Ans 1)

Research, as a tool for progress, satisfies mankind’s curiosity to lots of

questions. Whether you are a high school or college student, you have to take
research subject for you to be able to receive your diploma. To ease your burden
in doing research, here are the seven steps in the research process:

1. Identification of a research problem

A good research always starts with a good problem. You can observe people or
things, visit places, read print materials, or consult experts to find the research
problem that is right for you. The research problem guides you in formulating
the hypothesis and interpretation of your findings so that you can formulate the
right conclusion. A good research problem is important because it is the basis of
all subsequent research activities you are going to undertake. Factors like area
of interest, availability of fund, socio-economic significance of the study, and the
safety measures to be undertaken should be considered in finding a good
research problem.

2. Formulation of Hypothesis

After finding your research problem, the next step is to formulate your own
hypothesis. A hypothesis is a theoretical statement in solving a logical
relationship between variables. Do not be afraid if your hypothesis proves to be
incorrect after the experimentation because it is only considered as an educated
guess. Always remember that when you formulate a hypothesis, it should be
based on the research problem being solved.

3. Review of Related Literature

A research problem is vague at first. To give you a vivid picture of the whole
research, you shall read various publications or surf the internet to become
aware of the previous works already done. In doing so, it could spur an idea that
can be the subject of your investigation. The review of related literature can be
taken from science books, magazines, journals, newspapers, or even in the
internet.

4. Preparation of Research Design

A research design is the blueprint of the research you are going to undertake. It
serves as the work plan of the whole study not only because it entails the
resources needed in conducting the research but also the ways these resources
are utilized.

5. Actual experimentation

Actual experimentation is an implementation of the research design. In actual

experimentation, you have to conduct an experiment to prove the validity of the
hypothesis you have formulated. Actual experimentation includes the
methodology that you have followed in doing your research. The methodology
should be carefully planned prior to the actual experimentation to ensure the
validity and accuracy of the result.

6. Results and Discussion

This is the heart of the research process because this is part where the findings
of the research can be found. You can use table (not the table in your kitchen)
and graph to interpret the results of your research.

7. Formulation of Conclusions and Recommendations

Conclusion is a statement where you will present the solution to the proposed
problem based on the findings of the investigation. They are tied up to the
questions investigated. Your conclusion will show whether or not your
experiment worked. It should answer your hypothesis and research problem. In
your concluding statement you can also infer on the possible benefits to society
that your results might present. You can state any plans you might have to
continue working on other aspects related to your area of study. We must
remember that recommendations are based on conclusions and conclusions are
based on findings

Conducting research is a tiresome task because it is a year-round activity. You

have to be committed to become successful in making a good research which
would benefit not only you but of everyone. The willingness in you in making
future researches should always be there because doing research without your
‘heart’ and ‘mind’ on it is a burden on your part. Always enjoy doing it. Enjoy the
ride. The more that you enjoy doing the task, the more that you ease the burden
in conducting this difficult endeavor. Never hesitate to ask questions. Asking
questions from other people who is aware of your research topic would help you
arrive at the correct conclusions

Ans 2)

Descriptive research design is a type of research design that aims to obtain

information to systematically describe a phenomenon, situation, or population. More
specifically, it helps answer the what, when, where, and how questions regarding
the research problem, rather than the why. 

The descriptive method of research can involve the use of many different kinds of
research methods to investigate the variables in question. It predominantly employs
quantitative data, although qualitative data is also used sometimes for descriptive
purposes. 

It is important to note that in the descriptive method of research, unlike in

experimental research, the researcher does not control or manipulate any variables.
Instead, the variables are only identified, observed, and measured. 

Types of Descriptive Research Design

The following are the different types of descriptive survey studies:

1. Census Survey: A census survey is a kind of survey where information is

gathered from all units of a population. Data collected through a census study
is highly generalizable to the population as all, or most, units of the
population are sampled. 

