10th STD Mathematics EM Optimised

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STANDARD TEN
MATHEMATICS
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(ii)

SYMBOLS
= equal to |||ly similarly

! not equal to
T symmetric difference
1 less than
N natural numbers
# less than or equal to
W whole numbers
2 greater than
Z integers
$ greater than or equal to
R real numbers
. equivalent to
3 triangle
j union
+ angle
k intersection
= perpendicular to
U universal Set
|| parallel to
d belongs to
z does not belong to ( implies
1 proper subset of ` therefore
3 subset of or is contained in a since (or) because
1
Y not a proper subset of absolute value
M not a subset of or is not contained in - approximately equal to
Al (or) A c complement of A | (or) : such that

Q (or) { } empty set or null set or void set / (or) , congruent
n(A) number of elements in the set A / identically equal to
P(A) power set of A p pi
∑ summation ! plus or minus
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எண்ணென்ப ஏனை எழுத்தென்ப இவ்விரண்டும்
u sed k கண்ணென்ப வாழும் உயிர்க்கு - குறள் 392
i o ns tboo
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Numbers and letters, they are known as
t eyes to humans. - Kural 392
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Activity Exercise
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Multiple Choice Unit Exercise

Questions Interlinking various
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Points to Remem ICT Corner
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application of tech
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• Download DIKSHA app from the Google Play Store.
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CONTENTS
CHAPTER TITLE PAGE No. MONTH
1 Relations and Functions 1-35
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Ordered Pair 2
1.3 Cartesian Product 2
1.4 Relations 6
1.5 Functions 10
1.6 Representation of Functions 15 June
1.7 Types of Functions 17
1.8 Special Cases of Functions 22
1.9 Composition of Functions 26
1.10 Identifying the Graphs of Linear, Quadratic,
29
Cubic and Reciprocal Functions
2 Numbers and Sequences 36-84
2.1 Introduction 37
2.2 Euclid’s Division Lemma 37
2.3 Euclid’s Division Algorithm 39
June
2.4 Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic 43
2.5 Modular Arithmetic 46
2.6 Sequences 52
2.7 Arithmetic Progression 55
2.8 Series 62
2.9 Geometric Progression 67 July
2.10 Sum to n terms of a Geometric Progression 73
2.11 Special Series 76
3 Algebra 85-160
3.1 Introduction 85
Simultaneous Linear Equations in Three
3.2 87 July
Variables
3.3 GCD and LCM of Polynomials 93
3.4 Rational Expressions 98
3.5 Square Root of Polynomials 103 August
3.6 Quadratic Equations 106
3.7 Graph of Variations 123 September
3.8 Quadratic Graphs 130
October
3.9 Matrices 137
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4 Geometry 161-202
4.1 Introduction 161
July
4.2 Similarity 162
4.3 Thales Theorem and Angle Bisector Theorem 171 August
4.4 Pythagoras Theorem 183
4.5 Circles and Tangents 188 October
4.6 Concurrency Theorems 195
5 Coordinate Geometry 203-238
5.2 Area of a Triangle 205
5.3 Area of a Quadrilateral 207
August
5.4 Inclination of a Line 212
5.5 Straight Line 221
5.6 General Form of a Straight Line 230
6 Trigonometry 239-268
September
6.2 Trigonometric Identities 242
6.3 Heights and Distances 250 November
7 Mensuration 269-300
7.2 Surface Area 270
7.3 Volume 282
7.4 Volume and Surface Area of Combined Solids 290 November
7.5 Conversion of Solids from one Shape to another
295
with no change in Volume
8 Statistics and Probability 301-334
8.2 Measures of Dispersion 303
8.3 Coefficient of Variation 314
December
8.4 Probability 316
8.5 Algebra of Events 324
8.6 Addition Theorem of Probability 326
Answers 335-343
Mathematical Terms 344-345
E-book Evaluation DIGI Links

