30 IC4 FT GP4 FT GP4
2:30 - 3:00 Consult Teacher Consult IC4 FT
3:00 - 3:30 Consult Seminar FT Consult FT

FT= Flexible Time
TAP= Teacher Advisor Program
Peer Facil.=Peer Facilitator Class and Training Projects
Staff= Counselor Meetings

The weekly schedule for the elemen- meet with individual students during a
tary school counselor also shows how TAP block of time for tutoring or special
classroom guidance was scheduled for a friend projects.
one-half hour period four times a week. In some high schools, peer facilita-
The counselor, in this case, decided to tor classes are part of the academic cur-
meet with four different classes during the riculum. A class period, perhaps 45 to 55
week, but the decision could have been minutes, might be used and taught by a
made to go to one class four times in one teacher or a counselor. If the counselor
week. teaches the class, then that time commit-
The allotment of large group guidance ment should appear on the counselor's
or classroom time depends upon arrange- weekly schedule, as shown in the high
ments that are made with a teacher or school counselor's schedule in Figure 4.4.
group of teachers. However, seeing two In other schools where an academic
groups or classes twice a week instead class is not available, counselors could
of four once a week usually requires less train peer facilitators in a one-day work-
counselor and teacher preparation and shop or in a week-end retreat, and then
is less personally demanding. Classroom follow-up time with peer facilitators
guidance by teachers, of course, is sched- might appear on a schedule. As peer facili-
uled on their own schedules and would tator projects are developed and imple-
not appear on the counselor's schedule, mented, organization and supervisory
unless the counselor was to participate. times also would appear on the weekly
The middle and high school counsel- schedules.
ors' schedules are similar to the elemen- Consultation with students, teach-
tary school counselors' schedule, except ers, parents, and administrators happens
TAP happens at the beginning of each at various times. However, the counselor
day. Teachers, working as student advi- can identify times during a day that are
sors, present guidance units during TAP most likely to be used by those who want
time, perhaps twice a week (e.g., Tuesdays consultation. For example, the first and
and Thursdays). But, a counselor might last 30 minutes of the school day often
develop a special guidance unit that could are marked for consultation, since these
be delivered during TAP time, either by times are most convenient to teachers and
the counselor or in collaboration with parents.
TAP teachers. The counselor also could
pull together two or more TAP groups to lt will be helpful if teachers and ad-
present some general information or a ministrators have some scheduled times
guidance activity. for meeting with you. They may request
to meet at another time, such as during
Peer facilitator training could take their planning periods or perhaps during
place when TAP is scheduled, perhaps as lunch, and you will want to build your
a special TAP group for peer facilitators. schedule to accommodate them as best
Later, during that same time period, peer you can. Therefore, try to avoid student
facilitators could work with other students conferences or small group counseling at
and teachers. For instance, after nine times when most teachers can meet with
weeks of training during a TAP period, you conveniently. Scheduling consulta-
meeting five days a week, peer facilitators tion time can cut down on interruptions,
might assist teachers or counselors with especially if teachers use the time you
small group activities in their TAP groups. have made available to them.
Or, the peer facilitators might be asked to

Group consultation with teachers also Flexible time also might be used for
is recommended. Teachers can voluntarily follow-up with students, going to a class-
meet as a group to talk about some mu- room or an area in the school where the
tual interests or concerns. As a consultant, student might be. It could be used to call
you might arrange for interested teach- in a group of students, to meet with a so-
ers to talk about parent conferences. The cial worker, to make a telephone call to a
middle school teacher seminar in Figure community agency or a parent, or to work
4.3 was scheduled for three consecutive on the computer to call up some records.
Thursdays, with each session lasting about It might be used to talk informally with
30 to 45 minutes. In one series, the coun- students who are in the Career Resource
selor facilitated a discussion about suc- Center or to observe students in a class.
cessful techniques in parent conferences. The time could be used for responsibili-
Aside from teacher seminars, you ties related to coordinating the guidance
might do group consultation with teams program in the school.
of teachers. The middle school counselor, The term "chunking" is used to de-
in our example, found it helpful to attend scribe a technique for grouping similar
the planning meetings of the red, blue, job tasks that could be performed within
and green teacher teams, which met at the same time block. For instance, return-
regular times during the week. ing telephone calls might be reserved for a
Scheduling consultation time can help particular hour in the afternoon. Another
clarify your role and inform people about time period might be set aside for writ-
times when you might best be available. ing notes or recommendations or work-
Therefore, some "best times" are usually ing with school files. In this respect, you
noted on a schedule. When the time is might try to identify a few times during
not used for consultation, it automatically the day or week when some related tasks
converts to flexible time. might be completed. Although labeled
"flexible time" on your weekly calendar,
Flexible time (FT) is shown in all three there might be some routine or typical
of the sample schedules. This is time that activities that often occur at a particular
has not been committed to one of the six time.
basic counselor interventions and may be
used for different purposes. It is the com- Instead of "free time," the term "flex-
mitted time for each intervention that ible time" is preferred, particularly when
maintains the balance of the counselor's you are blocking out your schedule on a
schedule and it is this time that needs to piece of paper. Teachers or counselors may
be protected against interruptions and perceive themselves as having some extra
changes. or free time during a planning period or
when they are not scheduled to meet a
Even flexible time can be a time when class, a group, or a student, but such time
a counselor provides one of the basic is still considered "flexible time" to profes-
interventions, depending upon what sional counselors.
is scheduled for that day or that week.
When flexible time appears on a schedule, Some counselors use a master weekly
a counselor might meet with an indi- schedule as a general guide, editing it as
vidual student who happens to want an needed to show the actual events that
appointment that day or with a parent happened during a week. This "working
who stops by the school. schedule" with its deletions, substitutions,
and notes can be filed as a perm anent
record for later reference.