2. Sample Survey: A sample survey involves gathering information from a small

subgroup of the entire population. When selecting a sample, the aim is to
select a group of individuals that can represent the target population so that
the data collected can be generalized to the larger population. Sample groups
allow research to be conducted in a fast and cost-effective way. 

3. Cross-Sectional Survey: Cross-sectional surveys are a kind of survey where

standardised data is collected from a cross-section of the pre-determined
population at a given point in time. There are two main types of cross-
sectional surveys; those with a single variable, and those with two or more
variables. 

4. Longitudinal Survey: Longitudinal surveys are used in longitudinal studies

where the same variables are observed over a long period of time. This allows
researchers to investigate the status of variables at different points in time.
There are three main types of longitudinal studies; trend studies, panel
studies, and cohort studies. 

5. Comparative Survey: Comparative surveys are used to compare the status of

two or more variables. The variables are compared using specific criteria that
must be delineated as criterion variables. 

6. Evaluative Survey: An evaluative survey is generally used to evaluate a

programme, policy, or curriculum. It involves gathering information that can
be used to rate the effectiveness and worthwhileness of a programme or
policy or institution. 

7. Documentary Survey: A documentary survey involves gathering and

analysing information using pre-existing data that is already available. This
data can take the form of research papers, review articles, books, official
records, etc. In documentary studies, the researcher evaluates the available
literature on the research topic. 

Ans 3)

Reliability is an estimation of the consistency or repeatability of a measurement.

It reflects the degree to which an instrument or scale measures the same way
each time it is used under the same condition with the same subjects (8). A
reliability coefficient is frequently used to report an estimate of reliability. There
should be compelling evidence that consistent results are achieved across raters
(inter-rater reliability) and across measurement occasions (9). Two methods
commonly used to estimate reliability are test/retest and internal consistency
measurement. Validity is an indication of how well an instrument measures what
it is truly supposed to measure. There are numerous types or facets of validity.
Face validity is the easiest to establish. It reflects whether a test or scale
appears to measure what it is intended to measure. Content validity is similar,
but requires more rigorous testing to establish that the concept being measured
represents all essential aspects of the outcome measured (e.g., adherence takes
into account patient report and biomarkers if both are deemed necessary to
define adherence). Construct validity is a bit harder to establish. This means that
a test or scale is really measuring the construct it intends to measure. This is
frequently used in psychometric testing and ensures that an instrument designed
to measure a construct such as breastfeeding selfefficacy is truly measuring self-
efficacy and not a similar construct such as outcome expectancy or motivation
(10). Sensitivity or responsiveness to change is an important attribute of an M&E
scale. It must be able to detect small, but clinically significant changes in a
phenomenon over time. This may be done by comparing longitudinal measures
of the same outcome i.e., at baseline and discharge or a series of measures
over time (11). A nutrition outcome indicator cannot have more than one scale.
For example, if a scale is designed to reflect significant improvement in plasma
glucose, implementation of the scale must be appropriate in both the ICU setting
and with patients enrolled in a diabetes self management clinic. The scale needs
to be sensitive to changes in both situations.

Ans 4)

Five Steps in Hypothesis Testing:

1. Specify the Null Hypothesis

2. Specify the Alternative Hypothesis

3. Set the Significance Level (a)

4. Calculate the Test Statistic and Corresponding P-

Value

5. Drawing a Conclusion

Step 1: Specify the Null Hypothesis

The null hypothesis (H0) is a statement of no effect, relationship, or difference
between two or more groups or factors.  In research studies, a researcher is
usually interested in disproving the null hypothesis.

Examples:

 There is no difference in intubation rates across

ages 0 to 5 years.

 The intervention and control groups have the

same survival rate (or, the intervention does not
improve survival rate).

 There is no association between injury type and

whether or not the patient received an IV in the
prehospital setting.
  

Step 2: Specify the Alternative Hypothesis

The alternative hypothesis (H1) is the statement that there is an effect or
difference.  This is usually the hypothesis the researcher is interested in
proving.  The alternative hypothesis can be one-sided (only provides one
direction, e.g., lower) or two-sided.  We often use two-sided tests even when
our true hypothesis is one-sided because it requires more evidence against the
null hypothesis to accept the alternative hypothesis.

