Test Materials Engineering and Processing

Tutorial 1(I): Materials Categories
1. Cite the four categories of engineering materials.

2. Briefly explain what grains are in solid metals.
3. Cite 5 factors that can affect the properties of metals.
4. How can you make a piece of steel soft and then make it hard?
5. Is the tensile strength of a ceramic material equal to its compressive strength?
6. Is a ceramic material a compound between a metallic element and a non-metallic element?
7. In a polymer, what kind of primary bond is formed between carbon atoms in
a carbon backbone?
8. Can you use polymers at temperatures above 400 °C?
9. What are the benefits and disadvantages of composite materials?
1. Cite the four categories of engineering materials.

Solution:
Metals, Ceramics, Polymers and Composites
2. Briefly explain what grains are in solid metals.
Solution:
Solid metals are crystalline materials.
They contain many small crystals called “grains”.
Grains make boundaries with one another, called grain boundaries.
3. Cite 5 factors that can affect the properties of metals.

Solution:
Nature of the elemental metal, Atomic bond energy, Crystal structure, Grain size,
Processing, Alloying
4. How can you make a piece of steel soft and then make it hard?
Solution:
By heat treatment ……
Annealing (slow cooling) to soften the steel.
Quenching (fast cooling) to harden the steel.
5. Is the tensile strength of a ceramic material equal to its compressive strength?
Solution:
No. Ceramics normally has a higher compressive strength than tensile strength.
Ceramics are used to resist compressive loads rather than tensile loads.
6. Is a ceramic material a compound between a metallic element and a non-metallic element?
Solution:
Yes. Ceramics are compounds containing at least two elements: one is a metal
and another is a non-metal.
7. In a polymer, what kind of primary bond is formed between carbon atoms in
a carbon backbone?
Solution:
Carbon atoms in the backbone are bonded strongly by covalent bond.
8. Can you use polymers at temperatures above 400 °C?

Solution:
No, polymers will suffer from degradation at elevated temperatures.
Very few polymers can resist temperatures above 200 °C.
9. What are the benefits and disadvantages of composite materials?

Solution:
Benefits: Strong/stiff and light weight, high specific strength/stiffness,
good combination of properties
Disadvantages: anisotropic properties, difficult to make, expensive
Tutorial 1(2): Electron Configuration
Draw a schematic diagram to show the electron configuration of each of the elements
in Table 1, and indicate the atomic bond each element tends to form.
Table 1: Elements and atomic numbers
Element Symbol Atomic number
Nitrogen N 7
Oxygen O 8
Sodium Na 11
Magnesium Mg 12
Silicon Si 14
Chlorine Cl 17
Principle:
• Stable atomic configuration: 8 valence electrons.
• If an atom does not have 8 valence electrons, it will try to achieve 8 valence electrons
by accepting, giving up or sharing valence electrons.
Solution: Nitrogen (N) Z=7
Not stable. The outermost shell has 5 valence electrons.

Not easy to lose 5 valence electrons.
Favour sharing the valence electrons with other
atoms to form covalent bond,
or receiving electrons from other atoms to form ionic bonding
Solution: Oxygen (O) Z=8
Not stable. The outermost shell has 6 valence electrons.

Not easy to lose 6 valence electrons.
Favour receiving electrons from other atoms to form ionic bonding
Sodium (Na) Z=11

Not stable.
The L shell is completed filled.
But the outermost shell only has 1 valence electron.
It is easy to lose the valence electron to become a
positive ion, favouring ionic bonding.
Solution: Magnesium (Mg) Z=12
Not stable.
The outermost shell only has 2 valence electrons.
It is easy to lose the 2 valence electrons to become a
positive ion, favouring ionic bonding.
Silicon (Si) Z=14
Not stable.
The outermost shell has 4 valence electrons.
Favour sharing valence electrons to form covalent bond
Solution: Chlorine (Cl) Z=17
Not stable.
The outermost shell has 7 valence electrons.
Favour receiving 1 electron from other atom to form ionic bond
Tutorial 1 (3): Atomic Bonding
1. Explain why some materials (e.g. tungsten) have very high melting temperatures
and some have low melting temperatures (e.g. lead).
2. Why all kind of steels have a similar Young’s modulus?
3. Can you change the Young’s modulus of steel by hardening it?
4. Why different materials have different degree of thermal expansion?
5. What are the three primary bonds?
6. Why many ceramics have ionic bonding?
7. What are some common characteristics of materials with ionic bonding?
8. What is the key feature of covalent bonding?
9. Why can materials with metallic bonding conduct electricity and heat?
1. Explain why some materials (e.g. tungsten) have very high melting temperatures
and some have low melting temperatures (e.g. lead).
Solution:
Melting temperature is determined by the
atomic bond energy. The larger the bond energy,
the higher is the melting temperature.
Different materials have different atomic bond
energy, thus they have different melting
temperatures.
2. Why all kind of steels have a similar Young’s modulus?

Solution:
All kinds of steels have a similar Young’s modulus of about 205 GPa,
because Young’s modulus is mainly determined by the atomic bond energy of iron atoms.
Other compositional and structural factors such as by changing the carbon content
and heat treatment do not affect the atomic bond energy of iron atoms.
s Energy
unstretched length
𝜎 ro
𝐸= r
𝜀
smaller Elastic Modulus
Larger s required
s Smaller s required larger Elastic Modulus
3. Can you change the Young’s modulus of steel by hardening it?

Solution:
No. Hardening changes the structures of the steel, but does not affect the
atomic bond energy of iron atoms in steel.
4. Why different materials have different degree of thermal expansion?

Solution:
Thermal expansion is determined by atomic bond energy. The larger the bond
energy, the smaller is thermal expansion.
∆𝐿
= 𝛼∆𝑇
𝐿𝑜
Larger DT required
Smaller DT required
5. What are the three primary bonds?

Solution:
Ionic bond – involving charge exchange
Covalent bond – involving sharing valence electrons
Metallic bond – forming an electron cloud
6. Why many ceramics have ionic bonding?

Solution:
Ceramics are compounds containing at least one metallic element and another
non-metallic element. The metal atom tends to lose its valence electrons, forming
a positive ion, while the non-metal atom tends to receive the electrons, forming a
negative ion. Thus an ionic bond is formed.
7. What are some common characteristics of materials with ionic bonding?

Solution: Non-directional, hard, brittle, non-conducting of electricity
8. What is the key feature of covalent bonding?

Solution: Directional, can be very strong, can be weak
9. Why can materials with metallic bonding conduct electricity and heat?
Solution: because the electrons in the electron cloud can move easily.
Tutorial 1 (4): Crystal Structure
1. Aluminium has an FCC structure. If the atomic radius of aluminium is 0.143 nm,
calculate the volume of its unit cell in cubic meters.
2. Iron has a BCC crystal structure at room temperature and an FCC structure at
950 °C. Compute the theoretical densities of BCC and FCC iron. Given the
atomic radius of iron is 0.124 nm, and the atomic weight of iron is 55.85 g/mol.
Additional questions
1. Compute the theoretical density of tungsten (W) which has a BCC structure. Given
the atomic radius of W is 0.136 nm, and the atomic weight of W is 183.84 g/mol.
2. Compute the theoretical density of magnesium (Mg) which has a HCP structure.
Given the atomic radius of Mg is 0.16 nm, and the atomic weight of Mg is 24.305
g/mol.
Three Common Crystal Structures
Body-centred cubic (bcc) Face-centred cubic (fcc)
2R a
Hexagonal close-packed (hcp)
ENGD2105: Materials Engineering and Processing Crystal Structure
Summary: SC, BCC, FCC, HCP
Structure Coordination # n a (c) Vc APF
SC 6 1 a=2R a3 0.52
4R
BCC 8 2 a= a3 0.68
3
FCC 12 4 a = 2R 2 a3 0.74
HCP 12 6 a = 2R 24𝑅3 2 0.74

c= 1.633a
FCC and HCP are the most densely packed structure

1. Aluminium has an FCC structure. If the atomic radius of aluminium is 0.143 nm,
calculate the volume of its unit cell in cubic meters.
Solution: For FCC crystal, the lattice parameter, a, is related to atomic radius
(4R)2 = a2+ a2
𝑎 = 2𝑅 2
Unit cell volume:

3 3
𝑉𝑐 =𝑎3 = 2𝑅 2 = 2 × 0.143 × 10−9 × 2 =6.62× 10−29 𝑚3
1 nm = 10-9 m
Solution: Density computation …… 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑛𝐴 n: # atoms per unit cell

𝜌= A: atomic weight
𝑉𝑐 𝑁𝐴 VC: unit cell volume
NA: Avogadro’s number = 6.023x1023 atoms/mol
For BCC iron: n=2

