Lect 5

Characteristics and Functions Addressing Modes
CSC 213: Computer Architecture

Lecture 5: Instruction Sets: Characteristics and Functions,
Addressing Modes
November 16, 2021

Agenda
1 Characteristics and Functions

Instruction Characteristics
Types of operands
Types of operations
2 Addressing Modes

Instruction Set Architecture (ISA)
Serves as an interface between software and hardware.

Provides a mechanism by which the software tells the
hardware what should be done.

Interface Design
A good interface:
Lasts through many implementations (portability,
compatability)
Is used in many different ways (generality)
Provides convenient functionality to higher levels
Permits an efficient implementation at lower levels

Instruction Set Design Issues
Instruction set design issues include:

Where are operands stored?
registers, memory, stack, accumulator
How many explicit operands are there?
0, 1, 2, or 3
How is the operand location specified?
register, immediate, indirect, . . .
What type & size of operands are supported?
byte, int, float, double, string, vector, . . .
What operations are supported?
add, sub, mul, move, compare, . . .

Evolution of Instruction Sets
Single Accumulator (EDSAC 1950, Maurice Wilkes)

Accumulator + Index Registers
(Manchester Mark I, IBM 700 series 1953)
Separation of Programming Model

from Implementation
High-level Language Based Concept of a Family

(B5000 1963) (IBM 360 1964)
General Purpose Register Machines
Complex Instruction Sets Load/Store Architecture

(Vax, Intel 432 1977-80) (CDC 6600, Cray 1 1963-76)
CISC RISC
Intel x86, Pentium (MIPS,Sparc,HP-PA,IBM RS6000,PowerPC . . .1987)

What is an Instruction Set?
The complete collection of instructions that are understood by

a CPU
Machine language: binary representation of operations and
(addresses of) arguments
Assembly language: mnemonic representation for humans,
e.g., OP A,B,C (meaning A ← OP(B,C))

Elements of an Instruction
Operation code (opcode)

Do this: ADD, SUB, MPY, DIV, LOAD, STOR
Source operand reference
To this: (address of) argument of op, e.g. register, memory
location
Result operand reference
Put the result here e.g. register, memory location
Next instruction reference (often implicit)
When you have done that, do this: BR

Instruction Representation
In machine code each instruction has a unique bit pattern

For human consumption (well, programmers anyway) a
symbolic representation is used e.g. ADD, SUB, LOAD
Operands can also be represented in this way - ADD A,B

Simple Instruction Format

Instruction Types
Data processing
Data storage (main memory)
Data movement (internal transfer and I/O)
Program flow control

Types of Operand references
Source and result operands can be in one of four areas:

Main or virtual memory
I/O devices
If memory-mapped I/O is used, this is just another main or
virtual memory address
Processor Registers
Immediate

Number of Addresses

How Many References
More addresses
More complex (powerful?) instructions
Less instructions per program
slower instruction cycle
Fewer addresses
Less complex (powerful?) instructions
More instructions per program, e.g. data movement
Faster instruction cycle

Example - Number of Addresses
Compute
(A − B)
(C + (D ∗ E ))
assuming each of them is in a read-only register which cannot
be modified.
Additional registers can be used if needed.

Example - 3 Address Instructions
OP Result, Operand 1, Operand 2

Not common
Needs very long words to hold everything
Instruction Comment
SUB Y, A, B Y←A-B
MPY T, D, E T←DxE
ADD T, T, C T←T+C
DIV Y, Y, T Y←Y/T

One address doubles as operand and result

Reduces length of instruction
Requires some extra work: temporary storage
Instruction Comment
MOVE Y, A Y←A
SUB Y, B Y←Y-B
MOVE T, D T←D
MPY T, E T←TxE
ADD T, C T←T+C
DIV Y, T Y←Y/T

Implicit second address, usually a register (accumulator, AC)
Instruction Comment
LOAD D AC ← D
MPY E AC ← AC xE
ADD C AC ← AC +C
STOR Y Y ← AC
LOAD A AC ← A
SUB B AC ← AC -B
DIV Y AC ← AC /Y
STOR Y Y ← AC

Example - 0 (zero) Address Instructions
All addresses implicit, e.g. ADD

Uses a stack
Example - Compute c = a + b
push a
push b
add
pop c

Types of operands
Types of Operands
Addresses: immediate, direct, indirect, stack

Numbers
Integer/floating point
Characters
ASCII etc.
Logical Data
Bits or flags

Types of operands
Numbers
All machine languages include numeric data types

Numbers stored in a computer are limited:
Limit to the magnitude of numbers representable on a machine
In the case of floating-point numbers, a limit to their precision
Three types of numerical data are common in computers:
Binary integer or binary fixed point
Binary floating point
Decimal
Packed decimal