Examples:

 The intubation success rate differs with the age of

the patient being treated (two-sided).

 The time to resuscitation from cardiac arrest is

lower for the intervention group than for the
control (one-sided).

 There is an association between injury type and

whether or not the patient received an IV in the
prehospital setting (two sided).

Step 3: Set the Significance Level (a)

The significance level (denoted by the Greek letter alpha— a) is generally set at
0.05.  This means that there is a 5% chance that you will accept your alternative
hypothesis when your null hypothesis is actually true. The smaller the
significance level, the greater the burden of proof needed to reject the null
hypothesis, or in other words, to support the alternative hypothesis.

Step 4: Calculate the Test Statistic and Corresponding P-Value

In another section we present some basic test statistics to evaluate a
hypothesis. Hypothesis testing generally uses a test statistic that compares
groups or examines associations between variables.  When describing a single
sample without establishing relationships between variables, a confidence
interval is commonly used.

The p-value describes the probability of obtaining a sample statistic as or more

extreme by chance alone if your null hypothesis is true.  This p-value is
determined based on the result of your test statistic.  Your conclusions about the
hypothesis are based on your p-value and your significance level. 
Example:

 P-value = 0.01 This will happen 1 in 100 times by

pure chance if your null hypothesis is true. Not
likely to happen strictly by chance.

Example:

 P-value = 0.75 This will happen 75 in 100 times

by pure chance if your null hypothesis is true.
Very likely to occur strictly by chance.

Cautions About P-Values

Your sample size directly impacts your p-value.  Large sample sizes
produce small p-values even when differences between groups are not
meaningful.  You should always verify the practical relevance of your
results.  On the other hand, a sample size that is too small can result
in a failure to identify a difference when one truly exists. 

Plan your sample size ahead of time so that you have enough information from
your sample to show a meaningful relationship or difference if one exists.
See calculating a sample size for more information.

Example:

 Average ages were significantly different between

the two groups (16.2 years vs. 16.7 years; p =
0.01; n=1,000). Is this an important difference? 
Probably not, but the large sample size has
resulted in a small p-value.

Example:

 Average ages were not significantly different

between the two groups (10.4 years vs. 16.7
years; p = 0.40, n=10). Is this an important
difference?  It could be, but because the sample
size is small, we can't determine for sure if this is
a true difference or just happened due to the
natural variability in age within these two groups.

If you do a large number of tests to evaluate a hypothesis (called multiple

testing), then you need to control for this in your designation of the significance
level or calculation of the p-value.  For example, if three outcomes measure the
effectiveness of a drug or other intervention, you will have to adjust for these
three analyses.

Step 5: Drawing a Conclusion

 1. P-value <= significance level (a) => Reject your null
hypothesis in favor of your alternative hypothesis.  Your
result is statistically significant.

2. P-value > significance level (a) => Fail to reject your null

hypothesis.  Your result is not statistically significant.

Hypothesis testing is not set up so that you can absolutely prove a null
hypothesis.  Therefore, when you do not find evidence against the null
hypothesis, you fail to reject the null hypothesis. When you do find strong
enough evidence against the null hypothesis, you reject the null
hypothesis.  Your conclusions also translate into a statement about your
alternative hypothesis.  When presenting the results of a hypothesis test, include
the descriptive statistics in your conclusions as well.  Report exact p-values
rather than a certain range.  For example, "The intubation rate differed
significantly by patient age with younger patients have a lower rate of successful
intubation (p=0.02)."  Here are two more examples with the conclusion stated in
several different ways.

Example:

 H0: There is no difference in survival between the

intervention and control group.

 H1: There is a difference in survival between the

intervention and control group.

 a = 0.05; 20% increase in survival for the

intervention group; p-value = 0.002

Conclusion:

 Reject the null hypothesis in favor of the

alternative hypothesis.