4𝑅 4×0.124×10−9
𝑎= = = 2.86 × 10−10 m
3 3
2×55.85 6 𝑔
𝜌= = 7.93 × 10 3 = 7.93 × 103 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
2.86×10−10 3 ×6.023×1023 𝑚
Solution: Density computation ……
n: # atoms per unit cell
𝑛𝐴 A: atomic weight
𝜌= VC: unit cell volume
𝑉𝑐 𝑁𝐴
NA: Avogadro’s number
6.023x1023 atoms/mol
For FCC iron: n=4
𝑎 = 2𝑅 2 = 2 × 0.124 × 10−9 × 2 = 3.51 × 10−10 m
4×55.85 6 𝑔
𝜌= = 8.58 × 10 3 = 8.58 × 103 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
3.51×10−10 3 ×6.023×1023 𝑚
1. Compute the theoretical density of tungsten (W) which has a BCC structure. Given
the atomic radius (R) of W is 0.136 nm, and the atomic weight of W is 183.84 g/mol.
𝑉𝑐 𝑁𝐴
For BCC: n=2
4𝑅 4×0.136×10−9
𝑎= = = 3.141 × 10−10 m
3 3
2×183.84 7 𝑔
𝜌= = 1.97 × 10 3 = 19.7 × 103 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
3.141×10−10 3 ×6.023×1023 𝑚
2. Compute the theoretical density of magnesium (Mg) which has a HCP structure.
Given the atomic radius (R) of Mg is 0.16 nm, and the atomic weight of Mg is 24.305
g/mol. The HCP unit cell volume is calculated by: 𝑉𝑐 = 24𝑅3 2.
𝑉𝑐 𝑁𝐴
For HCP : n=6 2R a
𝑉𝑐 = 24𝑅3 2 =24× 0.16 × 10−9 3
× 2 =1.39× 10−28 𝑚3
6×24.305 𝑔
𝜌=
1.39×10−28 ×6.023×1023
= 1.74 × 106
= 1.74 × 103 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝑚3
Tutorial 2 (1): Poisson’s Ratio
elongation
s e =DL/L0
ex =Dd/d0 u = - ex/e
contraction
s
1. A bar of 40 mm diameter and 200 mm long is pulled by a force to reach a length of

210 mm; correspondingly, the diameter is reduced to 39.4 mm. What is the Poisson’s
ratio of this material? (answer: 0.3)
Known: L0=200 mm; Lf=210 mm; d0=40 mm; df=39.4 mm
𝜀𝑥
To find: 𝜈 = − =? ? ?
𝜀
𝐿𝑓 − 𝐿0 210 − 200
Strain in stress direction: 𝜀= = = 0.05
𝐿0 200
𝑑𝑓 − 𝑑0 39.4 − 40
Strain in perpendicular direction: 𝜀𝑥 = = = −0.015
𝑑0 40
𝜀𝑥 −0.015
Poisson’s ratio:: 𝜈=− =− = 0.3
𝜀 0.05
2. The Poisson’s ratio of aluminium is 0.33. If an aluminium bar of 40 mm diameter

and 400 mm long is stressed by tension to reach a length of 420 mm, what is the
reduction in diameter of the bar? (answer: -0.66 mm)
Known: L0=400 mm; Lf=420 mm; d0=40 mm; n=0.33
To find: Dd = df-d0 = ????

𝐿𝑓 − 𝐿0 420 − 400
Strain in stress direction: 𝜀= = = 0.05
𝐿0 400
To find strain in perpendicular direction:
𝜀𝑥 𝜀𝑥
Use ….. 𝜈=−
𝜀
=−
0.05
= 0.33 𝜀𝑥 = −0.33 × 0.05 = −0.0165
∆𝑑
Since 𝜀𝑥 = = −0.0165
𝑑0
Thus reduction in diameter: ∆𝑑 = −0.0165 × 𝑑0 = −0.0165 × 40 = −0.66𝑚𝑚
3. When a tensile stress is applied along the longitudinal axis of a circular steel bar
(n=0.3) and results in a strain of 0.005.
(1) What is the strain induced in the transverse direction? (answer: -0.0015)
(2) Is the diameter of the bar increased or decreased? Explain.
(3) If the original cross-section diameter of the bar is 10 mm, what is the final
diameter? (answer: 9.985 mm)
(1) The strain in the longitudinal direction (y) is: e = 0.005.

So the strain in the transverse direction (x) should be:
𝜺𝒙 = −𝝂𝜺 = −𝟎. 𝟑 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓 = −𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟓
(2) It is decreased because the strain ex is negative.

𝑑𝑓 − 𝑑0
(3) By definition: 𝜀𝑥 = thus 𝑑𝑓 = (1 + 𝜀𝑥 )𝑑0
𝑑0
= (1 − 0.0015) × 10 = 9.985 𝑚𝑚
Tutorial 2 (2): Hooke’s Law
Applies to linear elastic deformation only
Tension & Compression: 𝜎 = 𝐸𝜀

Shear: 𝜏 = 𝐺𝛾
Relationship: E= 2𝐺(1 + 𝜈)
1. A material has a Young’s modulus of 110 GN m-2 and a Poisson’s ratio of 0.31.
What is its shear modulus? (answer: 42 GPa)
Shear modulus
Use ….. Poisson’s ratio
𝐸 = 2𝐺(1 + 𝜈)
Young’s modulus
𝐸
𝐺=
2(1 + 𝜈)
110
= = 42 𝐺𝑃𝑎
2(1 + 0.31)
2. A certain material has a Young’s modulus of 310 GN m-2 and shear modulus of
130 GNm-2. What is its Poisson’s ratio?
Shear modulus
Use ….. Poisson’s ratio
𝐸 = 2𝐺(1 + 𝜈)
Young’s modulus
𝐸
𝜈= −1
2𝐺
310
= − 1 = 0.192
2 × 130
3. A piece of steel of 400 mm long is pull elastically to 402 mm. What is the stress
in the steel? The Young’s modulus of steel is 200 GN m-2 (GPa).
Hooke’s Law: 𝜎 = 𝐸𝜀
𝐸 = 200 × 109 𝑁/𝑚2
402−400
𝜀= = 0.005
400
𝜎 = 𝐸𝜀= 200 × 109 × 0.005

= 1 × 109 𝑁𝑚−2 = 1000𝑀𝑁𝑚−2 = 1000𝑀𝑃𝑎
4. A round bar of 10 mm diameter and 100 mm long is pulled elastically by a

force of 1.2 kN to a final length of 102 mm. What is the Young’s modulus
of this material?
𝜎
Hooke’s Law: 𝐸=
𝜀
𝐹 1.2 × 103 6 −2
𝜎= = = 15.28 × 10 𝑁𝑚
𝐴 10 2
𝜋 × 10−6
2
𝐿𝑓 − 𝐿0 102 − 100
𝜀= = = 0.02
𝐿0 100
𝜎 15.28 × 106
𝐸= = = 764 × 106 𝑁𝑚−2 = 764𝑀𝑁𝑚−2
𝜀 0.02
5. Aluminium has a Young’s modulus of 70 GN m-2. If an aluminium bar of

0.25 m long is compressed by a stress of 210 MN m-2:
(1) what is expected strain in the bar? (answer: -0.003)
(2) what is the final length of the bar? (answer: 0.24925 m)
𝜎 = −210 × 106 𝑁𝑚−2 ……. Compressive stress has a negative sign

𝜎 −210 × 106
(1) 𝜀= =
𝐸 70 × 109
= −3 × 10 −3
(2) 𝐿𝑓 = (1 + 𝜀)𝐿0 = (1 − 0.003) × 0.25 = 0.24925𝑚

6. The Young’s modulus of aluminium is 70 GPa (70 GN m-2). If a piece of aluminium bar having an
original length of 100 mm is elastically deformed by a tensile stress of 100 MN m-2, calculate the
final length of the aluminium bar under the force.
𝜎 100𝑥106 𝑁𝑚−2
𝜀= = = 0.00143
𝐸 70𝑥109 𝑁𝑚−2
𝐿𝑓 = 𝐿0 (1 + 𝜀) = 100𝑚𝑚(1 + 0.00143) = 100.143 𝑚𝑚

7. A 100 mm long rubber having a cross sectional area of 100 mm2 has to be stretched to a length of
130 mm. What is the stress required? What is the force required? The Young’s modulus of rubber
is 2 MPa.
130𝑚𝑚 − 100𝑚𝑚
𝜀= = 0.3
100𝑚𝑚
𝜎 = 𝐸𝜀 = 2 𝑀𝑃𝑎𝑥0.3 = 0.6𝑀𝑃𝑎
F = sA0 = (0.6x106Nm-2) x (100x10-6 m2) = 60 N

8. A cylindrical steel bar having a diameter of 10 mm and a length of 50 mm is stressed by a

tensile force of 100 kN. Under this force, the length of the bar is increased to 50.3 mm. The
yield strength (sy) of the steel is 1500 MN m-2, and the Poisson’s ratio (n) is 0.3.
(1) Calculate the tensile stress in the bar. (answer: 1273 MPa)
(2) Calculate the strain in the loading direction. (answer: 0.006)
(3) Is the deformation elastic or plastic? Explain.
(4) Calculate the Young’s modulus (E) of the steel. (answer: 212.2 GPa)
(5) What is the reduction in diameter of the bar under this force? (answer: -0.018 mm)
𝐹 100𝑥103 𝑁
(1) 𝜎= =
𝐴 2 = 1273𝑥106 𝑁𝑚−2 = 1273 𝑀𝑁𝑚−2 = 1273 𝑀𝑃𝑎
10𝑥10−3 𝑚
𝜋
2
𝐿𝑓 − 𝐿0 50.3 − 50
(2) 𝜀= = = 0.006
𝐿0 50
(3) Elastic, because the stress (1273 MPa) is smaller than the yield strength (1500 MPa)
𝜎 1273 × 106
(4) 𝐸= = = 212167 × 106 𝑁𝑚−2 = 212.2 𝐺𝑃𝑎
𝜀 0.006
𝜀𝑥
(5) 𝜐=−
𝜀
𝜀𝑥 = −𝜈𝜀 = −0.3𝑥0.006 = −0.0018

Δ𝑑
𝜀𝑥 =
𝑑0
Δ𝑑 = 𝑑0 𝜀𝑥 = (10𝑚𝑚)𝑥(−0.0018) = −0.018 𝑚𝑚
Tutorial 3 (I): Tensile Properties
1. The yield strength of aluminium alloy is 200 MN m-2. Which of the following applied stresses
can cause plastic deformation to this alloy? Which can only cause elastic deformation?
50 MN m-2, 420 MN m-2, 150 MN m-2, 250 MN m-2
Plastic: 420 MPa, 250 MPa

sy=200 MPa
Elastic: 50 MPa, 150 MPa
2. A specimen of 200 mm long is tensile tested to a stress of 1000 MPa.

