Topic 1: Mathematics in Our World Patterns and Numbers in Nature and the World

In our Modern World, the usefulness of Mathematics can be described as a

mathematics is inevitable. Mathematics is used science of patterns. Patterns are things that are
in different fields to calculate effectively the repetitive, which can be found in nature as color,
results of different activities, predict the behavior shape, action, or some other sequences that are
of a variable when the other variables are almost everywhere. Mathematics expresses
known, identify fully well the requirements of a patterns. These are sequences that repeat,
particular dosage of medicine to cure a certain following a rule or rules. A rule is a way to
illness verify whether a specific solution is calculate or solve a problem.
applicable to general set – ups ascertain the
• Patterns in nature
chronology of events in the past identify patterns
of situations; and many more. • Patterns in nature – as identity
• The number where your house is situated
What is Mathematics? Where is
Mathematics? What role does mathematics play
in our world? These are questions that we want The Fibonacci Sequence
to have answers for us to regain our interest in
the subject matter. The Fibonacci sequence is an array of
numbers that given two terms, the next term is
We look at mathematics as a useful way determined by adding the given terms.
to think about the nature and the world in
general; thus, patterns and numbers that are Mathematically,
useful in this world will be dealt with – to think fn = f(n-1) + f(n-2)
about the Fibonacci sequence and other arrays
of numbers in order to predict and control the Though a little bit confusing, it simply
behavior of nature and phenomena in this world. means that fn can be determined if the previous
In the long run, we think about the numerous two terms, f(n-1) and f(n-2) are added. Ergo, we
applications of mathematics as aids in decision- only need to have two numbers as the first two
making. terms in order to get the third, fourth, fifth terms.
Consider the following examples.
Learning Outcomes:
At the end of this lesson, you are expected to:
1. Identify patterns in nature and regularities in
the world;
2. Articulate the importance of mathematics in
your life;
3. Argue about the nature of mathematics, what
it is, how it is expressed, represented, and used;
and
4. Express appreciation for mathematics as a
human endeavor.

MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD


Appreciation of Numbers
Why do we call this number, “2”, two?
Why is it not four, zero, or even five? Though it
takes a lot of reading to pacify our minds about
this representation, we just have to conclude
one thing – that is, we look at numbers as signs
and symbols was standardized and became
acceptable universally.
The numbers we use everyday represent
magnitudes, quantities, and coding to name a
few.
Numbers can be of different scales. This
means that their representations are results of
the types of measurements they are assigned.
They can be Nominal, Ordinal, Interval, and
Ratio.
Nominal Numbers refers to the characteristic or
attribute of subjects or objects that is used for
naming, labeling, and categorizing only.
This means that these numbers cannot be
arranged in an ordering manner nor computed
using the fundamental operations. They serve
only for counting or presentation purposes.
Gender is a nominal term. This attribute can only
be used for counting or coding purposes and not
for any further computations. Say, if the number
“1” is encoded for “Male” and the number “2” is
encoded for “Female”, it is not safe to say “1” +
“1” = “2”, as this literally means that “Male” plus
“Male” equals “Female”, which is an absurd.
These examples should not in any way be used
to create an advantage over another.
This concept is also applicable when assigning
numbers to the other nominal terms found
below:
• Cause of death, Nationality, Color of the
Eyes, Religion, Color of the Skin, Race,
Names
Ordinal Numbers refers to the characteristic of
subjects or objects that is used for ranking and
ordering. When numbers are sorted or arranged
to express their levels or ranks or orders, they
are said to be ordinal in scale. Everything that
comes in orders or ranks are included in this
classification.
Example include:
• Year Level, Threshold of Pain, Social
Status, Attitude Toward a Subject, Level
of Behavior, and many more leveling in
the field of social science.
When a student wants to establish who or which
among the numbers are of the highest and
lowest rank, this classification is the most
appropriate. Ranking can be done using first,
second, up to the nth place.
MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

