NGEE ANN POLYTECHNIC

MARINE & OFFSHORE TECHNOLOGY

NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING

1.0 GENERAL

Nondestructive Testing (NDT) is a term used when a material can be tested for discontinuities
without actually damaging or altering the material in anyway.
The NDT is performed to ensure the product is fit for purpose i.e. conforms to requirements. In
shipbuilding, NDT is used to ensure the soundness of welds, structural reliability and
watertightness of the compartment.
The testing techniques used include visual, penetrant, magnetic, ultrasonic, radiographic and
leak.

2.0 VISUAL TESTING

Visual testing or inspection, with or without optical is the original method of NDT. Many
defects are surface breaking and can be detected by careful direct visual inspection. Optical aids
such as low power magnifiers and flexible fibrescopes could be used. Visual testing of the weld
joints prior to welding are examined for cleanliness, edge preparation and alignment. Completed
welds are examined for dimensions, alignment, regularity, and surface defects.

3.0 PENETRANT TESTING

3.1 General
Penetrant testing (PT) or inspection is a simple low cost method of detecting discontinuities that
are open to the surface, such as cracks, pores and leaks.
In this method, the liquid penetrant is applied to the surface and is being seeped into any surface
opening. The penetrant is drawn into the surface opening by capillary action. After sufficient
penetration time has elapsed, the surface is cleaned and excess penetrant is removed. When the
surface is dry, a developer is then applied to the surface, to draw out the penetrant from the
opening, which will show as an indication. The basic procedures of liquid penetrant inspection
usually involve a six-stage process as shown in Fig 3.0.
There are two types of liquid penetrants: the dye or fluorescent type. The dye penetrant is
usually red in colour and produce clear indication in contrast with white background of
developer. The fluorescent penetrant fluoresces brilliantly under ultraviolet light in near
darkness.

3.2 Application and Evaluation

In shipbuilding, it is used extensively for exposing defects in steels as well as in aluminium
alloys and stainless steels. Its sensitivity in detecting surface cracks for steels is as good as MPT
except that MPT has greater sensitivity for detection near surface defects. It is widely used in the
inspection of fillet welds.
There are many advantages to PT. It is inexpensive to perform. The method can be learned
easily and is easy to use. It may be applied to both ferrous and nonferrous metals. The
equipment is simple and does not require electricity.
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The limitations are that the surface must be free from contamination and it is not suitable for
inspecting porous materials.

4.0 MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING

4.1 General
This magnetic particle testing (MPT) or inspection (MPI) is used for the detection of surface or
near surface cracks in ferromagnetic materials. Consider a magnet in the shape of a bar (Fig 4.1).
The lines of force within the magnet run from one end of the bar to the other, i.e. from the S to N
poles. At the same time a magnet field exists around the magnet. Iron powder sprinkled on to the
bar collects around the poles, where the lines of force are close together. If another magnet is
brought into proximity so that its N pole is opposite the S pole of the first magnet, lines of force
flow between the two magnets. When iron powder is sprinkled on to the new arrangement it
collects in and around the gap between the N and S poles.

A crack in steel behaves in the same way as the gap between the magnets by inducing a
magnetic field at right angles to it. Electric currents are used to induce magnet fields. The lines
of force flow across the crack, causing local magnetic flux leakage, Fig 4.1(c). The iron powder
accumulate at the regions of flux leakage, producing a build up which can be seen visually even
when the crack opening is very narrow, thus indicating the presence of a crack.