Types of operands
Characters
A common form of data is text or character strings

Textual data in character form cannot be easily stored or
transmitted by data processing and communications systems
because they are designed for binary data
Most commonly used character code is the International
Reference Alphabet (IRA) or the American Standard Code for
Information Interchange (ASCII)
Another code used to encode characters is the Extended
Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code (EBCDIC)

Types of operands
Logical Data
An n-bit unit consisting of n 1-bit items of data, each item

having the value 0 or 1
Two advantages to bit-oriented view:
Memory can be used most efficiently for storing an array of
Boolean or binary data items in which each item can take on
only the values 1 (true) and 0 (false)
To manipulate the bits of a data item

Types of operations
Instruction Types

Types of operations
Data Transfer
Specify
Source
Destination
Amount of data
May be different instructions for different movements
Or one instruction and different addresses

Types of operations
Arithmetic
Basic arithmetic operations of add, subtract, multiply, and

divide
Provided for signed integer (fixed-point) numbers, often also
for floating-point and packed decimal numbers
May include
Increment (a++)
Decrement (a–)
Negate (-a)

Types of operations
Basic Logical Operations
Bitwise operations, AND, OR, NOT, XOR, TEST, CMP, SET

...
Shifting and rotating functions

Types of operations
Shift and Rotate Operations

Types of operations
Example - Shift and Rotate Operations

Types of operations
Conversion
E.g. Binary to Decimal

Types of operations
Input/Output
May be specific instructions

May be done using data movement instructions (memory
mapped)
May be done by a separate controller (DMA)
Variety of approaches taken:
Isolated programmed I/O
Memory-mapped programmed I/O
DMA
Use of an I/O processor
Many implementations provide only a few I/O instructions,
with the specific actions specified by parameters, codes, or
command words

Types of operations
Systems Control
Privileged instructions
CPU needs to be in specific state
Ring 0 on 80386+
Kernel mode
For operating systems use

Types of operations
Transfer of Control
Most common transfer-of-control operations found in

instruction sets:
Branch
e.g. branch to x if result is zero
Skip
e.g. increment and skip if zero
– ISZ Register1
Procedure call

Types of operations
Branch Instruction

Types of operations
Procedures
Self-contained computer program that is incorporated into a

larger program
Two principal reasons for use of procedures:
Economy - A procedure allows the same piece of code to be
used many times
Modularity
Procedures involves two basic instructions:
A call instruction that branches from the present location to
the procedure
Return instruction that returns from the procedure to the place
from which it was called

Types of operations
Nested Procedures

Types of operations
Use of Stack to Implement Nested Procedures

Addressing Modes
Immediate
Direct
Indirect
Register
Register indirect
Displacement
Stack

Basic Addressing Modes

Immediate Addressing
Simplest form of addressing

Operand = A, e.g. ADD 5
This mode can be used to define and use constants or set
initial values of variables
Advantage:
no memory reference other than the instruction fetch is
required to obtain the operand, thus saving one memory or
cache cycle in the instruction cycle
Disadvantage:
The size of the number is restricted to the size of the address
field, which, in most instruction sets, is small compared with
the word length

Immediate Addressing - Diagram
Instruction
Opcode Operand

Direct Addressing
Address field contains address of operand

Effective address (EA) = address field (A)
e.g. ADD A
Add contents of cell A to accumulator
Look in memory at address A for operand
Single memory reference to access data
No additional calculations to work out effective address
Limited address space

Direct Addressing - Diagram
Instruction
Opcode Address A
Memory
Operand

Indirect Addressing
Reference to the address of a word in memory which contains
a full-length address of the operand
EA = (A)
Parentheses are to be interpreted as meaning contents of
Advantage: For a word length of N an address space of 2N is
now available
Disadvantage:
Instruction execution requires two memory references to fetch
the operand, one to get its address and a second to get its
value
A rarely used variant of indirect addressing is multilevel or
cascaded indirect addressing
EA = ( . . . (A) . . . )
multiple memory accesses required to find operand

Indirect Addressing - Diagram
Instruction
Opcode Address A
Memory
Pointer to operand
Operand

Register Addressing
Address field refers to a register rather than a main memory

address
EA = R
Advantages:
Only a small address field is needed in the instruction
No time-consuming memory references are required
Disadvantage:
The address space is very limited

Register Addressing - Diagram
Instruction
Opcode Register Address R

Registers
Operand

Register Indirect Addressing
Analogous to indirect addressing

The only difference is whether the address field refers to a
memory location or a register
EA = (R)
Address space limitation of the address field is overcome by
having that field refer to a word-length location containing an
address
Uses one less memory reference than indirect addressing