Interval Numbers refers to the characteristic or
attribute of subjects or objects that is of known
sizes or distances. This means that the units of
measurements in this scale are arbitrary, and
the number zero does not mean an absence of
the characteristic or attribute of the subject or
object. This classification involves those data
sets that are known in terms of sizes and some
characteristics. Examples are found below:
• In Temperature, 0 Deg Celsius does not
mean an absence of temperature.
Ratio Numbers refers to the characteristic or
attribute of subjects or objects that contains the
characteristic of the interval data but in this
case, zero has a true value.
This means that the number zero indicates an
absence of the characteristic or attribute under
consideration. This is also called the strongest
level of measurements. Examples include the
following:
• Height, Weight, Monetary Savings, and
the like.
We Grew Up with Numbers
Our orientation with numbers can be
traced back to our childhood. We grew up with
numbers in our midst. We should remember that
our parents taught us how to count first; thus,
the counting numbers were introduced to us.
Later on, our curiosity was developed when we
encountered the number 0. We were taught also
that this number is a representation of a number
that is smaller than 1. Apparently, the set of
whole numbers was introduced to us.
In school, our teachers taught us how to
perform the mathematical operation of
subtraction. It is so nice to know that when a
smaller number is subtracted from a bigger one,
the difference is still present in the set of whole
numbers that we know. On the other hand, when
a bigger number is deducted from a smaller one,
we realize that there are numbers that are
smaller than zero, which we call the negative
numbers. Thus, a new set of numbers is
introduced and we call it – the set of integers.
Then we divided two numbers. When we
divided larger numbers by a number that was
divisible, like ten and two, the quotient was still
in the set of numbers that were introduced to us.
We also learned that not all division processes
were like that. There were times when we
divided smaller numbers by larger ones. We
were introduced to the set of fractions and
decimals.
Then we had rational numbers – a
combination of fractions/decimals and integers,
irrational numbers, numbers that could not be
expressed as a quotient of two numbers. Then
we had the real numbers and the non-real ones
– the subset of the complex number system.
Our ability to like these numbers was a
product of how they were presented to us. Some
may like numbers and others do not. Whatever
our attitudes are, one thing is very certain: We
cannot get rid of numbers, for numbers are
everywhere.
Topic 2: Mathematical Language and
Symbols
In everyday living, we may encounter and
even use expressions in English that may
connote mathematical values or symbols
without our knowing it. These encounters
include riding a vehicle; re-loading cellular
phones in a station; buying a particular item from
MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
a store; number of friends in social media who If we want to define a rectangle, we can
are sincere, honest, or the opposite; friends who say that a rectangle is a quadrilateral with four
like a photo uploaded on Facebook; number of right angles. To be able to say this, we must
crushes in this school; number of hours spent have a thorough knowledge on what a
using the Internet; and many more. quadrilateral is – a geometric figure with four
sides. Some definitions may come very wordy or
The translation of these encounters into
very laconic. Sometimes, too much information
mathematical expressions and vice-versa,
may be unnecessary and too little information
however, is found to be a little complicated,
may not be acceptable as a sentence in the
especially if our knowledge of English grammar
English language.
is limited.
Suppose we want to describe a point. We
Learning Outcomes:
might say that it is just a dot, because this is
At the end of this lesson, you are expected to:
what the figure would eventually look like. A
1. Discuss the language, symbols, and
computer expert would describe it as a location
conventions of mathematics;
because this is what he or she sees in the
2. Explain the nature of mathematics as a
GPRS. An architect or an engineer perhaps
language;
would describe a point as an origin or a starting
3. Perform operations on mathematical
point for every drawing that he or she does. How
expressions correctly;
about a nurse or a doctor? A teacher? An
4. Convert English expressions to Mathematical
accountant? How would the point be described?
Sentences;
5. Convert Mathematical Sentences to English There are things that the human eye
Expressions; cannot see, like air, molecules, atoms, electric
6. Convert algebraic sentences to English current, gases, and maybe faith. How would we
Expressions; and describe them? Do you think that all of these can
7. Explain that mathematics is a useful be defined? It helps to describe and define
language. objects, cases, or sentences in a fashion where
the description or definition becomes
The Mathematical Language acceptable and understandable. The next topic
is deemed essential.
According to Jamison (2000), “once students
understand HOW things are said, they better
understand WHAT is being said, and only then
do they have a chance to know WHY it is said.”
This reveals that for the students to define things
or figures, they must have a thorough
knowledge of what the figure is and how it
functions as an object.

MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

Conversion of English Expressions to Complicated expressions are not so difficult to
Mathematical Sentences and Vice-Versa read. Below are complicated expressions:
We begin by describing the basic
mathematical operations in the English
language. There are only 5 basic operations in
mathematics excluding exponentiation. Each of
these operations has a corresponding English
translation as shown in the table next slide.