 The difference in survival between the

intervention and control group was statistically
significant.

 There was a 20% increase in survival for the

intervention group compared to control
(p=0.001).

Five Steps in Hypothesis Testing:

1. Specify the Null Hypothesis

2. Specify the Alternative Hypothesis

3. Set the Significance Level (a)

 4. Calculate the Test Statistic and Corresponding P-
Value

5. Drawing a Conclusion

Step 1: Specify the Null Hypothesis

The null hypothesis (H0) is a statement of no effect, relationship, or difference
between two or more groups or factors.  In research studies, a researcher is
usually interested in disproving the null hypothesis.

Examples:

 There is no difference in intubation rates across

ages 0 to 5 years.

 The intervention and control groups have the

same survival rate (or, the intervention does not
improve survival rate).

 There is no association between injury type and

whether or not the patient received an IV in the
prehospital setting.

Step 2: Specify the Alternative Hypothesis

The alternative hypothesis (H1) is the statement that there is an effect or
difference.  This is usually the hypothesis the researcher is interested in
proving.  The alternative hypothesis can be one-sided (only provides one
direction, e.g., lower) or two-sided.  We often use two-sided tests even when
our true hypothesis is one-sided because it requires more evidence against the
null hypothesis to accept the alternative hypothesis.

Examples:

 The intubation success rate differs with the age of

the patient being treated (two-sided).

 The time to resuscitation from cardiac arrest is

lower for the intervention group than for the
control (one-sided).

 There is an association between injury type and

whether or not the patient received an IV in the
prehospital setting (two sided).

 
Step 3: Set the Significance Level (a)
The significance level (denoted by the Greek letter alpha— a) is generally set at
0.05.  This means that there is a 5% chance that you will accept your alternative
hypothesis when your null hypothesis is actually true. The smaller the
significance level, the greater the burden of proof needed to reject the null
hypothesis, or in other words, to support the alternative hypothesis.

Step 4: Calculate the Test Statistic and Corresponding P-Value

In another section we present some basic test statistics to evaluate a
hypothesis. Hypothesis testing generally uses a test statistic that compares
groups or examines associations between variables.  When describing a single
sample without establishing relationships between variables, a confidence
interval is commonly used.

The p-value describes the probability of obtaining a sample statistic as or more

extreme by chance alone if your null hypothesis is true.  This p-value is
determined based on the result of your test statistic.  Your conclusions about the
hypothesis are based on your p-value and your significance level. 

Example:

 P-value = 0.01 This will happen 1 in 100 times by

pure chance if your null hypothesis is true. Not
likely to happen strictly by chance.

Example:

 P-value = 0.75 This will happen 75 in 100 times

by pure chance if your null hypothesis is true.
Very likely to occur strictly by chance.

Cautions About P-Values

Your sample size directly impacts your p-value.  Large sample sizes
produce small p-values even when differences between groups are not
meaningful.  You should always verify the practical relevance of your
results.  On the other hand, a sample size that is too small can result
in a failure to identify a difference when one truly exists. 

Plan your sample size ahead of time so that you have enough information from
your sample to show a meaningful relationship or difference if one exists.
See calculating a sample size for more information.

Example:

 Average ages were significantly different between

the two groups (16.2 years vs. 16.7 years; p =
0.01; n=1,000). Is this an important difference? 
 Probably not, but the large sample size has
resulted in a small p-value.

Example:

 Average ages were not significantly different

between the two groups (10.4 years vs. 16.7
years; p = 0.40, n=10). Is this an important
difference?  It could be, but because the sample
size is small, we can't determine for sure if this is
a true difference or just happened due to the
natural variability in age within these two groups.

If you do a large number of tests to evaluate a hypothesis (called multiple

testing), then you need to control for this in your designation of the significance
level or calculation of the p-value.  For example, if three outcomes measure the
effectiveness of a drug or other intervention, you will have to adjust for these
three analyses.