4.2 Magnetisation Methods

Magnetisation may be produced by any of the following methods.
(a) By yoke magnetization with the ends of the yoke placed on the specimen as shown in Fig
4.2a. The hand-held york magnetization unit (also know as electromagnet) whether used with
AC or DC consists of a laminated iron core around which coils of copper wire are wound. The
magnetic field from the coil is generated over the pole of an iron core and then transmitted into
the specimen. The iron core and the workpiece will then form a closed magnetic circuit which
enables transverse cracks to be detected. This technique is very ideal for testing structure defects
such as weld seam. (NB: Take note of the directions of the current flow, magnetic field line and
crack)
(b) By current flow through specimen with hand held prods as shown in Fig 4.2b-1.
Prods are devices attached to cables carrying higher amperage, low voltage to magnetize a local
area of a large specimen such as welding seam of a structure. With current flow, the magnetic
field is at right angles to the direction of the current and as flaws are best detected when they
cross the magnetic lines of force, the preferred direction for the current flow is along the
expected line of a crack. Normally the magnetizing operation is carried out in several different
directions with a minimum of two directions at right angles. The layout of successive prod
positions and spacings for weld testing are shown in Fig 4.2b-2. (NB: Take note of the directions
of the current flow, magnetic field line and crack)

4.3 Application and Evaluation

In shipbuilding, MPT is used for detection of surface or near surface cracks in welds, and to
verify the soundness of large steel casting and forging. This is done by creating a magnetic field
in the crack and is used to attract fine iron particles.
The advantages of this method include its sensitivity to small and near surface defects. It is
portable and equipment is inexpensive. It is simple to use and can be learned easily.

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The limitations of MPI include its limited to ferromagnetic materials and can only detect surface
and near surface defects. Also post inspection cleaning and demagnetisation of parts are often
required.

5.0 ULTRASONIC TESTING

5.1 General
Ultrasonic testing (UT) or inspection is a NDT method which employs mechanical vibrations
similar to sound waves but of a higher frequency. A beam of ultrasonic energy is directed into
the specimen to be examined. This beam travels through a material with only a small loss,
except when it is intercepted and reflected by a flaw or by a change in material.
The sound is audible if the frequency is from about 20 Hz to about 20 kHz. Above 20 kHz, the
sound waves are referred to as a 'ultrasound' or 'ultrasonic'. The waves used for weld inspection
are usually within the frequency range from 1 MHz to 5MHz.

The basic principle of ultrasonic inspection is illustrated in Fig 5.1.1. It is capable of finding
surface and subsurface or internal flaws. The ultrasonic contact pulse reflection technique is
used.
The system uses a transducer, which changes electric energy into mechanical energy. The
transducer is excited by high voltage electrical pulse which causes a crystal (a disc of
piezoelectric material) to vibrate mechanically. The resultant output from the transducer is a
pulse of sound energy, or short burst of pulses. Ultrasonic waves cannot be transmitted from air
into solid. In order for these waves to be transmitted into a specimen, a coupling fluid, usually a
film of oil, called a couplant is used. When the pulse of ultrasonic waves strike a discontinuity in
the specimen it is reflected back to its point of origin. Thus the energy returns to the transducer.
The transducer now serves as a receiver for the reflected energy. The top surface reflection or
echo, the echo from cavity, and the echo from bottom of specimen are all displayed on the
screen of a cathode ray tube (CRT) the so called ‘A’ scan display. Since the beam cross section
is usually larger than most internal cavities, the amplitude or height of a reflection gives an
indication of the relative size of the defect. The distance of the cavity from the surface is
determined proportionally based on its reflection between the front and rear reflections
displayed horizontally on the screen.
Most of the ultrasonic equipment is light and compact and operate from either a standard main
supply or from its internal battery. The equipment is portable and relatively inexpensive. Fig
5.1.2 shows an ultrasonic inspection of a weld.

