Double wall single image (DWSI)

The radiation source is kept on the pipe or very near to the OD and just
near the weld.
•Used for pipes with diameter more than 90 mm OD.
•The image quality indicator (IQI) is placed on the film side.
•Here film side weld only can be interpreted.
•As the interpretable weld length is small, it requires a number of
exposures to cover the entire weld length, depending upon the pipe
diameter.
Double wall double image (DWDI)
Specially suited for small diameter pipes up to
90 mm OD.
•The radiation source is kept at a distance SFD
(Source-to-Film Distance) with an offset from
the axis of the weld,
•to avoid the super imposing of the source
side weld over the film side weld and to obtain
an elliptical image on the film.
•Here both the source and film side welds can
be interpreted from the image.
•Requires min. of two exposures,
perpendicular to each other, to cover the
entire circumference.
Superimposing technique
•Used when the required offset to obtain
double image could not be possible due to site
restrictions for the pipes with dia : 90mmOD.
•The source is kept at a distance without
offset, thereby the source side weld is
superimposed on the film side weld on the
film.
•Requires minimum of 3 exposures each at
120° apart, to cover the entire length of the
weld.
Asst
Ultrasonic Testing:
Ultrasonic testing is similar to radiography except in place of
penetrating electromagnetic radiation it uses the ultrasound waves
above 20KHz to pass through the material. These ultrasound waves
are reflected back from the underside or backwall of the component
as well as from the discontinuity in between. Both sound waves, the
one reflected back from the underside of the test object and the
defect present in between are received back by the piezo quartz
crystal contained in the transducer or the probe. The distance
traveled by sound waves and it’s energy are exhibited on the CRT in
the form of echoes. The location and height of the echo appearing
in between the initial pulse or echo and the back wall pulse gives
location and size of the defect. In ultrasound technique the results
shown are instant and more sensitive as compared to Radiography
testing. Ultrasonic methods works well for both metallic and non-
metallic materials and can reveal defects both from surface as well
as inside the material defects like Laps, seams, voids, cracks, blow
holes, slag inclusions, lack of bonds etc.
Eddy Current Testing:
Eddy current testing can be carried out only on electrically
conducting materials and is based on electromagnetic induction.
The principle involved is when a current carrying conductor is
brought in the vicinity of another conductor, current starts to flow
in it due to electromagnetic induction. Now if the current in the
conductor A is alternating, magnetic flux φA set up in it is also
alternating and when this primary flux φA links with the conductor
B, secondary current IB starts flowing through it due to
electromagnetic induction. The current IB in the conductor B sets
up its own magnetic field φB but in a direction opposite to primary
φA. The change in current in conductor A due to eddy current in B
can be utilized for measurements of conductivity, permeability,
dimensions, Paint coating thickness, material wear and
discontinuities like cracks etc. This process is highly sensitive for
measurements of all above parameters and largely used for
internal examination of Heat exchanger tubes .
Leak Testing:
Leak testing is employed to detect leaks and determine the rate at
which a liquid or gas will penetrate from inside a “tight”
components or assembly to outside or vice versa as a result of
pressure differential between two regions. It has become
conventional to use the term “Leak” to refer to an actual
discontinuity or passage through which a liquid flows or permeates
. “Leakage” refers to the fluid that has flowed through a leak. Leak
rate refers to rate of fluid flow per unit of time under a given set of
conditions, and is properly expressed in mass per unit of time.
Standard leak rate refers to the flow of atmospheric air under
conditions in which inlet pressure is 0.1 Mpa ± 5%; outlet pressure
is less than 1 Kpa; temperature is 298K ± 5 and dew pint is less than
-298 K.
The term “minimum detectable leak “ refers to the smallest hole or
discrete passage that can be detected and “Minimum detectable
leak rate” Refers to the smallest detectable fluid flow rate.
The amount of leakage required for a leak testing instrument to
give a minimum detectable signal can be determined. The amount
is generally used to denote the sensitivity of the instrument.
Instrument sensitivity is Independent of test conditions, but when
an instrument is applied to a test , the sensitivity of the test
depends on the existing conditions of pressure, temperature and
fluid.
Widely used units of leak rate are:
 Torr-litres per second
 Liters-microns per sec
 Atmospheric cubic centimeters per sec
Some desirable conversion factors:
1atm = 760torr
1Pa = 0,98692x10-5 atm
1bar = 106 dynes/Cm
Selection Criteria’s for Different NDT.
In Selecting a method for evaluation of a specific type of
discontinuity , it should be kept in mind that NDT methods may
compliment each other and therefore several NDT methods may be
capable of performing the same task. The selection of one method
over the other is based on the following factors.
 Type and origin of discontinuity
 Material manufacturing process
 Accessibility of the component to perform NDT
 Type of equipment available
 Time available
 Cost
A magnetic Field Indicator
Portable Magnetizing Equipment for 
Magnetic Particle Inspection
To properly inspect a part for cracks or other defects, it is important
to become familiar with the different types of magnetic fields and
the equipment used to generate them. As discussed previously, one
of the primary requirements for detecting a defect in a ferromagnetic
material is that the magnetic field induced in the part must intercept
the defect at a 45 to 90 degree angle. Flaws that are normal (90
degrees) to the magnetic field will produce the strongest indications
because they disrupt more of the magnet flux.
Wet method magnetic particles products differ from dry powder
products in a number of ways. One way is that both visible and
fluorescent particles are available. Most nonfluorescent particles
are ferromagnetic iron oxides, which are either black or brown in
color. Fluorescent particles are coated with pigments that fluoresce
when exposed to ultraviolet light. Particles that fluoresce green-
yellow are most common to take advantage of the peak color
sensitivity of the eye but other fluorescent colors are also available.
(For more information on the color sensitivity of the eye...see the
material on penetrant inspection.)
The particles used with the wet method are smaller in size than
those used in the dry method for the reasons mentioned above.
The particles are typically 10 mm (0.0004 inch) and smaller and the
synthetic iron oxides have particle diameters around 0.1 mm
(0.000004 inch).
This very small size is a result of the process used to form the
particles and is not particularly desirable, as the particles are almost
too fine to settle out of suspension. However, due to their slight
residual magnetism, the oxide particles are present mostly in
clusters that settle out of suspension much faster than the individual
particles. This makes it possible to see and measure the
concentration of the particles for process control purposes. Wet
particles are also a mix of long slender and globular particles.
The carrier solutions can be water or oil-based. Water-based carriers
form quicker indications, are generally less expensive, present little
or no fire hazard, give off no petrochemical fumes, and are easier to
clean from the part. Water-based solutions are usually formulated
with a corrosion inhibitor to offer some corrosion protection.
However, oil-based carrier solutions offer superior corrosion and
hydrogen embrittlement protection to those materials that are
prone to attack by these mechanisms.
 Methods of Magnetization:
Magnetizing may be accomplished by several methods.
Permanent Magnets
Internal Yoke
Passing the part through an energized coil
Passing Current through the part
Applying magnetizing current locally to an area to be inspected.