The management of counselor inter- The Annual Guidance Calendar

ventions and time involves building a The same concepts for building a
weekly schedule in which a minimum set
weekly schedule also apply to an annual
of the basic six counselor interventions
guidance calendar. This calendar shows
and services are arranged and noted. The
school-wide events, such as when stan-
number of commitments appearing on
dardized tests are to be given, when orien-
your weekly schedule will depend upon
tation meetings are scheduled, and when
your special interests, the circumstances
applications for college are due. Seasonal
in your school, and the needs of students
events and holidays that lend themselves
and teachers. However, in a comprehen-
to guidance units or special school tradi-
sive developmental guidance plan, ap- tions also are noted.
proximately 10 to 26 hours of your time
will be scheduled for five of the basic One guidance calendar for a high
counselor interventions. If we assume a school highlighted such events as when
40-hour week, the remaining 14 to 30 standardized tests were administered;
hours are given to the sixth basic inter- College Night, when representatives from
vention, coordinating guidance services, different universities came to campus;
and to other flexible time activities. It is Career Week, when several vocational
the use of this remaining time that threat- guidance activities took place; Educational
ens the image and role of all school coun- Planning, when students planned for next
selors and must be kept under control year's courses; Orientation Week, when
through careful and systematic planning. middle school students visited the high
school and scheduled their classes; Par-
ent's Night, when parents were invited to
an open-house at the school; and cut-off
dates, when various applications or forms
were due.
An annual guidance calendar can
identify events around which some re-
lated guidance units could be developed,
such as those that focus on orientation to
the school, career guidance, educational
planning, friendship, and study skills. The
calendar can suggest times when readi-
ness activities might be appropriate, such
as some test-taking and anxiety manage-
ment skills before a standardized test
week.
Annual guidance calendars for a
school and counselors' weekly sched-
ules coincide a great deal. They can be
changed as a need arises. Weekly sched-
ules are representative and are usually
designed for one grading period.

The schedule might be posted in the It was probably the first time the prin-
guidance office or given to administrators cipal had a clear understanding of what
and department heads so they are bet- counselors could do for students. The
ter informed about what counselors are schedules clarified counselor roles and
doing. The annual calendar is usually pre- functions and improved communication
pared before school starts and additions between the principal, the counselors,
take place at staff meetings. and others in the school. The administra-
A junior high schopl principal re- tor, in this case, was unable to speak with
ported the three counselors in his school much confidence about the work of his
were not very busy. The counselors denied counselors until he had a visual picture of
this, of course. He continued by saying what they were trying to do and how they
he sent different tasks down to the guid- were spending their time. The weekly
ance department as a favor to give them schedules had done more to describe the
something to do. work of the counselors than any profes-
sional publication or written role state-
After the counselors' initial anger and ment.
disappointment receded, they recognized
they were operating out of a crisis-based Schools also are finding it useful to
model. They saw students as they were employ counselors in a flexible schedule.
self-referred or referred by others. The For instance, one high school in Fort Lau-
counselors were reactive more than proac- derdale, Florida, released one of its coun-
tive. Therefore, they decided to imple- selors during the day to meet with stu-
ment a developmental guidance program dents and parents on Wednesday nights.
and to change their visibility and image. Many more working parents were able to
They began by outlining weekly sched- avail themselves of counselor assistance
ules. at that time. In addition to the school
counselor, a mental health counselor, and
The principal, who was given copies a counselor assigned from the sheriff's
of their new weekly schedules, later re- office also worked in the school the same
marked his counselors were now too busy evening. The three counselors provided
for some of the clerical and administrative family counseling and consultation ser-
tasks he formerly assigned to them. Per- vices and met more needs of students and
sonnel in the front office now completed their families.
many of the tasks. He also tried to help
the counselors protect their "schedules" Counselors are being challenged to
so they might work more with students think of new ways of scheduling their
and teachers. He was proud of what the time. Finding new ways to have access to
counselors had accomplished and told more students can be difficult. One group
other principals what the counselors were of high school counselors recognized stu-
doing. dents had time to see counselors during
lunch period, if counselors were available.
Therefore, counselors took turns shifting
their lunch schedules to accommodate
times when students could see them with-
out missing academic classes.