5.2 Normal Probe Reflection Technique

With a normal probe, the longitudinal wave is transmitted at right angles to the surface. See Fig
5.2. In the absence of a defect, the ultrasonic waves travel through the thickness of the plate, are
reflected from the other surface, and return to the probe. They are displayed on the CRT as
boundary echo. The CRT also records the entry of the waves into the plate as the transducer
signal. The distance between this and the boundary echo is a measure of the thickness of the
plate.
When there is a defect in the path of the waves, some of the signal is reflected and, having a
shorter distance to travel, appears on the CRT before the boundary echo. The depth of the defect
below the surface can be deduced from its position relative to the transducer and boundary
indications.
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5.3 Angle Probe Reflection Technique
An angle probe fitted with a single crystal is normally used to test welded joints. See Fig 5.3.1.
A 450, 600, or 700 high resolution probe should be used, the angle depending on the weld
thickness and the geometry restrictions. A pulse of ultrasonic vibrations is transmitted into the
plate at angle to the surface. This travels to the opposite surface, where it is reflected at an angle
equal to the angle of incidence. The vibrations are again reflected from the top surface, and so
on. If there is no interface in their path, the vibrations continue until they come out. On the other
hand, a defect reflects some or the entire signal, which may then follow the original path or take
a new route back to the probe, depending on the orientation of the interface with respect to the
beam. A defect echo is displayed in the CRT, and again its distance from the transmitter signal
will be a measure of the distance travelled by the ultrasonic waves. Knowing the geometry of the
system, the exact location of the defect can be calculated.
The examination of a butt weld in parallel-sided plates is by moving the probe in zigzag
movement between the two parallel lines to the weld as shown in Fig 5.3.2. This is to ensure the
complete thickness of the weld is examined. The reflection points are called the nodes and the
distance between nodes is the skip distance. This skip distance can be measured by using a
separated receiving unit to detect the nodes or by using a calibration block or by calculation.
Some of the weld defects include: lack of fusion, lack of penetration, porosity, slag inclusion
and internal crack.

5.4 Application and Evaluation

UT is used for examination of welds, castings and forgings. It is also used to measure thickness
and detect laminations in plate. It is also used for corrosion mapping.
The advantages of UT include: high sensitivity, permitting detection of extremely small flaws,
suitable for inspection of metals and non-metals, provides information on size and orientation of
defect and can determine depth of defect.
Limitations of UT include: couplants are needed to provide effective transfer of ultrasonic wave
energy, flaws close to surface may not be detectable, parts that are rough or irregular in shape
are difficult to inspect and highly skilled operator is required.

6.0 RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING

6.1 General
Radiographic Testing (RT) or radiography uses X-rays or gamma-rays to produce an image of an
object on film. This image is usually natural in size. X-rays and gamma-rays are short wavelength
electromagnetic radiation which can pass through solid material, being partly absorbed during
transmission. X-rays have a wavelength range from 10-5 - 10-8 mm. Gamma-rays have wavelength
range from 10-7 - 10-10 mm. If an X-ray or gamma-ray source is placed on one side of the testpiece,
the radiation from the source will be absorbed by the object but some will travel through the object
and impinge on film, producing an image. If the object contains a flaw which has different
absorptive power from that of the object material, the amount of radiation emerging from the object
directly beneath the flaw will differ from that emerging from adjacent flaw-free regions. When the
film has been developed there will be an area of different image density, which corresponds to the
flaw in the material. Thus the flaw will be seen as a shadow within the developed radiograph. This
shadow may be of lesser or greater density than the surrounding image, depending on the nature of
the defect and its relative absorptive characteristics. Inclusions of low density such as porosity or
slag will appear as dark areas on the film while inclusions of high density, such as tungsten, will
appear as light areas. See Fig 6.1.
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6.2 Radiation Sources
Radiation sources can either be X-rays generated by an X-ray tube or gamma rays radiation
produced by the decay of a radioactive isotope such as cobalt-60 or iridium-192 or cesium-137. X-
rays and gamma rays are physically indistinguishable; the only difference is how they are produced.
The penetrating capabilities of each type of radiation source vary; for instance, assuming that the
exposure time and film speed are the same, a 250 kV X-ray can be used to inspect up to 40 mm of
steel, while an Iridium-192 source can penetrate up to 75mm of steel.
The main advantage to using an isotope source is that the equipment tends to be cheaper and more
portable than X-ray equipment and does not rely on the availability of electricity. The advantage of
using X-rays source is that the radiographs tend to be higher quality and have sharper images.
Fig 6.2.1 shows an arrangement of setting up radiography using X-ray tube.
Fig 6.2.2 shows an arrangement gamma source container with source on flexible cable.
Fig 6.2.3 shows a typical gamma-ray source projector.