Conversion of Algebraic Expressions to English

Sentences
By applying this concept to algebra, we
use the English translation of the variable x as
“the number” or “a number”. The following
examples are useful.
These symbols are used in different
mathematical operations, and the manner in
which these will be read follows the English
language. Consider the following examples:

Other Languages of Mathematics

Aside from conversion of the language to
mathematical structures, there are also
mathematical symbols or notations that are
used to create a rule to obtain a solution. The
following are useful symbols:

MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD


Topic 3: Problem Solving and Reasoning
Reasoning
We always hear arguments that
persuade us to believe because we think these
arguments that we hear are manifesting
truthfulness. Some people verify these
arguments and may come up with a sound proof
– that is, to verify them or refute them. One of
the ways to verify or refute arguments is to
analyze the statements using the concepts of
inductive and deductive reasoning.
Inductive and deductive reasoning are
two fundamental forms of reasoning for
mathematicians. The formal theorems and
proofs that we rely on today all began with these
two types of reasoning. Even today,
mathematicians are actively using these two
types of reasoning to discover new
mathematical theorems and proofs. Believe it or
not, you yourself might be using inductive and
deductive reasoning when you make
assumptions about how the world works.
Learning Outcomes:
At the end of this lesson, you are expected to:
1. Use different types of reasoning to justify
statements and arguments made about
mathematics and mathematical concepts;
2. Write clear and logical proofs;
3. Solve problems involving patterns and
recreational problems involving Polya’s 4 steps;
4. Organize your method and approaches for
proving the solving of problems;
5. Define and differentiate inductive and
deductive reasoning;
6. Give examples of inductive and deductive
reasoning; and
7. Demonstrate ability to validate a proof.
Inductive Reasoning
According to www.study.com, inductive
reasoning is the logical process in which
multiple premises, all believed to be true or
found true most of the time are combined to
obtain a specific conclusion. This reasoning is
used in applications that involve prediction,
forecasting, or behavior.
A conclusion that is reached by inductive
reasoning may or may not be valid. An example
of inductive reasoning is when you notice that all
the mice you see around you are brown, and
you make the conclusion that all mice in the
world are brown. Can you say for certain that
this conclusion is correct? No, because it is
based on just a few observations. This is,
however the beginning of forming a correct
conclusion or a correct proof. What this
observation has given you is a starting
hypothesis to test out.
We may also arrive at a conjecture whose
conclusion is based on inductive reasoning.
There are instances however when even if all of
the premises are true in a statement, inductive
reasoning still allows for a false conclusion.
Consider the examples next slide:
 Jenny leaves for school at 7:00 am.
Jenny is always on time. Therefore,
Jenny assumes then that if she leaves for
school at 7:00 am, she will always be on
time.
 The teacher uses PowerPoint in the last
three classes. Therefore, the teacher will
use PowerPoint tomorrow.
 The chair in the living room is red. The
chair in the dining room is red. The chair
in the bedroom is red. Therefore, all
chairs in the house are red.
MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
  James is a grandfather. James is bald.
Therefore, all grandfathers are bald.
 Rico is a first-year student. Rico is male.
Therefore, all first-year college students
are males.
 Michael just moved here from Malita.
Michael has red hair. Therefore, all
people from Malita have red hair.
 All chickens that we have seen have
been white. Therefore, all chickens are
white.
 John is an excellent swimmer. John’s
family has a swimming pool. Therefore,
the sister of John named Mary must also
be an excellent swimmer.
Deductive Reasoning
Inductive reasoning typically leads to deductive
reasoning, the process of reaching conclusions
based on previously known facts. The
conclusions reached by this type of reasoning
are valid and can be relied on. For example, you
know for a fact that all pennies are copper-