Factors to Consider Flexible times, on the other hand,

are generally unprotected. For example,
There are some other concepts and students may drop by to visit a counselor.
strategies that can help you to be effective During these times, the counselor is vul-
in the limited time you have available at nerable, on occasion, to small intrusions.
school. Some of these are discussed below. Without protected times, counselors will
find too many other duties and tasks that
Protected Time keep them from direct interventions with
Nothing seems to work unless coun- students.
selors have made time on their weekly Without protected time in mind,
schedules for it to happen. Once a coun- many counselors may rarely find the time
selor intervention has been scheduled, to meet with students in developmen-
then that time must be protected. There tal guidance and counseling activities.
are no interruptions during protected Rather, they fall into the trap of always
time periods. That is, there are no tele- operating from a reactive position.
phone calls or "I need to see you for just a
minute" from the principal or teachers. The Law of Parsimony
Protected time on the schedule is The Law of Parsimony suggests you
safeguarded from intrusions, unless there work with students in large groups first.
is an emergency that demands the coun- For example, you may be concerned with
selor's attention and cannot be postponed student attitudes about school. Classroom
for a few minutes until the counselor has guidance or a guidance unit in TAP is
finished meeting with students. A general the first strategy to be used in effecting a
way to describe such a crisis or critical change of student attitudes. Those stu-
situation is: Would someone walk into a dents who do not respond to large group
classroom, interrupt, and ask the teacher guidance might be targeted for small
to leave or report to the main office? If so, group counseling at a later time. Likewise,
who would be responsible for the students if a student fails to respond to small group
at that point? When counselors are rou- counseling, then individual counseling
tinely called from meetings with students, might be in order. If individual counsel-
or other kinds of interruptions take place, ing is ineffective, then a referral might be
the message to everyone, including stu- made to another counselor or agency.
dents, is: Whatever the counselor is doing
is not very important. The Law of Parsimony encourages
you to think about reaching all students.
Not all of a counselor's time can be It helps you implement guidance activi-
protected. That would be ideal but not ties and strategies that otherwise might
practical. The hectic pace of school life not be available to students. In addition,
lends itself to interruptions and crises that the sequence of moving from large group
seem to need immediate attention. There- guidance to an outside agency referral
fore, counselors study and plan schedules provides a systematic approach to inter-
that set aside certain periods of time dur- ventions and services. These can be docu-
ing the week where they can concentrate mented and you can then have a base
and work with students in an interven- from which to talk about any next steps
tion without interferences. The office that need to be taken.
staff, perhaps the principal, is informed of
these times and works with the counselor
to help protect these times.

Multiple Interventions A student who has been referred to

you for counseling, for example, may
Experimental research on counselor
meet with you in small group counseling,
interventions is limited. There is a need
working with others who have similar
for more studies in which a counselor
problems. In addition, you might, on
intervention is implemented with one
occasion, talk with the student on an
group of students and then compared
individual basis (individual counseling)
to another group of students who did
and talk with a teacher about the student
not receive the intervention. There also
(consultation). You might even want to
is a need for more single-case studies, in
telephone the parents (consultation) be-
which baseline data is taken and then
measurement is continued with one fore asking a peer facilitator to be a special
friend or a tutor for the student. In such
person throughout the time a counselor
intervention is administered. The studies a case, several counselor interventions
are being brought into play, with the as-
that are available have not only been lim-
sumption they will intensify the helping
ited, but they also have tended to preju-
process and change might be expedited.
dice our thinking toward using a single
It seems practical to have as many help-
counselor intervention.
ers as possible involved in working with
Doctoral dissertations, master theses, a student, especially if the nature of the
and other exacting and rigorous research case allows for it.
isolate variables for study. For instance,
When a multiple intervention hap-
if individual counseling is to be studied,
pens by chance, it is because the cir-
then efforts are made to control extrane-
cumstances seem to dictate that type
ous variables by not combining it with
of involvement and you make the best
other treatment modalities. If you mix
use of them. However, when a multiple
individual counseling with group counsel-
intervention is carefully orchestrated to
ing as part of an experimental treatment,
maximize impact and increase the chance
someone might ask, "But, which one
of making positive changes, then you
made the real difference, the individual or
are more likely to have more satisfying
small group counseling?"
results.
The legacy of single counselor inter-
When a multiple intervention is
ventions was born out of research stud-
planned, you avoid a "fragmented ap-
ies and has been sustained because most
proach" in which people are trying to
published research focuses on single treat-
help but sometimes working at cross
ments or interventions. Practically speak-
purposes because they are not communi-
ing, a multiple intervention approach can
cating and working together. This wastes
be used as part of your work. It involves
energy and is analogous to a football team
the use of more than one of the six basic
having its players run around in different
co~nselor interventions, simultaneously
directions without any plan or rationale.
or m sequence.
It may work. But, when everyone under-
stands the goal and works together on a
similar plan, then chances of success are
greater. Multiple interventions involve
teamwork and they take time to con-
struct. They are more likely to occur when
you have control of your time and con-
centrate on a few students in a caseload.