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RELATIONS AND
1 FUNCTIONS
“Mathematicians do not study objects, but relations between objects . . . Content to
them is irrelevant: they are interested in form only” – Henri Poincare
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (also known as von Leibniz)

was a prominent German mathematician, philosopher, physicist
and inventor. He wrote extensively on 26 topics covering wide
range of subjects among which were Geology, Medicine, Biology,
Epidemiology, Paleontology, Psychology, Engineering, Philology,
Sociology, Ethics, History, Politics, Law and Music Theory.
In a manuscript Leibniz used the word “function” to mean
any quantity varying from point to point of a curve. Leibniz Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
(1646 – 1716)
provided thedefoundations
Pierre Fermat of Formal Logic and Boolean Algebra,
which are fundamental for modern day computers. For all his
(1601-1665)
remarkable discoveries and contributions in various fields, Leibniz is hailed as
“The Father of Applied Sciences”.
Learning Outcomes
zz To define and determine cartesian product of sets.
zz To define a relation as a subset of cartesian product of sets.
zz To understand function as a special relation.
zz To represent a function through an arrow diagram, a set of ordered pairs, a
table, a rule or a graph.
zz To classify functions as one-one, many-one, onto, into and bijection.
zz To study combination of functions through composition operation.
zz To understand the graphs of linear, quadratic, cubic and reciprocal functions.
1.1 Introduction
The notion of sets provides the stimulus for learning higher concepts in mathematics.
A set is a collection of well-defined objects. This means that a set is merely a collection of
something which we may recognize. In this chapter, we try to extend the concept of sets
in two forms called Relations and Functions. For doing this, we need to first know about
cartesian products that can be defined between two non-empty sets.
It is quite interesting to note that most of the day-to-day situations can be represented
mathematically either through a relation or a function. For example, the distance travelled
by a vehicle in given time can be represented as a function. The price of a commodity
can be expressed as a function in terms of its demand. The area of polygons and volume
Relations and Functions 1
1 Relation and Functions.indd 1 15-12-2020 02:49:56 PM

of common objects like circle, right circular cone, right circular cylinder, sphere can be
expressed as a function with one or more variables.
In class IX, we had studied the concept of sets. We have also seen how to form new
sets from the given sets by taking union, intersection and complementation.
Now we are about to study a new set called “cartesian product” for the given sets
A and B.
1.2 Ordered Pair
Observe the seating plan in an auditorium (Fig.1.1).
To help orderly occupation of seats, tokens with numbers
such as (1,5), (7,16), (3,4), (10,12) etc. are issued. The
person who gets (4,10) will go to row 4 and occupy the
10th seat. Thus the first number denotes the row and the
second number, the seat. Which seat will the visitor with
token (5,9) occupy? Can he go to 9th row and take the 5th
seat? Do (9,5) and (5,9) refer to the same location? No, Fig. 1.1
certainly! What can you say about the tokens (2,3), (6,3) and (10,3)?
This is one example where a pair of numbers, written in a particular order, precisely
indicates a location. Such a number pair is called an ordered pair of numbers. This notion
is skillfully used to mathematize the concept of a “Relation”.
1.3 Cartesian Product
Illustration 1
Let us consider the following two sets.
A is the set of 3 vegetables and B is the set of 4 fruits. That is,
A = {carrot, brinjal, ladies finger} and B = {apple, orange, grapes, strawberry}
What are the possible ways of choosing a vegetable with a fruit? (Fig.1.2)
Vegetables Fruits
Vegetables (A) Fruits (B)
c a
Carrot (c) Apple (a)
Brinjal (b) Orange (o) o
b
Ladies finger (l) Grapes (g) g
Strawberry (s) l s
Fig. 1.2
We can select them in 12 distinct pairs as given below.
(c, a), (c, o), (c, g), (c, s), (b, a), (b, o), (b, g), (b, s), (l, a), (l, o), (l,g), (l, s)
This collection represents the cartesian product of the set of vegetables and set of
fruits.
Definition
If A and B are two non-empty sets, then the set of all ordered pairs (a, b) such that
a Î A, b Î B is called the Cartesian Product of A and B, and is denoted by A ´ B .
Thus, A ´ B = {(a, b) |a ∈ A, b ∈ B} (read as A cross B). Also note that A × f = f
2 10th Standard Mathematics

Note
¾¾ A × B is the set of all possible ordered pairs between the elements of A and B such that
the first coordinate is an element of A and the second coordinate is an element of B.
¾¾ B × A is the set of all possible ordered pairs between the elements of A and B such that
the first coordinate is an element of B and the second coordinate is an element of A.
¾¾ In general (a, b) ≠ (b, a), in particular, if a = b, then (a, b) = (b, a).
¾¾ The “cartesian product” is also referred as “cross product”.
Illustration 2
Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {a, b}. Write A ´ B and B ´ A ?
A ´ B = {1,2,3}×{a,b} = {(1, a ),(1, b),(2, a ),(2, b),(3, a ),(3, b)} (as shown in Fig.1.3)
B ´ A = {a,b} × {1,2,3} = {(a,1), (a,2), (a,3),(b,1), (b,2), (b,3)} (as shown in Fig.1.3)
A×B B×A Thinking Corner