colored. Now, if your friend gave you a penny,
what can you conclude about the penny? You
can conclude that the penny will be copper-
colored. You can say this for certain because
your statement is based on facts.
Examples of deductive reasoning are also
called syllogism.
 All men are mortal. (Major Premise)
 President Rody is a man. (Minor
Premise)
 Therefore, Rody is mortal. (Conclusion)
 Can you definitely say that the major
premise is correct?
 All Filipinos eat rice.
 Ronnie is a Filipino.
 Therefore, Ronnie eats rice.
 Can you definitely say that the major
premise is correct?
 All household owners pay electric bills.
(Major Premise)
 Guiller is a household owner. (Minor
Premise)
 Therefore, Guiller pays electric bills.
(Conclusion)
 Can you definitely say that the major
premise is correct?
 All aunts and uncles are loved by their
nieces and
 nephews.
 Liza and Ronnie are aunt and uncle.
 Therefore, Liza and Ronnie are loved by
their nieces and
 nephews.
 Can you definitely say that the major
premise is correct?
 All first-year college students in the new
curriculum take
 mathematics in the Modern World.
 Matilda is a first-year college student in
the new
 curriculum.
 Therefore, Matilda takes Mathematics in
the Modern
 World.
 Can you definitely say that the major
premise is correct?
Proofs
Proof is an evidence; some may call it an
argument that establishes a fact or the veracity
of something holds. This definition tells us that
in order to claim that a statement or argument is
true or valid, there has to be some evidences
verified by science.
Proof is very important because it gives
validation of something that is assumed to be
true or false. Logic is a tool in the analyses of
MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
proofs. Below, are examples of the several
types of proofs.
Direct Proofs
In mathematics and logic, a direct proof is a way
of showing the truthfulness or the falsehood of a
given statement by a straightforward
combination of established facts, usually
axioms, lemmas, corollaries, and theorems
without making any further assumptions.
We have the following examples:
Prove that if n is odd then 𝑛𝑛! is odd.
It is always true that 2k is an even number. This
is true because any number multiplied by 2 is an
even number.
Thus, 2k + 1 is odd. This indicates that adding 1
to any even number makes the number odd.
So, let n = 2k + 1, so, by algebra,
𝑛𝑛! = (2𝑘𝑘 + 1)! = 4𝑘𝑘! + 4k + 1
𝑛𝑛!= 2(2𝑘𝑘! + 2k) + 1
By definition, this is odd.
The sum of two odd numbers is even.
Let m and n be odd numbers.
Let m = 2k + 1 and n = 2w + 1
Adding we now have,
𝑚𝑚 + 𝑛𝑛 = 2𝑘𝑘 + 1 + 2𝑤𝑤 + 1
𝑚𝑚 + 𝑛𝑛 = 2𝑘𝑘 + 2𝑤𝑤 + 2
𝑚𝑚 + 𝑛𝑛 = 2(𝑘𝑘 + 𝑤𝑤 + 1)
Again any number multiplied by 2 is an even
number.
Thus, 𝑚𝑚 + 𝑛𝑛 is even.
Proof by Contradiction
A proof by contradiction is a kind of proof by
assuming the hypothesis that a proposition p is
true and that the conclusion q is false. Consider
the following examples:
For all real numbers,
x and y, if x + y > 2, then x > 1 and y > 1.
Suppose the conclusion is false, that x < 1 and
y < 1.
So, (x < 1) + (y < 1) = x + y < 1 + 1 = 2
So, if x + y > 2 and x + y = 2, then we come up
with the realization that our claim is true.
If 3n + 2 is odd then n is odd.
Assume that the statement is false. Then n = 2k.
So 3n + 2 = 3(2k) + 2 = 6k + 2 = 2(3k + 1).
But this is even.
This concludes the proof.
Problem-Solving
Why does problem-solving appear
unappealing? One of the primary reasons
people have trouble with problem solving is that
there is a no single procedure that works all the
time. This means that each problem must be
considered slightly different. Also, problem-
solving requires practical knowledge about the
specific situation. If there is a misunderstanding
of either the problem or the underlying situation,
we may make mistakes or incorrect
assumptions. One of the main goals is to
become better problem solvers. To begin this
task, there is a need to discuss a framework for
thinking about problem-solving. This is called
Polya’s four-step approach to problem-solving.
MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
Polya’s Four-Step Approach to Problem-Solving Remember, problem-solving is as much an
art as it is a science!
1. Preparation: Understand the problem.
Learn the necessary underlying
mathematical concepts.
Consider the terminology and notation used
in the problem:
 What is the problem all about?
 What sort of a problem is it?
 What is being asked?