The Caseload they needed me." It was a tragic waste of

Given high counselor-student ratios time to line up students outside a coun-
selor's office for a quick interview that was
in almost every school in the nation, it
makes sense for counselors to develop a often rushed, stiff, and meaningless to
caseload of students who will receive high either counselor or student.
priority. These students might be selected Your caseload may be determined
for any number of reasons. They may not several ways. However, let us assume you
be the students who have the greatest have decided to meet individually with
need or who are the most troubled. While eight students. Further, you have decided
such students are good candidates to be to meet with them twice a week for 30
part of a counselor's caseload, one's case- minutes each time. This accounts for a
load often is determined by such factors total of eight hours of individual counsel-
as accessibility, time restraints, availabil- ing time to set aside each week. Next, you
ity of other helpers, specific requests by might decide how many students you will
teachers or administrators, and the prob- see through group counseling and sched-
ability of making a positive difference. ule the groups on your schedule. These
In a developmental guidance pro- students also might be considered part of
gram, some of the students who are seen your on-going caseload, although some
as part of a counselor's caseload will be counselors prefer to think of caseloads
in the normal range of functioning and only in terms of individuals being seen in
have concerns, needs, and interests that counseling.
are not as intense as some dysfunctioning Counselors who use the caseload ap-
students. However, who is to say these proach report they feel more in control
students are any less deserving of a school of their schedules and individual counsel-
counselor's time? ing, particularly, is more productive and
The purpose of the caseload is to help rewarding. By highlighting a caseload of
you manage your time. It also gives you students, there is a better chance more
an opportunity to focus your work and systematic procedures and a defined time
you will feel less torn than if you take frame will be used in working with them.
whatever comes your way, day by day.
Students in a caseload receive special Target Students
attention because they are part of your Research has shown students who are
weekly schedule and you see them regu- more optimistic about their future and
larly. This can make your job, and your see fewer obstacles to future goals are the
time, manageable. You simply cannot be most likely to use school counseling ser-
available to all your assigned students at vices (Scheel & Gonzalez, 2007). They can
all times. assert themselves in a group guidance or
There was a time when school coun- counseling activity and often feel com-
selors were told to see all their "coun- fortable sharing their ideas and concerns.
selees" at least once each school semester. A target student is one who has been
This meant some counselors scheduled singled out for special attention by the
500 individual interviews, which lasted counselor. Target students receive the high-
about 15 minutes each. One counselor est priority and tend to occupy most of the
in this situation said, "I just wanted the thinking and planning time you have to
students to get to know me and to find give in your job as a counselor.
out how things were going for them .... I
wanted them to know I was available, if

In that sense, all individual counsel- Let us suppose you are one of six high
ing cases are probably target students, ex- school counselors working in a school
cept some students who meet briefly, per- that has 2,400 or more students. You and
haps a few minutes, with a counselor and the other counselors might ask the build-
who do not take much of a counselor's ing administrators and department heads
planning time. When counselors target a to use a computer printout list to identify
few students at a time within their ongo- students who need special help beyond
ing caseloads, they are much more likely what classroom teachers can give them.
to consult with other counselors or pro- This list will probably be 150 to 200 in a
fessionals about them, to do some profes- school of this size because administrators
sional research about them, to read a book will think about students with the most
or journal article about their problems, or visible needs.
to chart their behaviors and evaluate their Next, ask the administrators to re-
progress. It is impossible to give that type duce the list in half by identifying those
of attention to all counselees. students who might be most responsive
Target students might be seen in to counselor help within a grading period
group counseling sessions, perhaps with (i.e., six or nine weeks). Or, you might ask
other students who are not targeted but yourself, "Which ones do I think I can
who are there to benefit from the group make a positive difference with, in some
experience. For example, if you are meet- way, during the next grading period?"
ing with a group of five students, one stu- There is no need for further assessments,
dent whom you particularly want to re- discussion, or debate. Time is of essence
ceive attention is more in your awareness. and it is the paring down of the list that
Maybe you want to help that student to is essential. Thus, you will have about 100
self-disclose more or to receive additional student names.
high facilitative responses. Or, you may Now, you and your counseling col-
want the group members to eventually leagues look over the new list and again
use this student's situation or problem cut this list in half by identifying those
as a focus for discussion. While all group whom you think might respond positively
members are part of the learning process, to a counselor intervention. The list is
counselors are keenly aware of target stu- now down to 50 students.
dents and seize upon timely opportunities
to help them within the group. These are your target students. It
might be appropriate to divide the names
How can you identify target students? among the six school counselors, giv-
Of all the students who need help in the ing each approximately eight students to
schools, which ones should be targeted work with closely during the next grad-
for special attention? Here is one simple ing period. Use any one of the counselor
way to identify a group of target students. interventions, or a combination of them
(a multiple intervention), or anything
else you believe will work to help your
target students adjust to school, resolve
their personal problems, or become better
students.

