15CVL204 Surveying

Course instructor:
Lalith Prakash
 Course content
Unit 1
(i) Introduction – classification of surveys – reconnaissance –
principle of working from whole to part – provision of control –
conventional signs

(ii) Chain survey – Instruments – principles of chain survey – field

book – plotting – tie line and check line

(iii) Compass survey – types of compass types of bearing – dip and

declination – local attraction – traversing – plotting – error of
closure

(iv) Plane table survey – two point problem – three point problem
– error in plane tabling
 Course content
Unit 2
(i) Levelling – levelling instruments & its adjustments – fly levelling
– booking – corrections for refraction and curvature – reciprocal
levelling – longitudinal levelling and cross sectioning – contour
surveying – definition – characteristics – methods & uses of
contouring – plotting – areas and volumes – planimeter –
earthwork volume calculation.

(ii) Theodolite surveying – study of theodolite and its adjustments

– measurement of horizontal angles – vertical angles – heights
and distances – theodolite traverse – calculation of co-ordinates –
corrections – traversing conditions for closure.
 Course content
Unit 3
(i) Minor instruments – hand levels – clinometer – Ceylon ghat
tracer – hypsometer – pantagraph – ediograph – box sextant –
telescopic alidade.

(ii) Curves – simple, transition and vertical curves – curve setting

by various methods.

(iii) Tacheometric surveying – various methods – instrument

constants – anallactic lens – tangential system – direct reading
tacheometer – subtense bar – trigonometric levelling.

(iv)Total station
 Course Outcomes

15CVL204.1 To be able to understand the principles, types and

methods of surveying with minimum or no error

15CVL204.2 To be able to analyse and rectify the errors in the

horizontal-linear and horizontal-angular measurements to
calculate area.
15CVL204.3 To be able to analyse and evaluate the measurements in
leveling to obtain reduced levels, contour lines and
earthwork estimation
15CVL204.4 To be able to analyse and evaluate the horizontal and
vertical coordinates using a theodolite.
15CVL204.5 To be able to understand the application of minor
instruments and advanced technologies in surveying.
(i) Minor instruments
Hand level
Hand level
 Hand level
• Held in hand
• Consists of a level tube mounted on a cylindrical
or rectangular tube 100-150mm long
• Lower and upper surfaces of the level tube is
transparent
• Inside the tube, a mirror is set at angle of 45º
just below the level tube opening
• Mirror occupies only half widthof the telescope
and the other half is left clear
• the line of sight is defined as the line joining the
peep-hole at the eye end and the intersection of
the cross hairs at the object vane
 Hand level - uses
• Used for approximate determination of
elevations in reconaissance and preliminary
survey.
• Used for locating contours on the ground and for
taking short cross sections in profile levelling
Hand level
Hand level
Abney level
 Abney level
• Improved version of hand level with clinometer
for measuring slopes.
• level tube is fixed on the top of the rotating arm,
called the index arm or the vernier arm
• The axis of the level tube is perpendicular to the
axis of the arm
• Semi circular graduated arc is fixed to the tube
marked with 0º to 90º on one side and 0º to -90º
on the other side of the centre
• The angle is read on the index arm at an
accuracy of 10'
Abney level
Clinometer
Ceylon ghat tracer
Pantagraph
 Pantagraph
• Used for duplicating the existing drawing/
maps/plots
• Used for enlarging or reducing the
drawing/maps/plots
• Pantographs are made in various sizes
and to different designs
Pantagraph
 Pantagraph
• It consists of two parallel pairs of guide bars,
which are interconnected by joints at points A, B,
C, and D to form the parallelogram ABCD.
• Point A is fixed, a pin at F is used to trace the
original, and a pencil at P traces a reduced copy.
• The scale ratio of the original and the copy can
be altered by sliding the guide bar CD along the
guide bars AE and BF; at the same time, in order
to more closely reproduce the original, the pencil
at P must be shifted so that A, P, and F lie on a
straight line.
 Eidograph
• Silmilar to Pantagraph
• Used for copying and scaling the maps/
diagrams.
• The eidograph relocates the fixed point to
the center of the parallelogram and uses a
narrow parallelogram to provide improved
mechanical advantages
Eidograph
 Eidograph
• A typical Eidograph has a three foot beam
calibrated 90-0-90 with vernier scale,
locking screw, and cast pulleys connected
to the center point by tension cables.
• Each connects by a similar vernier socket
to their respective calibrated adjustable
arms fitted with attachments for
transposing lines onto paper.
Typical Eidograph - Instructions
 Telescopic alidade
• The telescopic alidade is used when it is
required to take inclined sights.
• It essentially consists of a small telescope
with a level tube and graduated arc
mounted on horizontal axis.
• It gives higher accuracy and more range of
sights
Telescopic alidade
Telescopic alidade
Box sextant
 Sextant
• Principle:
– when a ray of light is refelected successively
from two mirror, the angle between the first
and last direction of the ray is twice the angle
between the plane of the two mirror
• observer can sight two different objects
simultaneously, and thus measure an
angle in single observation
• Used for measuring
– horizontal angle
– vertical angle
 Minor instruments - Handout
( detailed description for all the instruments)