The recorded stress-strain curve is shown in the figure.
(1) Determine the Young’s modulus of the specimen.
(2) Determine the yield strength at a strain offset of 0.002.
(3) Determine the total strain (eT), plastic strain (eP) and
elastic strain (eE) at 1000 MPa stress.
(4) If the stress of 1000 MPa is completely removed,
determine the final length of the specimen.
(1) From point 1, 1200
s=400 MPa, e=0.0025
Thus, E=s/e = 400x106/0.0025 1000
=160x109 Nm-2=160 GPa
Stress, s (MPa)
(2) From line a (with 0.002 strain offset), 800
sy=775 MPa
600
(3) From line b, and line c, b
a
eT=0.024, eP=0.0175 400
1 c
eE=eT-eP=0.0065
(4) Lf=(1+eP)L0 200
=(1+0.0175)200=203.5 mm
eP eT
0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03
0.002
Strain, e
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Tutorial 3 (II): Tensile Properties

1. Use the following recorded stress-strain curve for a material to complete
parts (a) to (e).
(a) Compute the modulus of elasticity. (answer: appx 26 GPa)
(b) Determine the yield strength at a strain offset of 0.002. 400
(c) Determine the tensile strength of this material. 350
(d) Compute the modulus of resilience. 300
(e) A cylindrical specimen of this material 10.0 mm in diameter and
Stress (MPa)
250
120.0 mm long is pulled in tension with a force of 10,000 N; the 200
force is subsequently released. 150

(i) What is the final length of the specimen at this time? 100
(ii) Compute the final specimen length when the load is increased 50
to 27,000 N and then released. 0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
This is a typical exam question!!!

Strain
How to find Young’s modulus?
• Use linear part of the curve (This is elastic)
• Use any point on this line
• Determine stress and strain of this point
400
350
300
• Use Hooke’s law: s = Ee
Stress (MPa)
250
Thus: Stress 150 MPa

200
E= =
Stress=
150
Strain 0.0057
= 26316 MPa
150 MPa
100
50
= 26.3 GPa
Strain = 0.0057
0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
Strain
How to find yield strength at 0.002 strain offset?
• Find the 0.002 strain point at the Strain axis
• Draw a straight line from this point parallel to the linear part
of the Stress-Strain curve
400
350
Yield
Strength
300
=320 MPa
• Find the intercept point
Stress (MPa)
250
• The stress at this intercept point
200
is the yield strength
150
100
50
0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
Strain
How to find the Tensile Strength?
• Find the peak point on the curve
• The stress at this point is the Tensile Strength.
400
TS=
365 MPa 350
300
Stress (MPa)
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
Strain
How to find final length after a force of 10,000 N
is applied and then released?
• Compute stress at this force: s =
F 10000 N
=
Need to find A for a A A
circular cross section of 400
10 mm diameter
350
2
d 
A=   300
2
Stress (MPa)
250
 10 x10 m 
−3 2 200 • Find the point with s=127.4 MPa
=    150 on the curve
 2  100
• It is on the linear part elastic
= 7.85 x10 −5 m 2 50
• Recovery after force is released
Thus, s = 127.4 MN/m2 0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
= 127.4 MPa Strain
• Thus, Final length = Original length = 120 mm

How to find final length after a force of 27,000 N
is applied and then released?
• Compute stress at this force: s =
F 27000 N
=
A =7.85x10-5 m2
A A
same as previous 400
350
Thus, s = 344 MN/m2
300
= 344 MPa
Stress (MPa)
250
• Find the point with • Draw a line from this point
s=344 MPa on the curve 200 parallel to the linear part
• It is on the non-linear 150

• The intercept with the Strain
part plastic 100 axis is the plastic strain
Partial recovery
50
ep =0.007
0
• Remember strain definition: 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06

Strain
L f − L0
Strain = • Thus, L f = (1 + strain) L0
L0 = (1 + 0.007) 120mm = 120.84 mm
2. A tensile test uses a test specimen that has a gauge length of 50 mm and a cross sectional area =
200 mm2. During the test, the specimen yields under a load of 98,000 N. The corresponding
gauge length = 50.23 mm. This is the 0.2 % (0.002) yield point. The maximum load = 168,000 N
is reached at a gauge length = 64.2 mm. After test to fracture, the final gauge length = 74.3 mm,
and the specimen necked to an area = 92 mm2. Determine
(a) yield strength sy at 0.002 strain offset. (answer: 490 MPa)
(b) modulus of elasticity E. (answer: 188.5 GPa)
(c) tensile strength TS. (answer: 840 MPa)
(d) ductility in terms of percent elongation. (answer: 48.6)
(e) ductility in terms of percent reduction in area. (answer: 54)
Solution:
List the given values: L0=50 mm; A0 = 200 mm2 = 2x10-4 m2
(a) Load at 0.002 strain offset: F=98,000 N

Thus, the yield strength with this strain offset is:
F 98,000 N
sy = = −4 2
= 490 x10 6
N / m 2
= 490 MPa
A0 2 x10 m
(b) Specimen length at a stress of sy (490 MPa): Lf = 50.23 mm
L f − L0 50.23mm − 50mm
Thus, strain: e = = = 0.0046 490 MPa
L0 50mm
Slope of the straight line:
This strain must be offset by the 0.002 strain at yield
490 MPa
point to find the elastic strain: E=
0.0046 − 0.002
ee = e – 0.002 = 0.0026
s 490 MPa
Young’s modulus: E = y = = 188,462 MPa = 188.5 GPa
ee 0.0026
0.002 0.0046
Maximum Load 168,000 N
(c) Tensile strength: TS = = = 840 x10 N / m = 840 MPa
6 2
A0 2 x10 −4 m 2
L f − L0 74.3mm − 50mm
(d) Final length at fracture: Lf=74.3 mm EL% = x100 = x100 = 48.6
L0 50mm
A0 − A f 200mm 2 − 92mm 2
(e) Final neck area at fracture: Af = 92 mm2 RA% = x100 = 2
x100 = 54
A0 200mm
3. A cylindrical specimen of a hypothetical metal alloy is stressed in compression. If its original and
final diameters are 30.00 and 30.04 mm respectively, and its final length is 105.20 mm, compute its
original length if the deformation is totally elastic. The elastic and the shear moduli of this alloy are
65.5 and 25.4 GPa respectively. (answer: 105.69 mm)
Solution: ➢ Use E = 2G(1+n) to find the Poisson’s ratio:
List given data for the compression test: E 65.5 GPa
Original diameter: d0 = 30.00 mm n= −1 = − 1 = 0.29
2G 2 x 25.4 GPa
Final diameter: df = 30.04 mm ➢ Find strain ex due to increase in diameter:
Final length: Lf = 105.20 mm
d f − d0 30.04mm − 30mm
E = 65.5 GPa ex = = = 0.00133
G = 25.4 GPa d0 30mm
To find: original length of the specimen, L0 ➢ Find strain e along the length direction:
e e 0.00133
(note: this must be longer than the final n =− x e =− x =− = −0.0046
length since it is a compression test). e n 0.29
➢ Find original length: L0
Lf 105.20 mm
Lf = (1+e)L0; L0 = = = 105.69 mm
1+ e 1 + (−0.0046)
Tutorial 3 (III): Tensile Properties
1. Young’s modulus is a measure of
(a) material’s resistance to plastic deformation
(b) material’s resistance to fracture
(c) material’s ductility
(d) material’s resistance to elastic deformation
2. A stiff material means that

(a) it has a large Young’s modulus
(b) it has a high strength
(c) it is ductile
(d) it can absorb more energy before fracture
3. The Young’s modulus of aluminium, steel and polystyrene is 70 GN/m2, 200 GN/m2
and 1.2 GN/m2, respectively. If a stress of 20 MN/m2 is applied to these three
materials, which will experience the largest elastic deformation?
(a) aluminium
(b) steel
(c) polystyrene
4. A material will deform elastically when

(a) the applied stress is greater than the yield strength of the material.
(b) the Young’s modulus is exceeded.
(c) the applied stress is below the yield strength of the material.
5. Yielding of a material means that