2. Thinking Time: Devise a plan.

How are we going to treat the problem?
Possible strategies:
 Draw pictures.
 Use a variable and choose helpful
names for variables or unknowns.

3. Insight: Carry out the plan.

 Solve.
 Once you have an idea for a new
approach, jot it down immediately.
When you have time, try it out and see if
it leads to a solution.
 If the plan does not seem to be working,
then start over and try another
approach. Often the first approach does
not work. Do not worry; if an approach
does not work, it does not mean you did
it wrong. You actually accomplished
something; knowing a way does not
work is part of the process of elimination.
The key is to keep trying until something
works.

4. Verification: Look back.

Once you have a potential solution, check
to see if it works.
 Did you answer the question?
 Double check to make sure that all of
the conditions related to the problem
are satisfied.
 Double check any computations
involved in finding your solution.
Can the problem or method be generalized
so as to be useful for future problems?

MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

Topic 4a: Geometric Design Polygons are either simple or complex. A simple
polygon has only one boundary and never
(Recognizing and Analyzing Geometric Shapes)
crosses over itself while a complex polygon
GEOMETRIC DESIGN
Everything that surrounds us has shape, line,
volume, surface area, curve, and some other
aspects of geometry. Geometry has influenced
the way we live. As infants, we were interested
in toys with shapes, patterns, and designs and
now, whenever we do our everyday tasks, we intersects itself.
conform to geometric principles. Some convex cannot be more than 180
concave greater than 180deg
professions use geometry to do their jobs
properly, such as construction, weaving and Polygons are either concave or convex. A
sewing, computer imaging, art and aesthetics, convex polygon has no angles pointing inward.
and architectural designing. The knowledge More precisely, no internal angles can be more
learned through a complete understanding of than 180deg. If any internal angles are greater
geometric principles has provided not only than 180deg, it is a concave.
safety but also increase in the creation of tools,
skill level enhancement, and aesthetically
pleasing arrangements.
RECOGNIZING AND ANALYZING
GEOMETRIC SHAPES
Geometric shapes have fascinated many
people throughout history in the fields or art,
science, engineering, interior designing, and
many other professions. Mathematicians have Polygons are either regular or irregular. If all
constructed ideal representations of these angles are equal and all sides are equal, it is
shapes and developed methods in obtaining the regular; otherwise, it is irregular.
measurements of lengths (one-dimension),
areas (two-dimension), and volumes (three-
dimension).
Polygons
A polygon is a two-dimensional shape with
straight sides. It can be classified according to
the number of its sides, such as a three-sided
shape called triangle and a four-sided shape
called quadrilateral. Others are pentagon,
The interior angles of a polygon are the angles
heptagon, hexagon, and so on.
inside the shape. In general, for a polygon with
n sides, the sum of the internal angles is equal
to (n – 2) x 180deg and if the polygon is regular,
the measurement of each angle is equal to (n –
2) x 180deg / n. The sum of the exterior angles
of a polygon is 360deg. The interior and exterior
angles of each vertex on a polygon add up to
180deg.
 Euler’s Formula deals with shapes called
polyhedra. It states the F + V – E = 2 where F is
Solids
the number of faces, V is the number of vertices
A solid or form is the geometry of a three- or corners, and E is the number of edges. This
dimensional space, the kind of space we live in. formula works only on solids that do not have
It is called three-dimensional or 3D because any holes and do not intersect itself. It cannot
there are three dimensions: width, depth, and also be made up of two pieces stuck together,
height. such as two cubes stuck together by one vertex.
The Euler’s formula works on the platonic solids.
Solids have properties, such as volume (think of
how much water it could hold) and surface area
(think of the area you would have to paint).
There are two main types of solids, namely:
polyhedra and non-polyhedra. A polyhedron is a
solid made of flat surfaces; each surface is a
polygon, like the platonic solids, prisms, and
pyramids. Non-polyhedra are solids with curved
surfaces, or a mix of curved and flat surfaces,
such as spheres, cylinders, cones, and torus.
Platonic solid is a convex polyhedron whose
faces are all congruent convex regular Prism is a polyhedron whose sides are all flat. It
polygons. None of its faces intersect except at has the same cross section all along its length,
their edges, and it has the same number of and its shape is a polygon. Some examples of a
faces that meet at each of its vertices. There are prism are as follows:
five platonic solids, namely:

All the prisms above are classified as regular
prisms because the cross section of each is a
regular polygon. An irregular prism is one whose
cross section is an irregular polygon.
Pyramid is a polyhedron made by connecting a
base to an apex. There are many types of
pyramids, and they are named after the shape
of their base. Some of these are as follows:
Non-Polyhedra
Sphere is a perfectly round object in a three-
dimensional space. It is non-polyhedron
because the surface is completely round. It is
perfectly symmetrical with no edges or vertices.
All points on the surface are the same distance
from the center.
Cylinder is a three-dimensional solid object
bounded by a curved surface and two parallel
circles of equal size at the ends. The curved
surface is formed by all the line segments joining
corresponding points of the two parallel circles.
Because of its curved surface, it is not a
polyhedron.
Torus is a solid formed by revolving a small
circle along a line made by another circle. It has
no edges or vertices and, therefore, it is not a
polyhedron.
Cone is made by rotating a triangle. The triangle
has to be a right-angled triangle, and it gets
rotated around one of its two short sides. The
side it rotates around is the axis of the cone. It
has a flat base and has one curved side.
Because of its curved surface, it is not a
polyhedron.
Transformations
Geometric transformation of shapes is a change
of its size, orientation, or position following
certain techniques in mathematics. The original
shape is called the object, and the new shape is
called its image. Many objects around us are
said to be symmetrical, and this symmetry
resulted from geometric transformation. Some
of the basic geometric transformations are as
follows:
Translation is a transformation of an object
where every point of it moves a fixed distance
and a given direction.
Rotation is a transformation of an object by
rotating about a given through a given angle.
Reflection is a transformation of an object where
every point of it and its image are of the same
distance from the line of symmetry.
Glide Reflection is a composition of translation
and reflection in a line parallel to the direction of
translation.
Topic 4b: Geometric Design
Patterns and Diagrams
Patterns are one aspect in geometry, which are
usually found and utilized. There are patterns
around us; at home, we see patterns on
wallpapers, floor mats, bed sheets, window
panes, and pieces of furniture. Patterns are also
profuse in nature: on flowers, in leaves, on
animals, and all on other places. Patterns can
be simple or complex, and they sometimes use
the same object or color more than once.
Symmetry
“Symmetry is one idea by which man through
the ages has tried to comprehend and create
order, beauty, and perfection.” - Herman Weyl
Symmetries are an integral part of nature and
the arts of cultures worldwide. They can be
found in architecture, crafts, poetry, music,
dance, chemistry, painting, physics, sculpture,
biology, and mathematics. Because symmetric
designs are so naturally pleasing, symmetric
symbols are very popular.
When a figure undergoes an isometry and the
resulting image coincides with the original, the
figure is symmetrical. Different isometries yield
different types of symmetry.
If a figure can be reflected over a line in such a
way that the resulting image coincides with the
original, the figure has reflection symmetry.
Reflection symmetry is also called bilateral
symmetry. The reflection line is called the line of
symmetry.
You can test a figure for reflection symmetry by
tracing and folding it. If you can fold it so that
one half exactly coincides with the other half, the
figure has reflection symmetry.
 The angle of rotation of a symmetric figure is the
smallest angle of rotation that preserves the
figure. Using degrees to describe the amount of
rotation is sometimes inconvenient because the
precise angle is not obvious by looking at the
figure. Instead, the order of rotation to describe
rotational symmetry is always used.
A figure has order n rotational symmetry in 1/n
of a complete revolution leaves the figure
unchanged.

A figure has order 4 rotational symmetry in 1/4

of a complete revolution leaves the figure
unchanged.

If a figure can be rotated about a point in such a

way that its rotated image coincides with the
original figure, the figure has rotational
symmetry. You can trace a figure and test it for
rotational symmetry. Place the copy over the
Rosette Pattern
original and rotate the copy about the suspected
symmetry point. Count the number of times the A symmetry group is the collection of all
copy and the original coincide with the copy until symmetries of a plane figure. The symmetry
it is back to the position where it started. groups have all been one of two types:
• Cyclic symmetry group has rotation
symmetry only around a center point. If the
rotation has 𝑛𝑛 order, the group is called 𝐶𝐶!.
• Dihedral symmetry group has rotation
symmetry around a center point with reflection
lines through the center point. If the rotation has
𝑛𝑛 order, there will be 𝑛𝑛 reflection lines and the
group is called 𝐷𝐷!.

A frieze group is the set of symmetries of a frieze

The cyclic and dihedral symmetry groups are
known as Rosette Symmetry Groups, and a
pattern with rosette symmetry is know as a
rosette pattern. Rosette patterns have been
used as architectural and sculptural decoration
of the new century.
pattern; that is, geometric transformations built
from rigid motions and reflections that preserve
the pattern. This group contains translations and
may contain glide reflections, reflections along
the long axis of the strip, reflections along the
narrow axis of the strip, and 180deg rotations.
Many authors present the frieze groups in a
different order. Using the International Union of
Crystallography (IUC) notation, the names of
symmetry groups are listed in the table below.
These names all begin with “p” followed by three
characters. The first is “m” if there is a vertical
reflection, and “1” if it has none. The second is
“m” if there is a horizontal reflection; or “g” of
there is a glide reflection, otherwise, use “1”.
The third is “2” if there is a 180deg rotation,
and”1” if there is none.
Mathematician John H. Conway also created
nicknames for each frieze group that relate to
footsteps.