Surveying and levelling

- T.P kanetkar & S.V . Kulkarni
(ii) Curves
 Curves
Angle of Intersection
• Curves are provided
for gradual change in
direction in road, rail
& canal alignment.
• Provided due to
– Nature of terrain
– Break the monotony
in driving to avoid
accidents (in straight
alignments)
• Angle of the change
in direction –
deflection angle
 Degree of Curve
• Degree of Curve: Angle subtended at the
centre of the curve by a chord of 30m (Indian
design) length.
• A chord of 20 m length may also be used for
calculation
• Curves designation:
– Degree of curve
• Eg. One-degree curve
– Radius of curve
 Curves: Radius & Degree of Curve
AB – Chord of 30 m
O – Centre
OA or OB = R (radius of
the circle)
D – Degree of curve
AC = 15 m
Angle AOC = D/2
From Triangle OAC
Sin(D/2) = AC/OA=15/R
 Curves: Types
• Horizontal Curves
– Simple Curves
– Compound Curves
– Reverse Curves
– Transition Curves
– Lemniscate Curves
• Vertical Curves
– Summit Curves
– Valley Curves
 Curves: Horizontal Curve
• Simple Curve
– Curve consists of a single arc
with constant radius connecting
the two tangents.

Compound Curve
– Curve consist of 2 or more arcs
with different radii connecting
three tangents
– Lies on the same side of a
common tangent
– Centres of different arcs lie on
the same side
 Curves: Horizontal Curve
• Reverse Curve
– Two arc bending in opposite directions.
– Centres lie on opposite sides of the curve
– Radii can be equal or different
– Have one common tangent
 Curves: Horizontal Curve
• Reverse Curve
– Used to connect
• two parallel roads / railway lines
• when two roads intersect at a very small angle
– To the extend possible – avoid reverse curve
• superelevation cannot be provided at reverse curvature
(junction point)
 Curves: Horizontal Curve
• Combined curve
– Combination of simple circular curves ad
transition curves
– Preferred in railways ad highways
 Curves: Horizontal Curve
• Transition Curve (or spiral curve or easement
curve)
– Has a radius, gradually chaging from a finite to
infinite value or vice versa
– Curve of variable radius.
– Provided on both sides of a circular curve
 Curves: Vertical Curve
• Provided at intersection of two gradients
smoothening the vertical profile
• Eases the changes from one grade to another
• Types:
• Summit / Crest curves
• Valley / Sag curves
Elements of Simple cicular curve

Point of
Point of
Tangency
curve (or)
(or)
Properties of Simple Circular Curve
– Angle of intersection I
– Angle of Deflection ɸ = 180-I
– R = 1719/D
– Length of Curve (T1ET2) B ɸ
I
=Rɸ (ɸ in radians)
E

T1 ɸ/2 D T2

R ɸ/2 ɸ/2
R

O
C
A
 Horizontal Curve Setting
• AB & BC meeting at B, with a deflection angle
ɸ (initially known measurements)

1. Tangent lengths (T1B & T2B)

=R tan(ɸ/2)

2. Mark T1 & T2
 Horizontal Curve Setting
3. Length of curve (T1ET2)
= πRɸo/180

4. Length of long chord (T1T2)

= 2R sin(ɸ/2)