(a) the material deforms plastically
(b) the material deforms elastically
(c) the material does not deform at all
(d) the material fractures
6. The yield strength and tensile strength of a material are 200 MN/m2 and
320 MN/m2 respectively. If a tensile stress of 250 MN/m2 is applied, the
material will
(a) deform elastically
(b) fracture
(c) deform only plastically
(d) deform both elastically and plastically
7. Strain hardening means that

(a) plastic deformation increases the toughness of the material
(b) plastic deformation enhances the yield strength of the material
(c) plastic deformation increases the stiffness of the material
8. The yield strength and tensile strength of a material are 200 MN/m2 and
320 MN/m2 respectively. A tensile stress of 250 MN/m2 is applied to
the material and then removed. If the same specimen is stressed again,
its new yield strength is
(a) 200 MN/m2
(b) 320 MN/m2
(c) 250 MN/m2
(d) 450 MN/m2
9. It took a 100 N force to bend a piece of steel wire, 120 N to unbend it, and
140 N to re-bend it back to the same angle. This is because
(a) the diameter of the steel wire was increased
(b) the steel wire was shortened
(c) the steel wire was strain hardened
(d) the steel wire was hardened due to the heat generated
10. The tensile strength of a material is defined as

(a) the load at yielding point divided by original cross sectional area
(b) Young’s modulus times strain
(c) load at fracture divided by original cross sectional area
(d) maximum load divided by original cross sectional area
11.A cylindrical bar having a cross sectional area of 50 mm2 is pulled by a tensile
force of 7,500 N. The resultant tensile stress is
(a) 150 MN/m2
(b) 150,000 MN/m2
(c) 3750 MN/m2
(d) 75 MN/m2
12.A material is deformed elastically to a strain of 0.005 by a tensile stress of

800 MN/m2. What is the Young’s modulus of this material?
(b) 160,000 GN/m2
(c) 4000 GN/m2
(d) 160 GN/m2
13.A steel bar of 100 mm long is pulled to a length of 100.3 mm by a stress of

600 MN/m2. If the bar remains elastic, what is the Young’s modulus of the
material?
(a) 6 GN/m2
(b) 200 GN/m2
(c) 60,000 GN/m2
(d) 180 GN/m2
14.An aluminium bar having a cross sectional area of 100 mm2 is pulled by a
force of 12,000N. If the yield strength of aluminium is 85 MN/m2, it will
deform
(a) elastically
(b) plastically
15.The yield strength and Young’s modulus of a titanium alloy are 1500 MN/m2
and 150 GN/m2 respectively. If a bar of this alloy of 200 mm long is pulled by
a stress of 1200 MN/m2, what is the final length of the bar after the stress is
completely removed?
(a) 200.01 mm
(b) 202 mm
(c) 200 mm
(d) 201.6 mm
16. Which of the following material is the toughest?

(a) ceramics
(b) polymers
(c) metals
17.A material fractures following elastic deformation without appreciable
plastic deformation. This material is
(a) brittle
(b) ductile
18.Under some circumstances, normally ductile materials may fracture in a brittle

mode. Which three of the following situations may make a ductile material
become brittle?
(a)When the material is melted
(b)At very low temperatures
(c)At very high strain rate during deformation
(d)Under a very high stress
(e)When a sharp notch is introduced at the surface of the material
(f)When the material is heated above 50% of its melting temperature
19. Plastic deformation is useful in engineering, because (may be more than one)
(a) it allows for the forming of the material into shapes by deformation
(b) the material can resist high loads without deformation
(c) it gives warning before the component fractures
(d) it absorbs more energy before the component fractures.
20.Alloying is a common technique used to

Aluminium alloy
modify the properties of materials. The
following figure shows the tensile stress- Stress
strain curves measured for pure aluminium Pure aluminium

and an aluminium alloy. Carefully examine
these two curves and identify which of the
following statements are true (may be more
than one).
Strain
(a)Alloying increases the yield strength and tensile strength

(b)Alloying does not affect the yield strength
(c)Alloying also increases the stiffness (Young’s modulus)
(d)Alloying reduces ductility
(e)Alloying increases toughness
21. Two grades of steel, AISI 1020 and AISI 1045, both in the annealed
condition, were tensile-tested. Which of the following figure correctly shows
(schematically) the stress-strain curves for these two materials?
AISI 1045 AISI 1045 AISI 1045

Stress
Stress
Stress
AISI 1020 AISI 1020 AISI 1020
Strain Strain Strain

22. Two AISI 1045 steel specimens, one annealed and the other quench-hardened,
were tensile-tested. Which of the following figure correctly shows
(schematically) the stress-strain curves for these two specimens?
Hardened
Hardened Hardened
Stress
Stress
Stress
Annealed Annealed Annealed
Strain Strain Strain

Tutorial 4 (I)
Grain refinement and Hall-Petch equation

Dislocation Theory
Crystal with a dislocation: Apply a shear stress
Shear
stress
Shear
stress
Dislocation Theory
Shear
stress
Shear
stress
Dislocation Theory
Shear
stress
Shear
stress
Dislocation Theory
Shear
stress
Shear
stress
Dislocation Theory
Shear
stress
Shear
stress
Dislocation Theory
Shear
stress
Shear
stress
Dislocation Theory
Shear
stress
Shear
stress
Dislocation Theory
Shear
stress
Shear
stress
Dislocation Theory
Permanent
deformation
Dislocation motion is responsible for plastic deformation in metals.

Theory of Strengthening Metals
Dislocation motion Plastic deformation Dislocation

motion impeded
Impeded
Stress
Plastic deformation Materials
becomes more difficult become stronger
Strengthening principle: Strain
To impede dislocation motion

(make it more difficult for dislocations to move)
Strengthening by Grain refinement
Theory
Large Small
grains grains
Few grain boundaries More grain boundaries

Grain boundaries impede dislocation motion
Slip
Grain boundary Yield strength of a material increases with
plane decreasing grain size – due to increased
grain boundary areas … which are barriers
to dislocation motion
Slip
plane
Grain B
Grain A
Strengthening by Grain refinement
Hall-Petch Equation
Yield Constants
strength
ky
 y = 0 +
d
Grain
diameter
Tutorial 4 (I): Grain refinement and Hall-Petch equation
1. Estimate the yield strengths of an alloy when its average grain sizes are 0.1 mm and
0.02 mm respectively, if 0=100 MPa and ky = 20 MPa mm in the Hall-Petch equation
ky
 y =0 +
d
20
 y = 100 +
d
20
for d = 0.1 mm:  y = 100 + = 163 .2 MPa
0.1
20
for d = 0.02 mm:  y = 100 + = 241 .4 MPa
0.02
2. The strength of a copper alloy is 100 MPa when its average grain size is 0.05 mm.
Estimate the strength of the same alloy when the grain size is reduced to 0.01 mm.
Assume value of 0 for the alloy is 30 MPa.
ky
(a) Since 0=30 MPa, the Hall-Petch equation can be rewritten as follows:  y = 30 +
d
(b) To compute y for any given grain size (d) value, the value of constant ky must
be known first. The value of ky can be determined because
when d = 0.05 mm, y = 100 MPa, i.e. in the Hall-Petch form
ky
100 = 30 + k y = (100 − 30) 0.05 = 15.65 (MPa mm )
0.05
(c) Now, since the values of the constants, 0 and ky, are known, the Hall-Petch
equation becomes 15 .65
 y = 30 +
d
15 .65
(d) For d = 0.01 mm  y = 30 + = 186 .5 MPa
0.01
3.The strength of a nickel alloy is 500 MN/m2 when its average grain size is 0.16 mm. The strength is
increased to 750 MN/m2 by reducing the average grain size to 0.04 mm. Estimate the strength of the
same alloy when the grain size is further reduced to 0.01 mm.
(a)The two constants, 0 and ky, in the Hall-Petch equation must be known.
(b) The 0 and ky values can be determined because
ky
When d = 0.16 mm, y = 500 MPa, i.e. 500 =  0 +
0.16
ky
When d = 0.04 mm, y = 750 MPa, i.e. 750 =  0 +
0.04
(c) Solve the above two simultaneous equations, to find the values of 0 and ky
ky = 100 (MPa mm ) 0 = 250 (MPa)
100
(d) Now, the Hall-Petch equation for this alloy becomes  y = 250 +
100 d
(e) For d = 0.01 mm  y = 250 + = 1250 MPa
0.01
4. The following figure shows the relationship between yield strength (y) and average
grain size (d) experimentally measured for a metallic alloy. Determine
i) the values of the constants, 0 and ky, in the Hall-Petch equation:
ii) the yield strength of this alloy when its average grain size is 0.005 mm.
ky
 y =0 +
600
d 500
0: intercept with Y axis: 0 = 200 MPa Dy
Yield Strength (MPa)

400
ky: slope: ky = 50 MPa mm ky=Dy/Dx=(500-400)/(6-4)=50
300
Thus, the Hall-Petch equation becomes:
200
50
 y = 200 + 100
0=200 MPa
d 0
ii) for d = 0.005 mm, use … 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
-1/2 -1/2
d (mm )
50
 y = 200 + = 907 MPa
0.005
5. The yield strength for an iron that has an average grain diameter of 5x10-2 mm is
135 MPa. At a grain diameter of 8x10-3 mm, the yield point increases to 260 MPa.
At what grain diameter will the yield point be 205 MPa? (Answer: 1.48x10-2 mm)
Build two simultaneous equations:

ky
135 =  0 +
5  10 −2 ky = 18.63 MPa mm
ky Solve (1) and (2) simultaneously:
260 =  0 + o = 51.7 MPa
8  10 −3
For the yield strength of 205 MPa,