Frieze Pattern
An infinite strip with a repeating pattern is called
a frieze pattern, or sometimes a border pattern
or an infinite strip pattern. The term “frieze” is
from architecture, where a frieze refers to a
decorative carving or pattern that runs
horizontally just below a roofline or ceiling. Here
are some examples of frieze patterns:
The pattern has no vertical reflection symmetry
and no rotational symmetry. The top triangles
and bottom triangles are not lined up, so there
is no horizontal reflection symmetry, but there is
a glide reflection. The pattern has symmetry
group p1g1.
Tessellations
A tessellation is defined as a pattern of shapes
that covers a plane without any gaps or
overlaps. Tessellations can be found on
pavements, patios, and wallpapers. The tiled
surface of flooring and walls is an example of
tessellation where there are no tiles that
overlap, and there are no gaps between shapes.
In most cases, tessellations are formed by Looking at these three samples of tessellations,
repeated pattern; however, some utilize pictures you will notice that the squares can easily be
or designs, which in no way repeat. lined up with each other while the triangles and
Geometric transformation of polygons, such as hexagons involve translations.
translation, reflection, and rotation can be used Naming tessellation can be done by looking at
to create patterns. Such patterns that cover a one vertex point. Looking around a vertex point,
plane constitute tessellation. Examples of start with a shape with the least number of sides,
tessellation of regular polygons are shown and count the number of sides of each shape at
below: each vertex point. The name of tessellation then
becomes these numbers. For example in the
tessellation of triangles, the number sides is 3
and there are 6 shapes; therefore, it can be
named as 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3. For the squares, it can
be labeled as 4, 4, 4, 4 and for the hexagon, we
can call it 6, 6, 6.
Semi-regular tessellations can be formed using
a variety of regular polygons and the
arrangement of these polygons at every vertex
is identical. Some examples of semi-regular
tessellations are as follows:
Tessellations can be used to create art, puzzles,
patterns, and designs. Some famous
mathematicians and artists based their works on
the concept of tessellation. One of them was
Maurits Cornelis Escher, a Dutch graphic artist
who made mathematically inspired woodcuts,
lithographs, and mezzotints.
Bruce Bilney is best known for tessellations with
Australian themes and for realistic animal
shapes in natural, comfortable poses. That is
not as common as you would expect. It is a sad
fact that most tessellation artists are satisfied
with blocky, almost unfinished looking or overly
stylized unnatural awkward shapes.
Topic 5: The Mathematics of Finance
“If you are born poor it’s not your mistake, but if
you die poor it’s your mistake” - Bill Gates
Your future is dependent on what you are doing
now and how you are preparing for it. A better
future is associated with money because we
believe that money affects how we lead our life.
If you have money you can do many things you
want in life. But, if you have money and do not
know how to manage it, you will end up to
nothing. That is why personal finance is one of
the most important aspects in your life, and
being able to manage your money is one of the
most important accomplishments you can
achieve.
You are responsible for your personal finance.
The concepts you will learn in this chapter will
be a great help to your personal financial
planning.
INTEREST
Interest is the cost for the use of money. When
you deposit money in a bank, it will earn interest
but when you borrow money from a bank, you
will pay interest.
The amount deposited in a bank or borrowed
from a bank is called the principal, the percent
used to determine the amount of interest is
called the interest rate, and the duration of
deposit or loan is called the time.
SIMPLE INTEREST
The interest paid on the original principal is
called simple interest, and the unit of time is
usually expressed as annual interest rates. This
means that we will assume the interest rate to
be annual specified. When the duration of loan
is less than a year, the t shall have a value of a
fraction of a year.
SIMPLE INTEREST
For example, the interest rate of a loan payable
in 2 years is 2.5%, the value of t shall be 2 while
a loan that is due in nine months with an interest
rate of 1.7% shall have a value of 9/12. A
daily/monthly interest rate shall have a
daily/monthly unit of time. For instance, a two-
year loan of Php 2,500 bears an interest rate of
0.05% monthly. In this example the t shall have
a value of 24 since there are 24 months in two
years.
SIMPLE INTEREST FORMULA
In the computation of simple interest, we will use
the formula I = Prt, where I is the amount of
interest, P is the principal amount, r is the rate
of interest that must be expressed in decimal,
and t is the time.
Example:
You have deposited Php 5,000 in a Savings
Bank on January 1, 2016 with an annual interest
rate of 3% and have withdrawn it on January 1,
2017. Calculate the simple interest.
Solution:
I = Prt
I = (Php 5,000)(0.03)(1)
I = Php 150.00
Example:
A loan of Php 3,000 bears an interest rate of 2%
per month. If the loan shall be paid in 4 months,
how much is the interest?
Solution:
In this example, Php 3,000 is the principal
amount (P), 2% is the interest rate (r), and the
time (t) is 4 since the interest rate is monthly.
I = Prt
I = (Php 3,000)(0.02)(4)
I = Php 240.00
Example:
Your savings deposit of Php 7,000 earns an
annual interest of 5%. How much is the interest
for 9 months?
Solution:
Here, Php 7,000 is the principal (P), 5% is the
interest rate (r), and the time (t) is 9/12. It is 9/12
since the interest rate is annual, and the
duration of the savings is 9 months.
I = Prt
I = (Php 7,000)(0.05)(9/12)
I = Php 262.50
Example:
Calculate the simple interest due on a 72-day
loan of Php 3,000 if the annual interest rate is
4%.
Solution:
We will substitute the following values in the
simple interest formula: P = Php 3,000, r = 4%,
and t = 72/365
I = Prt
I = (Php 3,000)(0.04)(72/365)
I = Php 23.67
MATURITY OR FUTURE VALUE
The maturity or future value is the sum of the During the second year, the interest is
principal and the interest. The formula is A = P computed using the total amount in your
+ I. If we substitute Prt to I, we will have A = P + account after a year:
Prt or A = P(1 + rt).
I = Prt
Example:
I = (Php 5,150)(0.03)(1)
A cooperative released a Php 9,000-emergency
I = Php 154.50
loan to Ana with a simple interest of 4.5%. If she
intends to pay it in 2 years, what amount will she
pay back to the cooperative?
The amount of interest earned on the first year
Solution: and on the second year are different. It is bigger
on the second year because the interest was
A = P + Prt
computed based on the sum of the principal and
A = Php 9,000 + (Php 9,000)(0.045)(2) the interest earned during the first year.
A = Php 9,000 + Php 810 At the end of the second year, the total amount
in your account is:
A = Php 9,810
A=P+I
A = Php 5,150 + Php 154.50
COMPOUND INTEREST
A = Php 5,304.50
Compound interest is a method of calculating
interest periodically on the sum of the principal
and the accumulated interest of previous
You notice that the interest is increasing each
periods. It means that the earned interest will
year because the amount in your account is also
also earn interest.
increasing every year.
Here is an illustration of a compound interest.
Suppose you deposit Php 5,000 in a savings
account earning 3% interest, compounded
annually.
During the first year, the interest is computed as
follows:
I = Prt
I = (Php 5,000)(0.03)(1)
I = Php 150.00
Now, if the Php 5,000 at 3% interest is
compounded quarterly, there will be 4
After a year, the total amount in your account is: compounding periods in a year.