5. Length of mid-ordinate (Oo)

= R[1-cos(ɸ/2)]
Setting out simple circular curve
- Methods
• Linear methods
– Offsets from long chords (Ox = O0 - X2 / 2R )
– Perpendicular offsets from tangent
– Radial offsets from the tangent
– Successive bisection of arcs
– Offsets from chord produced : for long curves when
theodolite is not available
• Angular methods
– Rankine's method of deflection angle ( one- theodolite
method) - for long length and large radius
– Two-theodolite method - for undulating gound which is
not suitable for linear measuremennts
– Tacheometric methods - used where chaining has to be
completely avoided
Setting out simple circular curve
• Linear methods- Methods
– Offsets from long chords (Ox = O0 - X2 / 2R )
 Elements of simple circular curve
Problem 1
A circular curve has a 200 m radius and 65°
deflection angle. What is its degree .
Also calculate :
(i) Length of curve
(ii) Tangent length
(iii) Length of long chord
(iv) Mid-ordinate
 Elements of simple circular curve
Problem 1 - Solution
Degree of the curve, D = 1719/R
D = 8.595

(i) Length of the curve, L = πRɸo/180

L = 226.89 m

(ii) Tangent length, T = R tan(ɸ/2)

T = 127.41 m

(iii) Length of long chord, T1T2 = 2R sin(ɸ/2)

T1T2 = 214.92 m
(iv) Mid-ordinate O0 = R[1-cos(ɸ/2)]
 Horizontal Curve Setting - Problem 2
2) Two tangents AB & BC intersect at point B at
chainage (375 + 12), the agle of deflection being
110°.Calculate the chainage of the tangent points of
a right-handed circular curve of 400 m radius.