18 .63
205 = 51 .7 + ; solve for d = 0.0148 mm
d
Tutorial 4 (II)
Solid Solution
and
Strain Hardening
Theory of Solid Solution Hardening
Perfect crystal with an alloying atom (larger size)
Lattice strain
Theory of Strain Hardening
When a metal is plastically deformed it becomes stronger with increasing
amount of deformation – strain (cold work) hardening
Strain-hardening
Why?
Stress
Dislocation interactions;
Dislocation density increases; s=Ken
Dislocations entangling
Yielding: dislocation start to move
Cold work: < 0.5 Tmelt, strain hardening

Hot work: > 0.5Tmelt, no strain hardening
Strain
Trecrystallisation = 0.5Tmelt n: strain hardening exponent
Theory of Strain Hardening
Amount of deformation – percent cold work (%CW)
A0 – Ad
%CW = ( A )x100
0
Material strength increases with increasing %CW

Tutorial 4 (II): Solid Solution and Strain Hardening
1. Rank the strength and ductility of the following silver alloy in decreasing orders
and explain your ranking:
(a) silver alloyed with 5 wt% copper
(b) pure silver
(c) silver alloyed with 2.5 wt% copper
Solution:
Strength: a, c, b alloying increases
Ductility: b, c, a alloying reduces

2. Two previously undeformed specimens of the same metal are to be plastically deformed by reducing
their cross-sectional areas. One has a circular cross section, and the other is rectangular; during deformation
the circular cross section is to remain circular, and the rectangular is to remain rectangular. Their original
and deformed dimensions are follows: Circular (diameter, Rectangular (mm)
Which of these specimens will be the hardest mm)
after plastic deformation, and why? Original 15.2 125 x 175
dimension
Solution: Compute %CW for the Deformed 11.4 75 x 200
dimension
circular and rectangular sections
Circular:
A0 − Ad (15 .2 / 2)  − (11 .4 / 2) 2 
2
%CW = x100 = 100 = 43 .75
A0 (15 .2 / 2) 
2
Rectangular:
A0 − Ad (125  175 − 75  200
%CW = x100 =  100 = 31 .43
A0 125  175
Thus the circular specimen will be the hardest.

3. Briefly explain why some metals (e.g. lead and tin) do not strain hardened when deformed at room temperature.
The melting point of lead is: 327oC
The melting point of tin is: 232oC
Note: (1) The recrystallisation temperature of a metal is around 50% of its melting temperature in Kelvin scale
(2) A metal strain-hardened only when it is deformed below the recrystallisation temperature.
Solution:
Calculate recrystallization temperature:
Lead:
Trec = 0.5(327 + 273 ) = 300 K = 300 − 273 = 27 o C
Tin:
𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑐 = 0.5(232 + 273) = 252.5𝐾 = 252.5 − 273 = −20. 5𝑜 𝐶
Both metals have a recrystallization temperature either below or very close

to room temperature, thus they do not strain harden at room temperature.
4. Two previously undeformed cylindrical specimens of an alloy are to be strain hardened by reducing
their cross-sectional area (while maintaining their circular cross section). For one specimen, the initial
and deformed radii are 16 mm and 11 mm, respectively. The second specimen, with an initial radius of
12 mm, must have the same deformed hardness as the first specimen; compute the second specimen’s
radius after deformation. (Answer: 8.25 mm)
Solution:
Compute %CW for both cases. They must have the same %CW in order to have
the same hardness.
Case 1: 2 2
𝐴0 − 𝐴𝑑 16 𝜋 − 11 𝜋
%𝐶𝑊 = 𝑥100 = × 100 = 52.73
𝐴0 162 𝜋
A0 − Ad 12 2  − R 2
Case 2: %CW = x100 = 100 = 52 .73; Thus, R = 8.25 mm
A0 12 
2
5. An undeformed specimen of some alloy has an average grain diameter of 0.04

mm. You are asked to reduce its average grain diameter to 0.01 mm. Is this
possible? If so, explain the procedures you would use and name the processes
involved. If it is not possible, explain why?
Solution: It is possible, by heat treatment to go through a recrystallization process,

such as by a combination of cold work and then annealing.
6. Describe in your own words the three strengthening mechanisms (i.e. grain size
reduction, solid solution strengthening, and strain hardening). Be sure to explain
how dislocations are involved in each of the strengthening techniques.
Solution: Plastic deformation in metals is due to dislocation motion.
Grain reduction technique: grains boundaries are obstacles to dislocation motion.
The smaller the grain sizes, the more grain boundaries, thus the stronger is the
material.
Solid solution hardening: the solid solute atoms induce lattice strain surrounding
each atom. The lattice strain can impede dislocation motion and thus harden the
material.
Strain hardening: when metals are plastic deformed, dislocations move around in
the metal and at the same time more dislocations are created which can impede
one another, thus resulting in increased strength.
Tutorial 5 (I): Binary phase diagrams
1. Using the binary Pb-Sn phase diagram, determine (1) the phases present, (2) phase compositions, and (3)
relative amount of the phases for the 30 wt% Sn-70 wt% Pb alloy at three different temperatures:
100°C, 200 °C and 300 °C.
Invariant point @ 61.9%Sn & 183oC
Three phases co-exist: Liquid, a & b
Eutectic reaction:
183℃
𝐿(61.9𝑆𝑛) 𝛼(18.3𝑆𝑛) + 𝛽(97.8𝑆𝑛)
R S Lever Rule:
𝑆 97.8 − 61.9
𝑊𝛼 = = = 0.45
𝑅 + 𝑆 97.8 − 18.3
𝑅 61.9 − 18.3
𝑊𝛽 = = = 0.55
𝑅 + 𝑆 97.8 − 18.3
@ 100 °C, 30 wt% Sn-70 wt% Pb

(1) Phases present: a + b
(2) Phase compositions:
Ca = 4.5 wt% Sn
Cb = 98 wt% Sn
(3) Relative amount of phases
(Mass fraction): Lever Rule…
𝑆 𝐶𝛽 − 𝐶0 98 − 30 R S
𝑊𝑎 = = = = 0.73
𝑅 + 𝑆 𝐶𝛽 − 𝐶𝛼 98 − 4.5
𝑅 𝐶0 − 𝐶𝛼 30 − 4.5
𝑊𝛽 = = = = 0.27 Ca Cb
𝑅 + 𝑆 𝐶𝛽 − 𝐶𝛼 98 − 4.5
C0
𝑊𝛼 + 𝑊𝛽 = 1
@ 200 °C, 30 wt% Sn-70 wt% Pb

(1) Phases present: a + L
Ca = 17 wt% Sn
CL = 56 wt% Sn R S
(Mass fraction): Lever Rule…
𝑆 𝐶𝐿 − 𝐶0 56 − 30
𝑊𝑎 = = = = 0.67
𝑅 + 𝑆 𝐶𝐿 − 𝐶𝛼 56 − 17
𝑅 𝐶0 − 𝐶𝛼 30 − 17
𝑊𝐿 = = = = 0.33 Ca CL
𝑅 + 𝑆 𝐶𝐿 − 𝐶𝛼 56 − 17
C0
𝑊𝛼 + 𝑊𝐿 = 1
@ 300 °C, 30 wt% Sn-70 wt% Pb

(1) Phases present: L

CL = C0 = 30 wt% Sn

(Mass fraction):
𝑊𝐿 = 1
C0
2. A 65 wt% Ni- 35 wt% Cu alloy is heated to a temperature within the alpha+liquid phase region.
If the composition of the alpha phase is 70 wt% Ni, determine
(a) the temperature of the alloy.
(b) the composition of the liquid phase.
(c) the mass fractions of both the phases.
Solution:
(a) Temperature: 1345 °C T
(b) Composition of liquid phase:
CL = 59 wt% Ni
(c) Mass fraction of each phase:
𝐶0 − 𝐶𝐿 65 − 59
𝑊𝑎 = = = 0.55
𝐶𝛼 − 𝐶𝐿 70 − 59
𝐶𝛼 − 𝐶0 70 − 65 CL C0 Ca
𝑊𝐿 = = = 0.45
𝐶𝛼 − 𝐶𝐿 70 − 59
Tutorial 5 (II): F-C System
Use the Fe-C phase diagram shown below, calculate the relative amount of phases at 720 °C:
(1) the relative amount of ferrite (a) and cementite (Fe3C) in steels containing 0.2%C, 0.4%C and 0.6%C.
(2) the relative amount of pre-eutectoid ferrite and pearlite in 0.5%C steel.
(3) the relative amount of pre-eutectoid cementite and pearlite in 1.2%C steel
Solution:
Ca = 0.022 (ferrite)
@ 720 °C:
Cm = 6.70 (cementite)
(1) Mass fraction of ferrite and cementite:
𝐶𝑚 − 𝐶0 𝐶0 − 𝐶𝛼
𝑊𝑎 = 𝑊𝑚 =
𝐶𝑚 − 𝐶𝛼 𝐶𝑚 − 𝐶𝛼
For C0=0.2%C: Wa=0.97, Wm=0.03