Step 5: Drawing a Conclusion

1. P-value <= significance level (a) => Reject your null

hypothesis in favor of your alternative hypothesis.  Your
result is statistically significant.

2. P-value > significance level (a) => Fail to reject your null

hypothesis.  Your result is not statistically significant.

Hypothesis testing is not set up so that you can absolutely prove a null
hypothesis.  Therefore, when you do not find evidence against the null
hypothesis, you fail to reject the null hypothesis. When you do find strong
enough evidence against the null hypothesis, you reject the null
hypothesis.  Your conclusions also translate into a statement about your
alternative hypothesis.  When presenting the results of a hypothesis test, include
the descriptive statistics in your conclusions as well.  Report exact p-values
rather than a certain range.  For example, "The intubation rate differed
significantly by patient age with younger patients have a lower rate of successful
intubation (p=0.02)."  Here are two more examples with the conclusion stated in
several different ways.

Example:

 H0: There is no difference in survival between the

intervention and control group.

 H1: There is a difference in survival between the

intervention and control group.
  a = 0.05; 20% increase in survival for the
intervention group; p-value = 0.002

Conclusion:

 Reject the null hypothesis in favor of the

alternative hypothesis.

 The difference in survival between the

intervention and control group was statistically
significant.

 There was a 20% increase in survival for the

intervention group compared to control
(p=0.001).

Ans 5)

Sampling is a process used in statistical analysis in which a

predetermined number of observations are taken from a
larger population. The methodology used to sample from a larger
population depends on the type of analysis being performed, but it
may include simple random sampling or systematic sampling.

Sampling is divided into two types:

Probability sampling: In a probability sample, every unit in the

population has equal chances for being selected as a

sample unit.

Non-probability sampling: In the non-probability sampling, the

units in the population have unequal or negligible,

almost no chances for being selected as a sample unit.

Probability Sampling Techniques

1. Random sampling
2. Systematic random sampling

3. Stratified random sampling

4. Cluster sampling

5. Multistage sampling

Non-probability Sampling Techniques

1. Deliberate sampling

2. Shopping mall intercept sampling

3. Sequential sampling

4. Quota sampling

5. Snowball sampling

6. Panel samples

Types of Data Collection

Now depending on the problem statement, the data collection method is broadly

classified into two categories-
 1. Primary Data Collection
2. Secondary Data Collection

Primary Data Collection

Above all, primary data collection is the process of gathering raw data by
researchers directly from main sources through surveys, interviews, or
experiments. Now, it can be further classified into two categories-

 Quantitative Data Collection Methods

 Qualitative Data Collection Methods

Qualitative Data Collection Methods: The qualitative research methods usually

work based on non-quantifiable elements such as the feeling or emotion of the
researcher. In addition, it doesn’t require any mathematical calculation to collect
any numerical data. For instance, an example of this method can be an open-
ended questionnaire.

Quantitative Data Collection Methods: Quantitative methods use

mathematical calculations to deduce useful data and present them
in numbers. For instance, you can take the questionnaire with
close-ended questions. It produces figures after mathematical
calculation. Also, methods of correlation and regression, mean,
mode and median.

Secondary Data Collection

Secondary data is the type of data that has already been collected by another
person or organization for a different purpose, e.g. reporting or research. You
can collect these data from magazines, newspapers, books, blogs, journals, etc.

In the Secondary Data collection process, you have all the data available that
someone analyses before. Compare to primary data collection this is much less
expensive and easier to collect. It may be either published data or unpublished
data.

Secondary data sources for published data includes-

 Government publications
 Websites
 Public records
 Historical and statistical documents
 Business documents
 Technical and trade journals
 Podcast

Secondary data sources for unpublished data includes-

  Diaries
 Letters
 Unpublished biographies

However, depending on your area of research, opportunity, niche type, and

ultimate project goal you can pick any of these data collection methods to make
some productive decisions.

Ans 7)

Data analytics is used in business to help organizations make better business

decisions. Whether it’s market research, product research, positioning, customer
reviews, sentiment analysis, or any other issue for which data exists, analyzing
data will provide insights that organizations need in order to make the right
choices.