Given data:
Assume 20m chain
 Horizontal Curve Setting
Problem 2- Solution
(i) Chainage of l = 375 chains + 12 links
375(20)+12 (.2) = 7502.40 m
(ii) Tangent length = R tan(ɸ/2)
= 571.26 m
(iii) Length of the curve = πRɸo/180
= 767.94 m
(iv) chainage of P.C = 7502.40 - 571.26
= 6931.14 m = (346 chains+55 links)
(v) Chainage of P.T = 6931.14 + 767.95
= 7699.09 m = (384 chains+95 links)
 Horizontal Curve Setting
Problem 3
3) Two straights AB and BC intersect at a chainage
of 4242 m. The angle of intersection is 140°. It is
required to set out a 5° simple circular curve to
connect the straights. Calculate all necessary data
to set out the curve by the method of offsets from
the long chord produced with pegs app 30 m
centres.
Given:
Chainage at intersection point = 4242 m
angle of intersection = 140º
Degree of the curve =5
offset interval = 30 m
 Horizontal Curve Setting
Problem 3- Solution
(i) Radius of curve, R = 1719/5 = 344 m
(ii) Deflection angle, ϕ = 180-140 = 40º
(iii) Tangent length = R tan (ϕ/2) = 125.2 m
(iv) Chainage of P.C = 4242-125.2 = 4116.8 m
(v) Length of the curve = πRɸo/180 = 240.16 m
(vi) Chainage of P.T = 4116.8 + 240.16 =
4356.96m
(vii) Length of long chord, T1T2 = 2R sin(ɸ/2)
= 235.30 m
(viii) Mid ordinate O0 = R[1-cos(ɸ/2)] = 20.74 m
 Horizontal Curve Setting
Problem 3- Solution
(ix) there will be 3 ordinates either side of the mid
ordinate. (since O0 is exactly at the mid point of
T1T2 ie., 235.3 / 2 = 117.65 m)
a = O0 - X2 / 2R
= 20.74 - 302 / 2 (344)
= 19.43 m
b = 20.74 - 602 / 2 (344)
= 15.50 m
c = 20.74 - 902 / 2 (344)
= 8.967 m
 Compound Curve
• Using one circular curve, it is not possible to
connect two tangents.
• Set out two curves of different radii to
connect the rear and forward tangents
• Take a suitable common tangent
 Compound Curve
AB - Rear tangent
BC – Forward tangent
DE – Common tangent
ɸ - deflection angle b/w
rear and forward tangent
ɸ1 & ɸ2 ?
O1 – Centre of short circle
Rs – Radius of short circle
T1 & T2 – tangent points
for short curve
Ts – total tangent length of
short side
ts – tangent length of short
curve
 Compound Curve
1. ɸ = ɸ1 + ɸ2
2. Ts = BD+DT1
=DE sin (ɸ2/ ɸ)
+Rs tan (ɸ1/2)
3. TL
4. Common tangent
=ts+tL
5.Curve length
=πRsɸ1o/180
6. Deflection angle
 Compound Curve - Practise
problem
1) Two tangents AB and BC
intersect at B.
Angle ADE = 150o &
Angle DEC = 140o
Radius of 1st curve = 200 m
Radius of 2nd curve = 300 m
Chainage of B = 950 m
Calculate the necessary data
for setting out the
compound curve
Transition curve
 Transition curve - requirements
• should originate tangentially from the straight
• should meet tangentially with the circular curve
• radius should be infinite at the origin
• radius at the junction with the circular curve
should be same as that of the circular curve
• length should be such that full superelevation is
attained
• rate of increase of curvature along the transition
should be same as that of increase of super
elevation
Transition curve -super elevation
(iii) Tacheometric
surveying
 Tacheometry
• Its a branch of surveying in which the vertical
distances ad horizontal distances are measured by
opitical means
• Also called as Tachymetry or Telemetry
• It is a rapid method
• Less accurate on flat grounds when compared to
chain surveying
• but on rough and steep grounds the accuracy is
more
• suitable for filling in details on topographical maps,
preliminary location survey and surveying steep
grounds, broken boudaries and water streches.
 Instruments used
1. Tacheometer:
– it is a transit theodolite fitted with a stadia
diaphragm
– A stadia diaphragm consists of two stadia
hairs at equal distances, one above or other
below the horizontal hair of the cross-hairs
 Instruments used
1. Tacheometer:
Essential characteristics:
– Value of multiplying constant should be 100
– Value of additive constant should be zero
– the telescope should be fitted with anallactic
lens
– the magnification of the telescope should be
20-80 diameters
– Magnifying power of the eye piece is kept high
 Instruments used
2. Stadia rod
– also known as vertical stave
– it is a rod 5-15m long, graduated in decimals of a
metre
– for larger distances (greater than 100 m), stadia rod is
used since the graduations of an ordinary staff
become indistinct
– the rod must be held truly vertical, else it would lead
to serious errors in computes distances
– the verticality is maitained with the help of plum bob
attached or by using a sighting instrument fixed at
right angles to the side of the staff
 Instruments used
2. Stadia rod
 Instruments used
3. Subtense bar
– Also known as horizontal stave
– Used for measuring oth horizontal and vertical
distances
– Used to determine short distances upto 200 m
– it is a horizontal metal bar with two targets fixed at
known distance of 3.5 m apart
 Instruments used
3. Subtense bar
 Instruments used
3. Subtense bar
– Also known as horizontal stave
– Used for measuring oth horizontal and vertical
distances
– Used to determine short distances upto 200 m
– it is a horizontal metal bar with two targets fixed at
known distance of 3.5 m apart
– It is mounted on a tripod
– Spirit level is provided for levelling
– Alidade provides a line of sight perpendicular to the
bar, which is there by set normal to line of
measurement
 Instruments used
3. Subtense bar
– The targets are set apart at a known distance (3.5 m)
and the horizontal angle between the target are
measured using theodolite/tacheometer
– Vertical angle to the bar is also read
– Then the horizontal and vertical distances are computed
using trignometric relation
 Various methods of
tacheometry
1. Stadia method
2. Tangential method
3. Range finding
 Various methods of
tacheometry
1. Stadia method:
 Various methods of
tacheometry
1. Stadia method:
– the vertical distace between the stadia wires
is termed as stadia interval
– the parallactic angle(defined by stadia wires)
is kept fixed and the staff intercept is varied.
This method is called as fixed hair method
Distance and elevation formula -
Horizontal sights
Distance and elevation formula -
Horizontal sights
Distance and elevation formula -
Horizontal sights
a
Distance and elevation formula -
Horizontal sights : problem
1.The stadia readings with horizontal sight on a vertical
staff held 50 m from a tacheometer were 1.285 m and
1.780 m. The focal length of the object glass was 25 cm.
The distance between the object glass and the vertical axis
of the tacheometer was 15cm. Calculated the stadia
interval.
Soln:
C = f+d = 25+15 = 40 cms = 0.4 m
s = 1.780 -1.285 = 0.495 m
D = f.s/i +(f+d)
50= 0.25/i x 0.495 m+ 0.4
i = 2.49 mm
Distance and elevation formula -
Inclined sights

Staff vertical (Angle of elevation)

Distance and elevation formula -
Inclined sight

Staff vertical (Angle of depression)

Distance and elevation formula -
Inclined sights
1. L = K.s.cosɵ + C
2. D = L .cosɵ = K.s. cos2ɵ + C.cosɵ
3. V = 1/2 K.s. sin 2ɵ + C. sinɵ