For C0=0.4%C: Wa=0.94, Wm=0.06 C0
For C0=0.6%C: Wa=0.91, Wm=0.09
The amount of cementite increases
with increasing carbon content
Solution:
Ca = 0.022 (ferrite)
@ 720 °C:
CP = 0.76 (pearlite)
(2) Mass fraction of pre-eutectoid ferrite
and pearlite:
𝐶𝑃 − 𝐶0 0.76 − 𝐶0
𝑊𝑎′ = =
𝐶𝑃 − 𝐶𝛼 0.76 − 0.022
𝐶0 − 𝐶𝛼 𝐶0 − 0.022
𝑊𝑃 = = C0
𝐶𝑃 − 𝐶𝛼 0.76 − 0.022
For C0=0.5%C:
Wa’=0.35, WP=0.65 P(0.76C)
Proeutectoid a’+pearlite
P (a+cementite)
a’
Solution:
Cm = 6.7 (cementite)
@ 720 °C:
CP = 0.76 (pearlite)
(3) Mass fraction of pre-eutectoid cementite
and pearlite:
𝐶0 − 𝐶𝑃 𝐶0 − 0.76
𝑊𝑚′ = =
𝐶𝑚 − 𝐶𝑃 6.7 − 0.76
𝐶𝑚 − 𝐶0 6.7 − 𝐶0
𝑊𝑃 = =
𝐶𝑚 − 𝐶𝑃 6.7 − 0.76 C0
For C0=1.2%C:
Wm’=0.07, WP=0.93 P(0.76C)
Pre-eutectoid Fe3C’+pearlite
Calculate the relative amount of ferrite, cementite and pearlite for the carbon steels tested
in the Hardness Testing lab:
0.18 wt% C, 0.35 wt% C, 0.60 wt% C, 0.90 wt% C, 1.20 wt% C
6.7 − 𝐶0
𝑊𝛼 =
6.7 − 0.022
𝐶0 − 0.022
𝑊𝑐𝑚 =
6.7 − 0.022
C0: 0.18 0.35 0.60 0.90 1.20

Wa: 0.976 0.951 0.913 0.869 0.824
Wcm: 0.024 0.049 0.087 0.131 0.176
C0
Calculate the relative amount of ferrite, cementite and pearlite for the carbon steels tested
in the Hardness Testing lab:
0.18 wt% C, 0.35 wt% C, 0.60 wt% C, 0.90 wt% C, 1.20 wt% C
WP: 0.18% C , 0.35%C, 0.60%C … Hypoeutectoid
𝐶0 − 0.022
𝑊𝑃 =
0.76 − 0.022
WP: 0.90% C , 1.2%C … Hypereutectoid

6.7 − 𝐶0
𝑊𝑃 =
6.7 − 0.76
C0: 0.18 0.35 0.60 0.90 1.20

W P: 0.21 0.44 0.78 0.976 0.926
C0
Tutorial 6 (I): Steels and Heat Treatments
1. Which two of the following alloys are ferrous alloys?
(a) steels; (b) aluminium alloys; (c) cast irons; (d) titanium alloys
2. The range of carbon content in steels is
(a) 2.1% to 4.5%; (b) 0.02% to 2.0%; (c) 0.5% to 1.0%; (d) 4.5% to 6.7%
3. The carbon content in AISI 1060 steel is
(a) 60%; (b) 6%; (c) 0.6%; (d) 1%
4. The crystal structure of iron at room temperature is called
(a) ferrite; (b) austenite; (c) pearlite; (d) cementite
5. The crystal structure of iron at 1000°C is called
(a) ferrite; (b) austenite; (c) pearlite; (d) cementite
6. Pearlite in steel is
(a) a mixture of austenite and cementite; (b) a mixture of ferrite and austenite
(c) a mixture of ferrite and cementite; (d) carbon in steel
7. At equilibrium, steel containing less than 0.8% C has a structure of
(a) a mixture of pearlite and cementite; (b) a mixture of ferrite and pearlite;
(c) a mixture of cementite and austenite
8. The process of heating a steel to a high temperature and then cooling it slowly in
furnace is called
(a) normalising; (b) tempering; (c) hardening; (d) annealing
9. The process of heating a steel to a high temperature and then cooling it in air
is called
10. The process of heating a steel to a high temperature and then cooling it
rapidly is called
11. The structure produced in steel by quenching is called
(a) martensite; (b) cementite; (c) austenite; (d) pearlite
12. A quenched steel should always be
(a) tempered; (b) annealed; (c) normalised; (d) quenched again
13. Which of the following are the effects of tempering (maybe more than one)
(a) increasing hardness; (b) increasing toughness;
(c) reducing toughness; (d) reducing residual stresses
14. Tempering also reduces the hardness of alloyed high carbon tool steels
irrespective of tempering temperature.
(a)True, or (b) False.
15. Secondary hardening occurs in tool steels at which tempering temperature range?
(a) 200 – 300°C; (b) 350 – 440°C; (c) 450-600°C; (d) 600 – 700°C.
16. Secondary hardening is due to
(a) second quenching; (b) formation of fine carbides dispersed in the matrix;
(c) formation of austenite; (d) formation of harder martensite.
17. Which of the following heat treatment procedure can be used to harden a
0.4%C steel?
(a) heating the steel to 900oC to form a fully austenitic structure, soaking at that
temperature for some time, then cooling the steel rapidly in water down to room
temperature.
(b) heating the steel to 500oC for recrystallisation, then cooling rapidly in water.
(c) heating the steel to 900oC to form a fully austenitic structure, soaking at that
temperature for some time, then cooling the steel slowly in furnace down to
room temperature.
18. Some alloy steels can be hardened by cooling from austenite (high
temperature) just in air, because
(a) the alloying elements harden the steel
(b) it is not necessary to form martensite
(c) the alloy steels have very good hardenability and can form martensite by
air-cooling.
(d) the steels have been hardened previously.
19. The major purpose of adding alloying elements to steel is
(a) to make the steel look better; (b) to increase the hardenability of steel;
(c) to increase the ductility of steel; (d) to increase the conductivity of steel.
Short Questions:
1. Briefly describe a heat treatment process that can be used to harden the 0.55%C steel.
Steel can be hardened by quenching, which involves heating to a high temperature,
normally between 800oC and 1100oC to form an austenite structure, followed by
rapid cooling to form a marteniste structure. Martensite is a hard structure in steel.
Rapid cooling (quenching) is required to avoid the formation of equilibrium
structure, i.e. pearlite, ferrite and cementite.
2. A piece of steel is too hard to be machined. Can you soften it for machining? How?
Yes, by annealing: involves heating to a high temperature, normally between
800oC and 1100oC to form an austenite structure, followed by slow furnace
cooling to form the equilibrium structure, i.e. pearlite, ferrite and cementite.
Tutorial 6 (II): Engineering Materials
Steels and Cast Irons:
1. Which of the following materials is most suitable for making the body of a car?
(a) low carbon steel
(b) medium carbon steel
(c) high carbon steel
(d) pure aluminium
2. Which of the following materials is most suitable for making a coldworking die?
(d) cast iron
3. Which of the following materials is most suitable for making a power transmission shaft?
(d) aluminium
4. Which of the following are characteristics of cast irons?
(a) high carbon content
(b) brittle
(c) cheap
(d) good damping ability
(e) all of the above
5. Which of the following materials is most suitable for making the base of a power saw machine?
(d) cast iron
6. Cast iron has good damping/anti-vibration ability because

(a) it contains some polymer foams
(b) it contains some graphite
(c) it is porous
7. The major element that makes stainless steel ‘stainless’ is
(a) iron (Fe)
(b) carbon (C)
(c) chromium (Cr)
(d) copper (Cu)
8. The minimum requirement on chromium in stainless steels is
(a) 1%
(b) 13%
(c) 3%
(d) 30%
9. Many stainless steel articles carry a symbol “18-8”. This symbol means that the stainless steel contains
(a) 18% Cr + 8% Ni
(b) 18% Fe + 8% Cr
(c) 18% C + 8% Cr
(d) 18% Cr + 8% C
Non-ferrous Alloys:
10.Aluminium alloys can be strengthened by quenching to form a martensite structure.
(a) true, or
(b) false
11. The two most important requirements for achieving precipitation hardening are
(a) proper size and number of the precipitate particles
(b) grain size of the matrix phase
(c) uniform distribution of the precipitate particles
(d) melting temperature of the matrix phase
12.The three heat treatment stages to achieve precipitation hardening in an aluminium alloy are
(a) annealing
(b) solution treatment
(c) rapid cooling
(d) hardening
(e) aging
Non-ferrous Alloys:
13.Aluminium alloys are widely used, because
(a) they are light
(b) they have good strength-to-density ratio
(c) they have pleasant appearance
(d) they have good corrosion resistance
(e) all of the above
14.The main reason for the use of magnesium is that