6.3 Taking a Radiograph

Radiographic inspection of weldments is usually intended to cover only welds and HAZs. When a
weld is to be radiographed, the surface is to first clean off to ensure that there are no misleading
indications. Sometimes the excess metals and under bead is removed by grinding, to give more
uniform conditions.
The radiographic film is placed against one side of the joint. The source is fixed at a suitable
distance from the weld on the opposite side of the joint and is arranged so that the beam falls
symmetrically onto the surface of the metal. The image quality indicator (IQI) is placed alongside
the weld to give assurance the radiographic sensitivity. The IQI is to evaluate the ability of a
radiograph to show detail in the image. Two common types are 3-Hole/2-Hole Plate
penetrameter/IQI or wire IQI. See Fig 6.3.1 and Fig 6.3.2. Exposure times depend on the intensity
of the radiation, the wavelength of the rays, and the thickness of the metal being examined. After
exposure, the film is taken for development. When it is ready, the radiograph is viewed on a
fluorescent screen.
Some typical arrangements for radiography of welds using X-ray or gamma-ray source are shown
in Fig 6.3.3.
Examples of radiographs showing a variety of weld defects are shown in Fig 6.3.4. The acceptable
levels of weld defects are mainly dependent on the required codes and specifications.

6.4 Application and Evaluation

Radiographic testing of ships is carried out mainly in selected important locations such as
intersections of butt and seams in keel plate, bilge plate and underwater shell plate, at corners of
main deck hatch, in the vicinity of breaks in superstructures and other highly stressed areas.
Complete (100%) radiography is usually used only in specialised cases such as shell of a
submersible.
Some of the advantages of radiographic inspection include: providing permanent record, can be
used for internal evaluation of most materials, excellent capability for detecting internal flaws such
as voids, porosity and inclusions and surface condition poses no problem generally.
Some of the limitations of radiography include: not suitable for fillet weld inspection, high
equipment and testing cost and strict safety precautions required due to radiation hazard.

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7.0 LEAK TESTING
7.1 General
Many structures are designed to be pressurised, or to be watertight and as a consequence, leak
test is an important NDT method.
Defects are revealed by the flow of air/gas or liquid into or out of the test specimen. The
simplest and most widely used methods are the hydrostatic testing, using fresh water or seawater,
and air testing. The pressure of leaks can be revealed by water or gas seepage, or by changes in
pressure. A hose testing could also be used to detect leak.

7.2 Hydrostatic Testing

These tests are conducted on boundaries of tanks at least from on side. Specified water test
heads are usually to 2.4 metres above the tank top or to the top of overflow. Cargo oil tanks
should be tested before launch. But in large tankers where the building ways would not support
the weight of the test water, and where a hydrostatic test is specified, it is a common practice to
test the lower portion of the tank before launching by filling the tanks about one-third full. And
to test the remaining portion of the tank after the ship is afloat.

7.3 Air Testing

Air testing or combined air and hydrostatic testing may be used. Where air testing is adopted,
the compartment should be put under air pressure of about 14 kN/m2 (0.14bar). All fillet welded
boundary connections and erection joints are to be examined under air test by use of a suitable
leak solution (soapy water).

7.4 Hose Testing

A host testing is carried out on ordinary watertight compartment bulkheads, decks, side shell,
where it is impractical or unnecessary to conduct a hydrostatic test. It is also carried out on
bow/stern doors, weather steel hatch covers, etc. A fire hose is held at about 1.5m with 200
kN/m2 (2bar) pressure.

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Ref: 1. Richard Lee Storch (Author), Colin P. Hammon (Author), Howard
McRaven Bunch (Author), and Richard C. Moore (Author), (Second
Edition in 1995), Ship Production, United States of America, Cornell
Maritime Press
2. D. J. Eyres (Author) and G. J. Bruce (Author), (7th Edition in 2012),
Ship Construction, UK, Elsevier Ltd

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