Types of magnetizing current:

High amperage low voltage current either alternating or direct generated from
batteries, full wave three phase rectified current or half wave rectified single phase may
be used for magnetic particle inspection.

Alternating Current: With alternating current there is skin effect and the magnetic
flux tends to concentrate on the surface. This gives good indication of the surface
defects such as fatigue or service cracks but will not reveal subsurface defects such as
lack of fusion. Increasing the amount of current for subsurface defects will result in
saturation of surface metal , causing a magnetic leakage path in the air which give rise
to spurious indication.
Direct Current: Direct current produces a magnetic field which penetrates through out
the part and is more sensitive than alternating current for the detection of the
subsurface defects. The use of three phase full wave rectified current which is similar to
that obtained from batteries has been found to be less sensitive than half wave rectified
single phase current which is pulsating supply. The pulsation increases the mobility of the
magnetic particles causing them to collect into line along defects.

 Magnetic Media: Fine magnetic powder representing a dry powder is dusted on the
part to be inspected. The medium provides maximum portability . Dry powder are
popular for site work where oil spray or bath are not practically possible. Their
cleanliness makes them suitable for inspection between welding of passes of multi pass
weld since the weld does not become contaminate with oil. The dry powder are available
in grey, black or red to contrast the background base metal.

 Wet Media: The particles used in the wet method are similar than those used in the
dry method and are suspended in the light oil such as kerosene or in water. It is not as
sensitive as dry powder but is good for automated inspection of rolling products in mills.
The media requires to be agitated continuously as the particles tends to settle and
pumped on to surface to be inspected continuously. Use of fluorescent media gives
better sensitivity as the particles fluoresces brilliantly under black light.
Orientation of Magnetic field:

For best indication the magnetic field must be oriented in a manner that it interfere with
the defect at right angle.

Longitudinal magnetization: The part to be inspected is placed in coil. This produces

a magnetic field parallel to the longitudinal axis of the part. Such magnetization will
reveal circumferential or transverse cracks angled from 9o to 45o but will not reveal
longitudinal cracks.

Overall Circular magnetization: Circular magnetization is produced in when the

current is passed length wise through the part itself. This produces a circular magnetic
field at right angle to current flow and will reveal cracks at 00 to 45o of the axis of the part.

Local Circular Magnetization: The combination of both the longitudinal or circular

magnetization as explained above is an excellent system for detecting cracks and other
discontinuities in shafts, bars plates or other mill products but is almost impractical in
case weldments due to their size.
To inspect large weldments the weld area may be magnetized locally by passing current
through these areas. The current is applied by means of contact prods spaced 4” to 12”
apart and a circular field is produced between the prods.
The prods are held firmly to the surface and a low voltage high amperage current is
applied. To ensure direction of defect occurring in any direction two applications of
current should be made, one at 90o to the other.

Equipments Used: Most magnetic particle inspection equipment will have

secondary voltages from 10 to 17 volts with a maximum output ranges from 1000 to
5000 amps. Most weld inspection is performed using current between 600 and 3000
amps depending upon plate thickness and spacing. The selection of a unit depend
upon following factors.
The distance from machine to point of inspection
The frequency of inspection
The danger of arcing or burning the part being inspected.
The rating of equipment such as 1000 or 5000 amps is based on short intermittent
period. A 1000 amp machine will operate at say 300 amps for continuous output while
a 3000 amps machine may operate at 1250 amps continuously.
Testing Techniques: Normally no special preparation of weld such as grinding is etc is
necessary though it assists examination. Unusual roughness can however distort the
magnetic field and can produce false indication . The surface must be moderately clean
and dry. A wire brush or light sand blast is sometime helpful in cleaning heavy scale,
rust etc from the surface.