(a) it is strong
(b) it is easy to shape by deformation
(c) it is light
(d) it is tough
15.Titanium is used for which of the following two useful properties?
(a) strength-to-density ratio
(b) cost
(c) wear resistance
(d) corrosion resistance
Non-ferrous Alloys:
16.Which of the following materials is most suitable for make a jet engine component?
(a) stainless steel
(b) cast iron
(c) titanium alloy
(d) nickel based superalloy
(e) aluminium alloy
Ceramics and Polymers:

17.Which two of the following are ceramic materials?
(a) steel
(b) alumina (Al2O3)
(c) polystyrene
(d) glasses (SiO2)
18.Ceramics have more complex structures than metals, and are more brittle because
(a) dislocations are more difficult to move in ceramics
(b) there are no dislocations in ceramics
(c) there are too many dislocations in ceramics
19.Quartz and ordinary glass have the same constituent, i.e. silica (SiO2), so they have no differences
in structure and properties.
(a) True, or
(b) False
20.The three families of polymers are
(a) thermoplastics
(b) hard plastics
(c) thermosets
(d) elastomers
(e) soft plastics
21.All thermoplastics have a crosslinked molecular structure.
(a) True, or
(b) False
22.Epoxy is a thermosetting polymer. It is molecular structure must be
(a) crosslinked
(b) linear
(c) branched
(d) crystalline
23.Which of the following materials cannot be recycled (maybe more than one)?
(a) polystyrene (thermoplastic)
(b) rubber
(c) polyethylene (thermoplastic)
(d) bakelite (thermoset)
24.Rubbers have a large elastic extension, because

(a) their molecular chains are tightly kinked and slightly crosslinked.
(b) they have an amorphous structure.
(c) their molecules are large and long
25.Polystyrene (PS) is polymeric material used to make CD cases. It has a semicrystalline structure. Is PS
recyclable? Why?
(a) Yes
(b) No
Your reasoning:
Because it has some crystallinity, it must be a thermoplastic and thermoplastics are recyclable.
Short Questions:
26. Briefly describe the properties and typical applications of low carbon steels, medium carbon steels,
and high carbon steels.
Solution:
Please refer to the lecture notes
27. Briefly explain why stainless steels are ‘stainless’.
Solution:
Due to the formation of a chromium rich oxide film of a few nanometer thick on the surface. The
film is dense, adherent and insoluble.
28. How does titanium compare to steel for the shaft on a golf club?
Solution:
Titanium is as strong as steel, but has a lower Yong’s modulus (130 GPa for Ti vs 210 GPa for steel).
Thus the shaft made of Ti will be more flexible and deflect more elastically. This helps to drive the ball
further with the same amount of force.
Short Questions:
29. Explain why the compressive strength of ceramics is usually much greater than its tensile strength.
Solution:
This is because ceramics are normally fabricated by powder processing and there are many pores and
voids inside ceramics. The pores and voids can serve as cracks which open easily under tension, but may
close under compression.
30. Explain why it is difficult to measure the stress-strain behaviour of brittle ceramics by a tensile test.
Solution:
Three reasons:
(1) Difficult to make a dog-bone like sample for tensile testing
(2) Difficult to clamp the sample for tensile testing
(3) Difficult to align the sample along the loading direction
Ceramics are normally tested by bending, which can alleviate the above problems
(1) No need to machine a dog-bone like sample. Any rectangular or circular sample will do.
(2) No need to clamp the sample
(3) No need to align the sample
Short Questions:
31. Discuss the differences between thermoplastic polymers and thermosetting polymers, in terms of molecular
structure, strength, response to heating and recycling.
Solution:
Thermoplastic
Properties: no crosslinking, mostly semi-crystalline, low strength, low resistant to heat
Heating/recycling: re-melt upon heat and hardened upon cooling. Recyclable.
Thermosets
Properties: Crosslinking structure, amorphous, higher strength, resist higher temperature
Heating/recycling: only melt once. Once set, cannot be re-melt upon heating, but burn and tar.
Not recyclable.
Tutorial 7 (I): Ductile & Brittle Fracture and Stress Concentration
1. Describe the mechanism of crack propagation for both ductile and brittle
modes of fracture.
Solution:
Ductile: propagate slowly, accompanied with plastic deformation, requires
more energy
Brittle: propagate rapidly, without plastic deformation, requires less energy
2. Explain why ductile fracture is more desirable than brittle fracture.
Solution:
(1) Ductile fracture is accompanied with plastic deformation. This gives
warning and avoids catastrophe
(2) Ductile fracture requires more energy
3. What is the magnitude of the maximum stress that exists at the tip of an internal
crack having a radius of curvature of 2.5x10-4 mm and a crack length of 2.5x10-2
mm when a tensile stress of 170 MPa is applied? (Answer: smax = 2574 MPa)
Solution: Use …..

 2.5 x10 − 2 mm 
 a   

s m = K ts 0 = s 0  2 + 1 = 170 (MPa)2 x 2 + 1 = 2574.2 MPa
 t
−4
  2.5 x10 mm 
 
 
4. Estimate the theoretical fracture strength of a brittle material if it is known that

fracture occurs by the propagation of an elliptically shaped surface crack of
length 0.5 mm and having a tip radius of curvature of 5x10-3 mm, when a stress of
1035 MPa is applied. (Answer: 21.7 GPa)
Solution:
Theoretical fracture strength = maximum stress at crack tip at fracture
Given that so = 1035 MPa, a = 0.5 mm (surface crack), and t = 5 x 10-3 mm.
Thus,
 
s m =s  2 x a +1  =1035 (MPa) 2 x 0.5 mm
+ 1

 = 2.17 x 10 4
MPa =21.7 GPa
o t    −3
5 x10 mm 
  
5. A steel plate of 200 mm width and 10 mm thickness has a circle hole of 20 mm

diameter. If the applied tensile load to the plate is 200 kN, what is the maximum
stress at the edge of the hole? (Answer: 300 MPa)
Solution:
Calculate nominal applied stress (without the hole):
F 200 10 3
so = = −6
= 100 MPa
A 200 10 10
Use ……
   
s m =s  a   10 
o  2 x  +1  = 100 2 10 +1  = 300MPa
 t 
Tutorial 7(2): Fracture Mechanics
Tutorial 8(1): Fatigue failure

ENGD2105: Materials Failure Fracture Mechanics
Summary
• Fracture Mechanics equation: 
K = Y a Y=1 a Y=1.1
• Condition for crack propagation:
K ≥ KIc
• Condition for safe use (no fracture):
K < KIc
Tutorial 7 (II): Fracture Mechanics
Q1: An airplane component made of an aluminium alloy having a plain strain fracture
toughness of 30MPa m is known to have an internal crack of 4 mm long. Is it safe to
use the component if the maximum applied stress is 300 MPa? Assume Y = 1.1.
Solution:
Calculate K value: note 2a = 4 mm; a = 2x10-3 m; KIC = 30 MPa m
K = Yσ 𝜋𝑎 = 1.1 × 300 × 𝜋 × 2 × 10−3 = 26.2 𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝑚
Since K < KIC, it is safe to use.

Q2. (In many cases, the value of Y is not given. You have to work it out first using other information
given. Try the following question.)
Some aircraft component is fabricated from an aluminium alloy that has a plane strain fracture
toughness of 40 MPa 𝑚 . It has been determined that fracture results at a stress of 300 MPa when
the maximum internal crack length is 4.0 mm. For this same component and alloy, will fracture
occur at a stress level of 260MPa when the maximum internal crack length is 6.0 mm? Why or
why not?
Solution:
Case 1: Fracture occurs when  = 300 MPa, 2a = 4 mm Case 2: Will fracture occurs when  = 260 MPa, 2a = 6 mm ?
𝐾 = 𝐾𝐼𝐶 = 𝑌𝜎 𝜋𝑎 𝑌 = 1.68 is the same for both cases
4 × 10−3 𝑚
40 𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝑚 = 𝑌 × 300𝑀𝑃𝑎 × 𝜋 𝐾 = 𝑌𝜎 𝜋𝑎
2
40 6 × 10−3
𝑌= = 1.68 = 1.68 × 260 × 𝜋
−3
2
4 × 10
300 × 𝜋
2 > 𝐾𝐼𝐶 (40 𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝑚)
= 42.4 𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝑚
Since 𝑲 > 𝑲𝑰𝑪 fracture will occur

Q3: An airplane component made of an aluminium alloy having a plain strain

fracture toughness of 30MPa 𝑚 is known to have an internal crack of 4 mm
long. What is the maximum stress that can be applied to this component without
inducing fracture? Assume Y = 1.1.
Solution:
Use …. K = Y max a =K Ic
1.1x max x 2 x10 −3  = 30