Data analytics is important for businesses today, because data-driven choices

are the only way to be truly confident in business decisions. Some successful
businesses may be created on a hunch, but almost all successful business
choices are data-based.

Why Data Analysis?

To grow your business even to grow in your life, sometimes all you need to do is
Analysis!

If your business is not growing, then you have to look back and acknowledge
your mistakes and make a plan again without repeating those mistakes. And
even if your business is growing, then you have to look forward to making the
business to grow more. All you need to do is analyze your business data and
business processes.

Ans 7)

1. A research proposal signifies a theoretical framework within which the

research is carried out. In finer terms, a research proposal is a sketch for
the collection, measurement and analysis of data. A research report
implies a scientific write-up on the research findings, which is prepared in
a specific format.
2. While the preparation of a research proposal is considered as the first step
to research work, preparation of a research report is the final step to the
research work.
3. A research proposal is prepared at the beginning of the project. In
contrast, the research report is prepared after the completion of the
project
4. A research proposal is written in the future tense, whereas the tense used
in the research report is past tense, as well as it is written in the third
person
5. The length of a research proposal is about 4-10 pages. On the contrary,
the length of the research report is about 100 to 300 pages.
 6. The research proposal is concerned with the problem or topic to be
investigated. Conversely, the research report focuses on the results of the
completed research work.
7. The research proposal determines what will be researched, the relevance
of the research and the ways to conduct the researched. As against, the
research report determines what is researched, sources of data collection,
ways of data collection (i.e. survey, interview, or questionnaire), result
and findings, recommendations for future research, etc.
8. Research Proposal includes three chapters i.e. Introduction, Literature
Review, Research Methodology. Contrastingly, Research Report covers the
following chapters – Introduction, Literature Review, Research
Methodology, Results, Interpretation and Analysis, Conclusion and
Recommendation.

ANS 9)

 Respect for Intellectual Property

You should never plagiarise, or copy, other people’s work and try to pass it off as
your own. You should always ask for permission before using other people’s
tools or methods, unpublished data or results. Not doing so is
plagiarism. Obviously, you need to respect copyrights and patents, together with
other forms of intellectual property, and always acknowledge contributions to
your research. If in doubt, acknowledge, to avoid any risk of plagiarism.

 Confidentiality

You should respect anything that has been provided in confidence. You should
also follow guidelines on protection of sensitive information such as patient
records.

 Responsible Publication

You should publish to advance to state of research and knowledge, and not just
to advance your career. This means, in essence, that you should not publish
anything that is not new, or that duplicates someone else’s work.

 Legality

You should always be aware of laws and regulations that govern your work, and
be sure that you conform to them.

 Animal Care

If you are using animals in your research, you should always be sure that your
experiments are both necessary and well-designed. You should also show
respect for the animals you are using, and make sure that they are properly
cared for.

 Human Subjects Protection

If your research involves people, you should make sure that you reduce any
possible harm to the minimum, and maximise the benefits both to participants
and other people.

This means, for example, that you should not expose people to more tests than
are strictly necessary to fulfil your research aims. You should always respect
human rights, including the right to privacy and autonomy. You may need to
take particular care with vulnerable groups, which include, but are not limited to,
children, older people, and those with learning difficulties.

Ans 10)

What is plagiarism?
According to Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, to plagiarize
means "to steal and pass off (the ideas or words of another) as
one's own; use (another's production) without crediting the source;
to commit literary theft; present as new and original an idea or
product derived from an existing source." (2021)

To avoid plagiarism, you must give credit whenever you:

 Directly quote another person's written or spoken words. Be sure to

enclose these words and/or sentences in quotations marks!
 Paraphrase another person's spoken or written words. Paraphrase means
to re-write in your own words; merely reordering or substituting words is
still considered plagiarism!
 Use theories, ideas, opinions, research, etc. that are not your own.
 Use historical, statistical, or scientific facts or data that are not your own.