Do whatever you can to make a Career Development

positive difference. Making a difference and Life Style
within one grading period with half the
list can affect the climate of the school. The term "career development" has
Some of the students only need a little been used to describe several lifelong
boost, while others may be targeted again processes, all of which form an individu-
later. Most important, with the help of al's life style and patterns that result in a
others, you can identify students who career identity. How these patterns evolve
need special help and you can manage is based on one's values, interests, skills,
your efforts and time in light of an over- abilities, personal and educational experi-
whelming number of students with whom ences, and environmental influences. Life
you could work. style and career choices characterize one's
life (Herr, Cramer, & Spencer, 2003).
Target Populations In the ASCA position statement on
comprehensive programs and career
Aside from individual target students,
development, it was suggested counselors
there are target populations of students
concentrate on a series of common, core
within a school who need special atten-
experiences and competencies. These lead
tion. For instance, some target populations
to career awareness, career maturity, and
might be: students who have poor study
career readiness. In general, they include:
habits and skills and who do not know
how to manage their time; students who • Clarifying work values and developing
experience high anxiety and stress when plans.
they take tests and perform poorly; stu- • Assessing abilities, personality traits,
dents who have experienced a recent death and interests through formal and
or separation in their families; students informal measures.
who are "at risk" as potential dropouts; • Providing occupational and career
students who are frequently absent from information, linking community re-
school; students who are unsure about sources with guidance.
their job goals; students who are frequent-
ly rejected by their peers; and so forth. • Helping students learn interviewing
and job-hunting skills.
Targeted populations or a targeted
individual could be identified and referred • Increasing awareness of educational
by faculty or students. However, as the and training opportunities, including
counselor, you make the final choices, financial aid.
including the one or two that you particu- • Encouraging skill training, goal set-
larly want to give attention-regardless of ting, and decision making related to a
the reasons. tentative career interest.
• Integrating academic and career skills
in a school curriculum.
• Reviewing and evaluating student ac-
tion plans.

The foundation for career develop- Counseling and Learning Styles

ment and career-related skills is laid In the future, we will know more
in the early school years. Beginning in about learning styles, their effect on
elementary schools, children learn about personal and academic development, and
work-related behaviors and feelings. Field how they affect a student's participation
trips, videotaped programs, and in-class in learning activities. Presently, learning
experiences, for example, are designed to style assessment measures are limited and
increase children's awareness of the world often unreliable. Yet, it is generally recog-
of work. They learn to respect uniqueness nized some students have a predisposition
in the workplace. for visual learning approaches, while oth-
More importantly, children have ers prefer auditory and kinesthetic modes.
an opportunity to learn more about the Some students take socially active roles in
value and importance of work and how learning, while other students are more
it can give special meaning to their lives. introverted and passive.
As children get older and move through This insight is not new to counselors
middle and high schools, their interests who have appreciated, measured, and in-
become more apparent and career devel- terpreted individual differences for many
opment experiences are extended and years. However, it is surprising counselors,
grounded in decision making and plan- like many teachers, have been slow to
ning. adapt their strategies and techniques to
Life-style and career development will student learning styles (Keteyian, 2009).
remain a central focus for most school Counseling is primarily a talking pro-
counselors, but some related issues chal- cess. For some students, this kind of learn-
lenge counselors to do more than what ing situation is workable. Their verbal and
has been done in the past. More attention conceptual abilities are drawn upon in
must be given to the career development the process of counseling. Other students,
of women, ethnic minority groups, and with different learning styles or slower
the economically disadvantaged. This rates of cognitive development, may find
inevitably involves confronting some themselves hopelessly inundated with
traditional thinking, values, stereotypes, words when being "counseled." They may
prejudices, conventional programs, and feel overwhelmed, insecure, or lost in the
methods. intellectual efforts that seem to form the
Career exploration and planning basis of most school counseling and guid-
have been particularly influenced by new ance interventions.
developments in computer technology. As Perhaps, this is one reason why some
Sabella (2003) pointed out, "For better or students are unresponsive to counselor
worse, computers are changing the ways activities and why, at times, counselors
in which we conduct our work, interact, feel frustrated and defeated when working
and especially make decisions" (p. 212). with some students. Counselors who have
Career resource labs in schools feature different learning styles than their coun-
computer technology that can help more selees may experience less success than
students achieve the career competencies usual, unless they are flexible, adaptive,
outlined by ASCA. and learn how to use different counseling
approaches.