30
 max = = 344 MPa
1.1x 2 x10 −3 
Q4. (In many cases, the value of Y is not given. You have to work it out first using other information
given. Try the following question.)
Suppose that a wing component on an aircraft is fabricated from an aluminium alloy that has a
plane strain fracture toughness of 26 MPa 𝑚. It has been determined that fracture results at a stress
of 112 MPa when the maximum internal crack length is 8.6 mm. For this same component and
alloy, compute the stress level at which fracture will occur for a critical internal length of 6.0 mm.
Solution:
Case 1: Fracture occurs when  = 112 MPa, 2a = 8.6 mm Case 2: If 2a = 6 mm, c = ???
𝐾 = 𝐾𝐼𝐶 = 𝑌𝜎 𝜋𝑎 𝑌 = 2.0 is the same for both cases
8.6 × 10−3 𝑚
26 𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝑚 = 𝑌 × 112𝑀𝑃𝑎 × 𝜋 𝐾 = 𝐾𝐼𝐶 = 𝑌𝜎 𝜋𝑎
2
26 6 × 10−3
𝑌= = 2.0 26 = 2.0 × 𝜎𝑐 × 𝜋
−3
2
8.6 × 10
112 × 𝜋 26
2
𝜎𝑐 = = 134 𝑀𝑃𝑎
6× 10−3
2× 𝜋
2
Q5. A large plate is fabricated from a steel alloy that has a plane strain fracture toughness of 32.4 MPa 𝑚.
(a) If, during service use, the plate is exposed to a tensile stress of 500 MPa, determine the minimum
length of a surface crack that will lead to fracture. Assume a value of 1.0 for Y.
(b) The following table shows the detection limits (hypothetical) of several NDT techniques
available on the market. Which one would you suggest to use for NDT of such components?
Technique Microsco Dye Ultrasonic Magnetic Eddy current
pic penetrant particle
Minimum
detectable 1.5 mm 1.8 mm 2.0 mm 1.1 mm 1.0 mm
crack size
Solution:
(a) Use ….. 𝐾 = 𝐾𝐼𝐶 = 𝑌𝜎 𝜋𝑎
2 2
1 𝐾𝐼𝐶 1 32.4
𝑎𝑐 = = = 1.34 × 10−3 𝑚 = 1.34 𝑚𝑚
𝜋 𝑌𝜎 𝜋 1.0 × 500
Surface crack length = a = 1.34 mm (Note: Internal crack length = 2a)
(b) NDT technique to use …. either Magnetic particles, or Eddy current

Tutorial 8 (I): Fatigue Failure
Fatigue Failure: Consider fracture mechanics principle ….

• What will cause it Fracture occurs when 𝐾 = 𝑌𝜎 𝜋𝑎 ≥ 𝐾𝐼𝐶
• How will it happen
• Why will it happen No fracture when 𝐾 = 𝑌𝜎 𝜋𝑎 < 𝐾𝐼𝐶
• How to identify
• How to prevent
s Static loading (constant stress) Dynamic loading (stress cycles)
s s
sc 𝐾 = 𝐾𝐼𝐶 Fracture sc 𝐾 = 𝐾𝐼𝐶 Fracture
sapplied
2a
sapplied 𝐾 < 𝐾𝐼𝐶 No fracture
Crack growth after each cycle

Fracture when K=KIC
Time Time
s
S-N Curves
s max − s min
2
Fatigue
limit
If stress is
below this
limit, the
Material will
last forever
At this stress, the material can last 105 cycles,
i.e. the material has a fatigue life of 105 cycles
Fatigue Failure Processes
(2) Crack Propagation:
Beach marks (clamshell pattern) & striations.
•Macroscopic •Microscopic
dimensions dimensions
•Caused by • formed by
interruptions crack advance
of operation during a single
load cycle
There may be thousands of striations within one
beachmark
The presence of beachmarks and striations on a fracture
surface confirms that the cause of failure was fatigue
Fatigue Failure Processes
(2) Crack Propagation:
Beach marks (clamshell pattern) & striations.
Need high magnifications

Beach marks may be seen in electron microscope to see
with unaided eye striations
Factors Affecting Fatigue Life
(1) Design factors: avoid structural irregularities or modify design to

reduce sharp contour changes
(2) Surface finish:
• machining and grinding marks can be fatigue crack initiation sites, and thus
can limit fatigue life
• to increase fatigue life, polishing to remove machining marks and scratches
(3) Impose compressive residual stress in the surface, e.g. by shot peening
(4) Case hardening to increase surface hardness and introduce
compressive residual stresses: e.g. carburising, nitriding …
1. Fatigue failure of a material is due to

(a) an excessively high static stress
(b) high strain rate
(c) dynamic load involving stress cycles
(d) static load for a long period of time
2. The following figure shows an S-N fatigue curve measured for a metal alloy. Answer the
following questions.
(1) The fatigue (or endurance) limit of this material is
(a) 350 MPa; (b) 740 MPa;
(c) 260 MPa; (d) 0 MPa
(2) The fatigue life of the material at a stress
amplitude of 340 MPa is
(a) 105 cycles; (b) 106 cycles;
(c) 109 cycles; (d) 103 cycles
(3) The fatigue strength of the material for a fatigue
life of 106 cycles is
(a) 200 MPa; (b) 350 MPa; (c) 400 MPa; (d) 285 MPa
(4) If the designed life of a component is 108 cycle, it is safe to use the material at a stress
amplitude of 350 MPa.
(a) true, or (b) false
(5) If the stress amplitude in service is 400 MPa, it is safe to use the material up to a lifetime of
104 cycles,
(a) true, or (b) false
3. Briefly explain the difference between fatigue striations and beachmarks both in
terms of (a) size and (b) origin.
Solution:
Feature Size Origin
macroscopic, may be interrupion in stress
Beachmarks observed with naked eye cycles or operation
microscopic, observed Fatigue crack growth
Striations under electron microscopy during each load cycle
4. List four measures that may be taken to increase the resistance to fatigue of a
metal alloy.
Solution:
Proper design to avoid stress concentration, smoothen the surface by lapping
or polishing, introduce compressive residual stresses by shot peening,
surface hardening by carburizing and nitriding
5. Briefly explain (1) What causes fatigue; (2) Why fatigue happens; (3) How fatigue
failure can be identified.
Solution:
(1) Due to cyclic stress
(2) Crack growth after each stress cycle
(3) By looking for beachmarks and striations

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Tutorial 1(I): Materials Categories

1. Cite the four categories of engineering materials.

1. Cite the four categories of engineering materials.

3. Cite 5 factors that can affect the properties of metals.

8. Can you use polymers at temperatures above 400 °C?

9. What are the benefits and disadvantages of composite materials?

Solution: Nitrogen (N) Z=7

Not stable. The outermost shell has 5 valence electrons.

Solution: Oxygen (O) Z=8

Not stable. The outermost shell has 6 valence electrons.

Sodium (Na) Z=11

Solution: Magnesium (Mg) Z=12

Silicon (Si) Z=14

Solution: Chlorine (Cl) Z=17

2. Why all kind of steels have a similar Young’s modulus?

3. Can you change the Young’s modulus of steel by hardening it?

4. Why different materials have different degree of thermal expansion?

5. What are the three primary bonds?

6. Why many ceramics have ionic bonding?

7. What are some common characteristics of materials with ionic bonding?

8. What is the key feature of covalent bonding?

Body-centred cubic (bcc) Face-centred cubic (fcc)

HCP 12 6 a = 2R 24𝑅3 2 0.74

FCC and HCP are the most densely packed structure

Unit cell volume:

𝑛𝐴 n: # atoms per unit cell

For BCC iron: n=2

1. A bar of 40 mm diameter and 200 mm long is pulled by a force to reach a length of

2. The Poisson’s ratio of aluminium is 0.33. If an aluminium bar of 40 mm diameter

To find: Dd = df-d0 = ????

(1) The strain in the longitudinal direction (y) is: e = 0.005.

(2) It is decreased because the strain ex is negative.

Applies to linear elastic deformation only

Tension & Compression: 𝜎 = 𝐸𝜀

𝜎 = 𝐸𝜀= 200 × 109 × 0.005

4. A round bar of 10 mm diameter and 100 mm long is pulled elastically by a

5. Aluminium has a Young’s modulus of 70 GN m-2. If an aluminium bar of

𝜎 = −210 × 106 𝑁𝑚−2 ……. Compressive stress has a negative sign

(2) 𝐿𝑓 = (1 + 𝜀)𝐿0 = (1 − 0.003) × 0.25 = 0.24925𝑚

𝐿𝑓 = 𝐿0 (1 + 𝜀) = 100𝑚𝑚(1 + 0.00143) = 100.143 𝑚𝑚

F = sA0 = (0.6x106Nm-2) x (100x10-6 m2) = 60 N

8. A cylindrical steel bar having a diameter of 10 mm and a length of 50 mm is stressed by a

𝜀𝑥 = −𝜈𝜀 = −0.3𝑥0.006 = −0.0018

Plastic: 420 MPa, 250 MPa

2. A specimen of 200 mm long is tensile tested to a stress of 1000 MPa.

Tutorial 3 (II): Tensile Properties

(c) Determine the tensile strength of this material. 350

(d) Compute the modulus of resilience. 300

(e) A cylindrical specimen of this material 10.0 mm in diameter and

120.0 mm long is pulled in tension with a force of 10,000 N; the 200

force is subsequently released. 150

This is a typical exam question!!!

Thus: Stress 150 MPa

• Thus, Final length = Original length = 120 mm

• It is on the non-linear 150

• Remember strain definition: 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06

(a) Load at 0.002 strain offset: F=98,000 N

2. A stiff material means that

4. A material will deform elastically when

5. Yielding of a material means that

7. Strain hardening means that

10. The tensile strength of a material is defined as

12.A material is deformed elastically to a strain of 0.005 by a tensile stress of