A=P+I The interest during the first quarter is:

A = Php 5,000 + Php 150 I = Prt

A = Php 5,150.00 I = (Php 5,000)(0.03)(3/12)

I = Php 37.50 The Php 5,000 at 3% compound quarterly earns
Php 151.69 interest after 1 year, while the same
The total amount in your account at the end of
amount of the same interest but compounded
the first quarter is:
annually earns an interest of Php 150 after a
A=P+I year. This implies that more compounding
periods in a year will yield greater interest.
A = Php 5,000 + Php 37.50
A = Php 5,037.50
During the second quarter, the interest is:
I = Prt
I = (Php 5,037.50)(0.03)(3/12)
I = Php 37.78
The total amount in your account at the end of
the second quarter is:
A=P+I
A = Php 5,037.50 + Php 37.78
A = Php 5,075.28
During the third quarter, the interest is:
I = Prt
I = (Php 5,075.28)(0.03)(3/12)
I = Php 38.06
The total amount in your account at the end of
the third quarter is:
A=P+I
A = Php 5,075.28 + Php 38.06
A = Php 5,113.34
During the fourth quarter, the interest is:
I = Prt
I = (Php 5,113.34)(0.03)(3/12)
I = Php 38.35
The total amount in your account at the end of
the fourth quarter is:
A=P+I
A = Php 5,113.34 + Php 38.35
A = Php 5,151.69