3 (a,3) (b,3) When will A ´ B be equal to B ´ A ?
(1,b) (2,b) (3,b)
b 2 (a,2) (b,2) Note
B A
a 1 (a,1)
(1,a) (2,a) (3,a) (b,1) ¾¾ In general A × B ≠ B × A , but
n(A × B ) = n(B × A)
0 1 2 3 0 a b ¾¾ A×B= f if and only if A = f or B = f
A B
¾¾ If n(A) = p and n(B ) = q then
Fig. 1.3
n(A × B ) = pq
Recall of standard infinite sets
Natural Numbers  = {1, 2, 3, 4 …} ; Whole Numbers W = {0,1,2,3, ...};
 p 
Integers  ={..., –2,–1,0,1,2, ...} ; Rational Numbers  =  | p, q ∈ , q ≠ 0 ;
 q 
Real Numbers  =  ∪  ′ , where  ¢ is the set of all irrational numbers.
Y
Illustration 3 4
For example, let A be the set of numbers in the interval B 3

2
[3, 5] and B be the set of numbers in the interval [2,3]. Then the
1
Cartesian product A ´ B corresponds to the rectangular region
O
shown in the Fig. 1.4. It consists of all points (x, y) within the region. X′ 1 2 3 4 5 6
A
X
Y¢
Fig. 1.4
Progress Check
1. For any two non-empty sets A and B, A ´ B is called as _____.

2. If n(A × B ) = 20 and n(A) = 5 then n(B ) is _____.
3. If A = {−1,1} and B = {−1, 1} then geometrically describe the set of points of
A´B .
4. If A, B are the line segments given by the intervals (–4, 3) and (–2, 3) respectively,
represent the cartesian product of A and B.

Note
The set of all points in the cartesian plane can be viewed as the set of all ordered pairs
(x, y) where x, y are real numbers. In fact, ℝ×ℝ is the set of all points which we call as the
cartesian plane.
Activity 1
Let A = {x | x ∈ , x ≤ 4} , B = {y | y ∈ , y < 3}
Represent A ´ B and B ´ A in a graph sheet. Can you see the difference between
A ´ B and B ´ A ?
Example 1.1 If A = {1,3,5} and B = {2,3} then (i) find A ´ B and B ´ A.
(ii) Is A × B = B × A ? If not why? (iii) Show that n(A×B) = n(B×A) = n(A)× n(B)
Solution Given that A = {1,3,5} and B = {2,3}
(i)
A×B = {1,3,5} × {2,3} = {(1,2), (1,3), (3,2), (3,3), (5,2), (5,3)} ...(1)
B ´ A = {2,3} × {1,3,5} = {(2,1), (2,3), (2,5), (3,1), (3,3), (3,5)} ...(2)
(ii) From (1) and (2) we conclude that A × B ≠ B × A as (1, 2) ¹ (2, 1) and (1, 3) ¹)(3, 1) , etc.
(iii) n(A)=3; n (B) = 2.
From (1) and (2) we observe that, n (A×B) = n (B×A) = 6;
we see that, n (A) ×n (B) = 3 × 2 = 6 and n (B) × n (A) = 2×3 = 6
Hence, n (A×B) =n (B×A) = n(A) × n (B) = 6.
Thus, n (A×B) =n (B×A) = n(A) × n (B).
Example 1.2 If A×B = {(3,2), (3,4), (5,2), (5,4)} then find A and B.
Solution A×B ={(3,2), (3,4), (5,2), (5,4)}
We have A = {set of all first coordinates of elements of A ´ B }. ∴ A = {3,5}
B = {set of all second coordinates of elements of A ´ B }. ∴ B = {2,4}
Thus A = {3,5} and B = {2,4}.
Example 1.3 Let A = {x ∈  | 1 < x < 4} , B = {x ∈ W | 0 ≤ x < 2} and C = {x ∈  | x < 3} .
Then verify that
(i) A # (B , C) = (A # B) , (A # C) (ii) A # (B + C) = (A # B) + (A # C)
Solution A = {x ∈  | 1 < x < 4} = {2, 3} , B = {x ∈ W | 0 ≤ x < 2} = {0, 1} ,

C = {x ∈  | x < 3} ={1,2}
(i) A × (B ∪ C ) = (A # B) , (A # C)
B È C = {0, 1} ∪ {1, 2} = {0, 1, 2}
A × (B ∪ C ) ={
= 2, 3} # {0, 1, 2} = {(2, 0), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 0), (3, 1), (3, 2)} ...(1)
A ´ B = {2, 3} # {0, 1} = {(2,0),(2,1),(3,0),(3,1)}
A Ć = {2, 3} # {1, 2} = {(2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 1), (3, 2)}