Learning styles may be affected by Play media may be used at all grade
cultural backgrounds. Counselors need to levels, but there is a lack of proven activi-
study the diverse cultural groups that are ties and almost no research to support
represented in their schools and discover their use with adolescents in the schools.
the small but significant differences that Using play media is not popular with
influence learning and counseling. Mi- middle and secondary school counselors,
grant students, for example, must often despite the fact most teenagers enjoy
compensate for educational deficiencies learning through games and fun activities.
and subculture differences that influence Some new developments are needed in
participation in school (Atkinson, 2003). using play media to accommodate learn-
All ethnic groups are highly sensitive to ing styles in counseling. One solution to
certain words or phrases that cause them meeting students' needs who have dif-
to feel "put down." Some cultural groups ferent learning styles and rates of cogni-
prefer nontraditional counseling ap- tive development may be found in high
proaches, such as ones with more visual technology, which for many teenagers is a
and active counseling techniques. playground and a major source of enter-
This book, like so many others, places tainment.
a lot of emphasis on the verbal process
of counseling through examples and Using Computer Technology
recommended procedures. First, it is the Advancements in computer technolo-
most popular and practical approach, as gy are rapidly changing traditional school
the vast majority of students can work counseling approaches. New technology
within this counseling process. Secondly, can help counselors develop comprehen-
all of the counseling approaches that are sive programs that enhance students' aca-
feasible for school settings rely to some demic, personal, social, and career devel-
degree on communication via words. opment. Yet, surprisingly, little attention
Play techniques have been popular in the research literature has been given
with child therapists and counselors for to exactly how computer technology can
many years. Elementary school counsel- advance school counselors' professional
ors often use play media in their work. work.
Puppets, art materials, guided fantasies, In one study, 49 school counselors
music and movement, creative dramat- used various technologies to accomplish
ics, and games are part of almost every their goals in what seemed to be a more
elementary school counselor's repertoire. effective, efficient, and professional way.
Yet, it has been only recently that play The counselors believed that applied
counseling has moved beyond the tradi- technology tools would help them better
tional therapeutic approach of Virginia implement the delivery system compo-
Axline (Kaduson & Schaefer, 2000), which nents of the American School Counselor
was considered inappropriate for use by Association's National Model (2005). The
school counselors who do not have a lot results indicated each component of the
of time for individual cases. delivery system was positively affected by
the use of technology (Hayden, Poynton,
& Sabella, 2010).

Today's high tech tools, high speed Counselors often have felt burdened
networks, and fast-paced digital exchang- by clerical tasks that must be performed as
es are more intricate parts of our global part of their job assignments. Computers
society than ever before (Friedman, 2005). immediately made clerical duties easier
School guidance and counseling programs and more efficient. Because computers
are no exception. make more information available at a
For many years, most computer tech- counselor's fingertips, data also might be
nology was used for infqrmation storage used to study groups of students targeted
and retrieval. Counselors marveled when for guidance and counseling. Patterns and
lap top computers were first introduced. trends within a population of students
They began working with students regard- might be identified. Final reports, with
ing career decision making and accessing graphs and summary data, could be easier
information about the world of work on to construct.
a microcomputer while sitting in a guid- Networking among counselors will
ance office. It was the dawn of a career increase in the future. Some school dis-
planning revolution. tricts with secure computers can easily
A computer program might provide transfer a student from one school to an-
data about job opportunities, educa- other within a district because a student's
tional requirements, skills and interests records can be displayed on a terminal
needed, and some appropriate references. in any of the district schools. It also is
Programs such as SIG! Plus, DISCOVER, possible to have a computerized network
and CHOICES enable students to interact of counselors, which serves as a clearing-
with a computer in search and explore house for ideas and activities.
activities. Now, various websites and the In addition to computers, high tech-
interactive nature of the nternet provide nology is providing counselors with other
a depth and range in career exploration ways to match or accommodate students'
that was inconceivable to counselors a learning styles. Videos, some which inter-
few years ago. face with computers, can provide simu-
There was a time when counselors lated experiences in which students gain
and administrators marveled at how a new information, explore alternatives,
basic personal computer saved the school and learn skills.
thousands of dollars when it was used to Digital video cameras and moni-
organize student schedules. They were tors are becoming more affordable and
able to schedule all students for classes might be used to assist students in guid-
within a shorter period of time and with ance and counseling activities, providing
less personnel involved (Strong & Turner, unique opportunities for more decision
1983). Now, computers are used in all making, feedback, or the study of inter-
schools to manage classes, assignments, personal relationships. Using video clips
and student information. and role-playing situations, a counselor
might coach students in communication
or problem-solving skills. A high school
counselor can let students form ideas
about job interviews and then video mock
interviews.

The use of high technology is typi- Systematic preparation of paraprofes-

cally implemented in the military services sionals can make a positive difference.
and business enterprises before it reaches An effective training program introduces
schools. There is a trend for sophisticated participants to the working environment,
electronic equipment to become less explains the roles and functions to be
expensive and more available to counsel- performed, and provides them practice
ors, whose own imagination and innova- with interpersonal skills which can be
tive practices will determine how helpful used with students and adults in a school.
technology can be. Many counselors will Without such preparation, paraprofession-
be challenged to enter the 21st century als feel less like team members and more
of counseling by learning more about like tagalong workers.
computers and high technology (Paisley If paraprofessionals such as parent
& McMahon, 2001; Van Horn & Myrick, and community volunteers assist counsel-
2001, Sabella, 2003). ors in their work, then more students can
receive guidance services. There is more
Share Responsibility time for attention to details and follow-
With Parprofessionals up. They create more opportunities for
Counselors and teachers need not be differentiated staffing. Well-trained and
the only providers of guidance services. enthusiastic paraprofessionals add a posi-
They can teach others basic helping skills tive element to the working environment.
that can be used in guidance related ac- There are many helpers within a
tivities and tasks. school and community (e.g., Big Broth-
There are people who, even without ers and Big Sisters, church groups, neigh-
professional training, seem to have a bors, and relatives) who can help a young
natural talent and inclination for helping person with a problem. While the burden
others. Their personalities, interpersonal of responsibility for personal choices and
skills, and positive attitudes make it pos- changes always rests with the student, the
sible for them to accept some guidance responsibility for caring and being helpful
roles in which they provide direct and can rest on the shoulders of many people.
indirect services to students. However, be- The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001
cause they are not professionally certified (NCLB) established higher educational
or formally trained, they often are referred standards for paraprofessionals working
to as paraprofessionals. Their roles are with special education teachers as aides.
limited and supervision is required and The most common strategy school dis-
expected (Astramovich & Holden, 2002). tricts use to support students with severe
Paraprofessionals were first introduced disabilities in inclusive classrooms is to al-
to school guidance during the 1960s in locate a paraprofessional to work with the
order to alleviate critical counselor short- individual student. This does not work
ages. They also seemed to help address the well if the helper is viewed as a detriment
heavy caseloads facing professional coun- to forming positive peer relationships.
selors. The rationale was paraprofessionals
could reduce the noncounseling-related
duties and assist counselors in a variety of
direct and indirect counseling services. In
turn, school counselors would have more
time to develop and implement counsel-
ing programs for students.