Register Indiret Addressing - Diagram
Instruction
Opcode Register Address R

Memory
Registers
Pointer to Operand Operand

Displacement Addressing
Combines the capabilities of direct addressing and register
indirect addressing
EA = A + (R)
Requires that the instruction have two address fields, at least
one of which is explicit
The value contained in one address field (value = A) is used
directly
The other address field refers to a register whose contents are
added to A to produce the effective address
Most common uses:
Relative addressing
Base-register addressing
Indexing

Displacement Addressing - Diagram
Instruction
Opcode Register R Address A

Memory
Registers
Pointer to Operand + Operand

Relative Addressing
The implicitly referenced register is the program counter (PC)

The next instruction address is added to the address field to
produce the EA
Typically the address field is treated as a twos complement
number for this operation
Thus the effective address is a displacement relative to the
address of the instruction
Exploits the concept of locality
Saves address bits in the instruction if most memory
references are relatively near to the instruction being executed

Base-Register Addressing
The referenced register contains a main memory address and

the address field contains a displacement from that address
The register reference may be explicit or implicit
Exploits the locality of memory references
Convenient means of implementing segmentation
In some implementations a single segment base register is
employed and is used implicitly
In others the programmer may choose a register to hold the
base address of a segment and the instruction must reference
it explicitly

Indexed Addressing
The address field references a main memory address and the
referenced register contains a positive displacement from that
address
The method of calculating the EA is the same as for
base-register addressing
An important use is to provide an efficient mechanism for
performing iterative operations
Autoindexing
Automatically increment or decrement the index register after
each reference to it
EA = A + (R)
(R) ← (R) + 1
Postindexing - Indexing is performed after the indirection
Preindexing - Indexing is performed before the indirection

Stack Addressing
A stack is a reserved block of locations

Items are appended to the top of the stack so that the block
is partially filled
Associated with the stack is a pointer whose value is the
address of the top of the stack
The stack pointer is maintained in a register
Thus references to stack locations in memory are in fact
register indirect addresses
Is a form of implied addressing
The machine instructions need not include a memory
reference but implicitly operate on the top of the stack

Instruction Formats
Layout of bits in an instruction

Includes opcode
Includes (implicit or explicit) operand(s)
Usually more than one instruction format in an instruction set

Instruction Length
Affected by and affects:

Memory size
Memory organization
Bus structure
CPU complexity
CPU speed
Trade off between powerful instruction repertoire and saving
space

Allocation of Bits
Number of addressing modes

Number of operands
Register versus memory
Number of register sets
Address range
Address granularity

Lect 5

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Lect 5

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Characteristics and Functions Addressing Modes

CSC 213: Computer Architecture

November 16, 2021

CSC 213: Computer Architecture

1 Characteristics and Functions

CSC 213: Computer Architecture

Instruction Set Architecture (ISA)

Serves as an interface between software and hardware.

CSC 213: Computer Architecture

CSC 213: Computer Architecture

Instruction Set Design Issues

Instruction set design issues include:

CSC 213: Computer Architecture

Evolution of Instruction Sets

Single Accumulator (EDSAC 1950, Maurice Wilkes)

Separation of Programming Model

High-level Language Based Concept of a Family

General Purpose Register Machines

Complex Instruction Sets Load/Store Architecture

CSC 213: Computer Architecture

What is an Instruction Set?

The complete collection of instructions that are understood by

CSC 213: Computer Architecture

Operation code (opcode)

CSC 213: Computer Architecture

In machine code each instruction has a unique bit pattern

CSC 213: Computer Architecture

Simple Instruction Format

CSC 213: Computer Architecture

CSC 213: Computer Architecture

Types of Operand references

Source and result operands can be in one of four areas:

CSC 213: Computer Architecture

CSC 213: Computer Architecture

How Many References

CSC 213: Computer Architecture

Example - Number of Addresses

CSC 213: Computer Architecture

Example - 3 Address Instructions

OP Result, Operand 1, Operand 2

CSC 213: Computer Architecture

Example - 2 Address Instructions

One address doubles as operand and result

CSC 213: Computer Architecture

Example - 1 Address Instructions

Implicit second address, usually a register (accumulator, AC)

CSC 213: Computer Architecture

Example - 0 (zero) Address Instructions

All addresses implicit, e.g. ADD

CSC 213: Computer Architecture

Addresses: immediate, direct, indirect, stack

CSC 213: Computer Architecture

All machine languages include numeric data types

CSC 213: Computer Architecture

A common form of data is text or character strings

CSC 213: Computer Architecture

An n-bit unit consisting of n 1-bit items of data, each item

CSC 213: Computer Architecture

CSC 213: Computer Architecture

CSC 213: Computer Architecture

Basic arithmetic operations of add, subtract, multiply, and

CSC 213: Computer Architecture