Elevation of the staff station for angle

of elevation = H.I +V - h
Elevation of the staff station for angle
of depression = H.I -V - h
Staff vertical (Angle of elevation and
depression)
Distance and elevation formula -
Inclined sight: problem
2) It was required to determine the distance between two
points A and B by a tacheometer fitted with an anallactic
lens ( K = 100, C = 0). With the instrument at A and staff at
B, the observations made were a vertical angle of + 9º46'
and the staff intercept of 1.915 m. What is the horizontal
distance AB? Later on it was found that the constants of
the instrument were 10 and 0.5. What would be the
percentage error in the horizontal distance computed?
Soln: (i) when K = 100 : C= 0;
D = K.s. cos2ɵ + C.cosɵ
= 100.(1.915).cos2 9º46' + 0 = 185.9893 m
Distance and elevation formula -
Inclined sight: problem
Soln: (ii) when K = 100 : C= 0.5;
D = K.s. cos2ɵ + C.cosɵ
= 100.(1.915).cos2 9º46' + 0.5.cos 9º46 = 186.482 m

error = 186.482 -185.9893 = 0.4927 m

% error = 0.4927 x 100 / 185.9893
= 0.2649 %
Distance and elevation formula -
Inclined sight: Practise problem
3) A levelling staff is held vertical at distances of 100 m
and 300 m from the axis of a tacheometer and the staff
intercept for horizontal sights are 0.99 m and 3.00 m
respectively. Find the constants of the instruments.
The instrument is set up at station A and the staff is held
vertical at a point B. With the telescope inclined at an angle
of depression of 10º to the horizontal, the readings on the
staff are 2.670,1.835 and 1.000 m . Calculate the R.L of B
and its horizontal distance from A. The H.I is 1.42m and R.L
is 450.5 m
Soln: K = 99.50 ; C = 0.5
D = 162.63 mV = 28.67 m
RL of B = 421.415 m
 Distance and elevation formula -
Inclined sight: staff normal

Staff normal (Angle of elevation) Staff normal (Angle of depression)

L = Ks + c L = Ks + c
D = (Ks+c) cosɵ + h sinɵ D = (Ks+c) cosɵ - h sinɵ
V = (Ks+c) sinɵ V = (Ks+c) sinɵ
R.L of staff station = H.I + V - h cosɵ R.L of staff station = H.I - V - h cosɵ
 Anallactic lens
• It is a special convex lens fitted between
the object glass and eye piece, at a fixed
distance from the former, inside the
telescope of tacheometer
• Its purpose is to reduce the additive
constant to zero such that D = K.s = 100.s
 Anallactic lens

• The anallactic lens is so placed that

n = f'+ [f.d/(f+d)]
 Assignment no 6
1.Derive the Tacheometry distance and
elevation formula when sight is Inclined and
the staff kept normal. Draw neat sketches.
Also solve example problems for each case.

2. What is an Anallactic lens? Why it is used?

Justify its usefulness in optical instrument
survey using neat sketches and derivation.
Submission date on or before 1.00 pm
04.10.2019
 Problem
4. To determine the elevation of station P in
tacheometer survey, the following observations
were made with the staff held vertical. the
instrument was fitted with an anallactic lens and its
multiplying constant was 100. If R.L of B.M is 250
m, calculate R.L of P.
Instrument H.I (m) Staff Vertical Staff readings (m)
station station angle

O 1.45 B.M -6º 00' 1.335,1.895, 2.460

O 1.45 C.P +8º 30' 0.780, 1.265, 1.745

P 1.40 C.P -6º 30' 1.155, 1.615, 2.075

Solution
 Solution
When instrument is at O and staff at BM:
s1 = 2.460 - 1.335 = 1.125 m

H.I = 1.45 m, k= 100 , ɵ1 = 6º(depression)

V1 = 1/2 K.s. sin 2ɵ1+ C. sinɵ1 = 11.695 m

R.L of plane of collimation = RL of BM + h1 +V1

= 250 + 1.895 + 11.695
= 263.590 m
 Solution
When instrument is at O and staff at C.P:
s2 = 1.745 - 0.780 = 0.965 m

H.I = 1.45 m, k= 100 , ɵ2 = 8º 30' (elevation)

V2 = 1/2 K.s2 . sin 2ɵ2+ C. sinɵ2 = 14.10 m

R.L of change point = RL of POC + V2 - h2

= 263.590 + 14.106 -1.265
= 276.431 m
 Total station - Handout
Reference:
Surveying - Duggal