For example, Causton-Theoharis and Working with Legislators

Malmgren (2005) found paraprofessional There was a time when counselors did
proximity was the single most important not concern themselves with the work of
classroom condition that negatively in- national and state legislatures, but that
fluenced peer interactions when working time has passed. Counselors now must
with special education children. Appar- take an active part in working toward
ently, it brought too much attention to legislation that affects them and their
students who found it embarrassing and programs.
peer pressure worked against the extra
help. Financial support for counseling and
guidance started decades ago from the
Closely related to the use of parapro- federal government and the funds helped
fessionals is the use of mentors and peer train and employ more counselors and
facilitators (see Chapter 9). It makes sense improve counselor education programs.
to mobilize as many helping resources as This early federally supported thrust had
you can to implement a comprehensive a significant impact on the development
guidance and counseling program. of the school counseling profession and
the role of school counselors. Likewise,
Orientation P.L. 94-142 (1976) not only appropriated
Sometimes it is easy to take things for millions of dollars to help children, but it
granted, especially if you have been do- influenced many procedures and activi-
ing the same for a long time. Counselors ties that are still used in the schools. It
might forget that with each new wave of also determined how some personnel,
students and parents there is need to ori- often including school counselors, would
ent them regarding the guidance program function in their work and forced them to
and counselor roles and functions. You reorder their service and time priorities.
may not need to explain in detail how a Elementary school counseling in
particular guidance model works, but peo- Florida resulted from state legislators being
ple need to be informed about the work of convinced early intervention was the best
a counselor. Then, they will have a better way to help improve the academic, per-
idea of how best to use the guidance office sonal, and social development of students.
and counselor services. Specific legislation was passed which
Technology-based counseling orienta- marked funds for the employment of
tions can be produced locally and shown elementary school counselors. This kind of
during general student/parent meetings. categorical funding protected the counsel-
An introductory video clip or slide pre- or position from encroachment by other
sentation might be played just prior to needs in school systems, of which there
initial counseling sessions. They introduce are many. It gave counselors time to build
a counselor whom a student is about to programs and provide some accountability
see or identify personnel in the guid- studies to justify legislative action.
ance office. Simple and brief orientations Over the years since 1972, elementary
explain how counselor interventions can school counselors in Florida have firmly
work and help clarify expectations. They established themselves and their devel-
prepare students and parents to make the opmental guidance programs as a regular
best use of available time (Moore-Thomas part of the school system. Every elementa-
& Lent, 2007). ry school in the state now has at least one
full-time counselor and this would never
have been possible without the support of
state legislators.

Legislators can give funds and create Take Your Gains

opportunities and they can take them Take your gains where you can get
away. Some promising programs have them. Then, move on. Look for positive
been discontinued in some states because differences and do not expect to get dra-
time ran out and they were never estab- matic reversals every time you work with
lished independent of federal or state students. It is not easy to turn someone's
funding. Some of these programs had attitude around 180 degrees or to signifi-
the potential to be exemplary models for cantly impact a student's grade point av-
other school systems, but when funding erage. When students have problems with
was reduced or lost, the programs melted a teacher, you are unlikely to do anything
away. overnight to help them become good
Counselors, usually through their friends. In these situations, you probably
state professional organizations, can form need to take a few small steps in the right
legislative task forces that work with direction.
legislators. These task forces, sometimes Some counselors have lofty goals for
with the help of paid lobbyists, help keep themselves and their counselees. They
legislators and their aides informed about feel unsuccessful, or even defeated, un-
the guidance and counseling needs of less they reach their general objective.
young people and the value of guidance They fail to consider the difference a f~w
programs to meet those needs. little things can make and to take credit
For instance, the Florida School Coun- for helping a person have the courage or
selor Association and the Florida Counsel- the skill to take a first step. While we all
ing Association develop a written legisla- hope for some quick turnarounds, most
tive platform for each annual meeting of progress is slow and sometimes goes un-
the state legislature. The associations help noticed.
raise funds to employ professional lobby- Intervention and time management
ists. They organize groups of counselors to plans are based on the assumption you
visit and talkwith their local state legisla- work toward and take short-term gains.
tors prior to when the legislature meets, There is little doubt six small group ses-
in order to be informative and build posi- sions are only a start to helping some
tive relationships. Consequently, Florida students learn to communicate more
legislators, in general, have a good idea of effectively or to explore a problem that is
what counselors are trying to do and what facing them. But, time restraints empha-
they have accomplished. size you "take your gains" where you find
them and then work with other students.

One high school counselor, for ex- The Developmental Counselor

ample, was so pleased with one of her
Counselors in developmental guid-
counseling groups she continued to meet
ance programs often are described as
with the group for several weeks. After
human behavior and relationship special-
about 22 sessions, she was asked what she
ists. They focus on the developmental
planned to do next. She responded b~ list- needs, stages, and tasks of students in the
ing several possibilities and hypothesized
elementary, middle, and high schools.
about one or two group members. Her
They adapt the best of counseling theories
enthusiasm ran high. rt was suggested she
to educational settings, relying primarily
get closure on the group and stop meet-
upon brief counseling and short-term ap-
ing them. There were other students who
proaches.
needed a similar group experience.
Developmental school counselors
After some surprise, she realized that
work with a caseload, which they can
many gains had been made and tha~ to
manage within a given week or time-
continue meeting the group was satisfy-
frame, such as a grading period. Target
ing her own needs to feel successful. The
students are singled out for study and
group helped her feel "like a real coun-
given special attention. The concepts of
selor," more so than some other groups.
target students, target populations, and
Confronted with this insight, she ended
caseload make a counselor's work man-
the group and started some others.
ageable and realistic.
Counselor interventions are sched-
uled in a representative work week and a
master weekly schedule can be shown to
others. The counselor's job is defined by
what counselors do, not by what counsel-
ors or the counseling profession thinks or
wishes they could do. Counselor interven-
tions and time management eventually
define and clarify a counselor's role and
image.
Developmental counselors base their
work on helping students learn more ef-
fectively and efficiently. Counselors are
concerned with the personal problems of
students because they can detract from
learning. More effective and efficient
learning is the essence of counseling
and guidance, no matter the counseling
theory or intervention.

Myrick, Ch. 4 (85-144)

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Myrick, Ch. 4 (85-144)

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The Counselor:

Educational Media Corporation® 85

"The appropriate focus for school Counseling Theories

86 Robert D. Myrick, Ph.D.

Client-Centered Counseling 5. Conflicts arise when self-concepts

Educational Media Corporation® 87

were in training. It is considered a simple Rational Emotive

88 Robert D. Myrick, Ph.D.

In contrast to the client-centered 4. "Others are responsible for making

Educational Media Corporation® 89

Behavioral Counseling 4. Select and apply the methods to be

90 Robert D. Myrick, Ph.D.

Reality Therapy Also, self-awareness is related to

Educational Media Corporation® 91

92 Robert D. Myrick, Ph.D.

Other Theories Adlerian psychology has found a

Educational Media Corporation® 93

94 Robert D. Myrick, Ph.D.

Brief counseling. This term has A Personal Theory

Educational Media Corporation® 95

The Need for We also need new counseling theories

96 Robert D. Myrick, Ph.D.

Time is precious. Time for counseling The Professional Counselor

Educational Media Corporation® 97

98 Robert D. Myrick, Ph.D.

• American Rehabilitation Counseling As- • Counseling Association for Humanistic

Educational Media Corporation® 99

• National Employment Counseling Asso- In 1981, the Council for Accredita-

100 Robert D. Myrick, Ph.D.

As accreditation is to university As states consider procedures for

Educational Media Corporation® 101

Continuing Education Another alternative, although a

102 Robert D. Myrick, Ph.D.

Educational Media Corporation® 103

• Gender Equity ASCA has position statements that

104 Robert D. Myrick, Ph.D.

model to a service-based developmental & Mitchell, 2005) indicated urban school

Educational Media Corporation® 105

106 Robert D. Myrick, Ph.D.

A Practical Approach to For many years, especially during the

Educational Media Corporation® 107

Professional counselor organiza- In addition, the issues of privacy and

108 Robert D. Myrick, Ph.D.

do not take responsibility for defining the Managing Counselor Time:

Educational Media Corporation® 109

Counselor General Hours Per

Large Group 2-4 large groups, meeting once or twice a 2-3

Consultation Individual: Teachers or parents 1-2

Minimal Weekly Time Commitment 10 hours

Coordination Specific coordination activities or events 2-4

110 Robert D. Myrick, Ph.D.

Six Basic Counselor or more. In a few ideal cases, counselor-

Educational Media Corporation® 111

112 Robert D. Myrick, Ph.D.

Group counseling provides an oppor- Limiting the number of counseling

Educational Media Corporation® 113

114 Robert D. Myrick, Ph.D.

Currently, elementary school counsel- As we know, counselors cannot see

Educational Media Corporation® llS

As Myrick and Erney (2000) ex- Peer facilitator programs vary in

116 Robert D. Myrick, Ph.D.

One teacher was experiencing prob- selor/consultant acts as mediator. At other

Educational Media Corporation® 117

For instance, a group of teachers de- Coordination of