(A × B ) ∪ (A ×C ) = {(2, 0),(2, 1),(3, 0),(3, 1)} , {(2, 1),(2, 2),(3, 1),(3, 2)}
= {(2, 0),(2, 1),(2, 2),(3, 0),(3, 1),(3, 2)} ...(2)
From (1) and (2), A × (B ∪ C ) = (A × B ) ∪ (A ×C ) is verified.
(ii) A × (B ∩ C ) = (A × B ) ∩ (A ×C )
B Ç C = {0, 1} ∩ {1, 2} = {1}
A × (B ∩ C ) = =
{2{, 23,}3×
}×{1}{1 =
}={({(
2, 12),(
, 1),( , 1)}
3, 13)} ... (3)
A ´ B = {2, 3} × {0, 1} = {(2, 0),(2, 1),(3, 0),(3, 1)}
A Ć = {2, 3} × {1, 2} = {(2, 1),(2, 2),(3, 1),(3, 2)}

(A × B ) ∩ (A ×C ) = {(2, 0),(2, 1),(3, 0),(3, 1)} ∩ {(2, 1),(2, 2),(3, 1),(3, 2)}
= {(2, 1),(3, 1)} ... (4)
From (3) and (4), A × (B ∩ C ) = (A × B ) ∩ (A ×C ) is verified.
Note
The above two verified properties are called distributive property of cartesian product
over union and intersection respectively. In fact, for any three sets A, B, C we have
(i) A × (B ∪ C ) = (A × B ) ∪ (A ×C ) (ii) A × (B ∩ C ) = (A× B) ∩ (A×C ) .
1.3.1 Cartesian Product of three Sets
If A, B, C are three non-empty sets then the cartesian product of three sets is the set
of all possible ordered triplets given by
A × B ×C = {(a, b, c) for all a Î A, b Î B, c Î C }
Illustration for Geometrical understanding of cartesian product of two and three sets
Y
Let
A = {0, 1}, B = {0, 1}, C = {0, 1}
(0,1) (1,1)
� B = {0, 1} ´ {0, 1} = {(0, 0),(0, 1),(1, 0),(1, 1)}
A´
Representing A´
� B in the XY - plane we get a picture shown in Fig. 1.5.
(0,0) (1,0)
(A ´ B ) Ć = {(0, 0),(0, 1),(1, 0),(1, 1)} ×{0,1} X
Fig. 1.5
= {(0, 0, 0),(0, 0, 1),(0, 1, 0),(0, 1, 1),(1, 0, 0),(1, 0, 1)(1, 1, 0),(1, 1, 1)}
Representing A ´ B Ć in the XYZ - space we get a picture as shown in Fig. 1.6.

Z
Thus, A ´ B represent vertices of a square in two dimensions (0,0,1) (1,0,1)
and A ´ B Ć represent vertices of a cube in three dimensions.
(0,1,1) (1,1,1)
Note X
In general, cartesian product of two non-empty sets provides (0,0,0) (1,0,0)

a shape in two dimensions and cartesian product of three (0,1,0)
(1,1,0)
non-empty sets provide an object in three dimensions. Y
Fig. 1.6

Exercise 1.1
1. Find A ´ B , A ´ A and B ´ A
(i) A= {2, −2, 3} and B = {1, −4} (ii) A = B ={p , q } (iii) A ={m , n} ; B =f
2. Let A = {1,2,3} and B = { x | x is a prime number less than 10}. Find A ´ B and B ´ A .
3. If B ×A = {(−2, 3),(−2, 4),(0, 3),(0, 4),(3, 3),(3, 4)} find A and B.
4. If A = {5, 6} , B = {4, 5, 6} , C = {5, 6, 7} , Show that A ×A = (B ×B ) ∩ (C ×C ) .
5. Given A={1,2,3}, B = {2,3,5}, C = {3,4} and D = {1,3,5}, check if

(A ∩ C ) × (B ∩ D ) = (A ×B ) ∩ (C × D ) is true?
6. Let A = {x ∈ W | x < 2} , B = {x ∈  | 1 < x ≤ 4} and C = {3, 5} . Verify that

(i) A × (B ∪ C ) = (A × B ) ∪ (A ×C ) (ii) A × (B ∩ C ) = (A × B ) ∩ (A ×C )
(iii) (A ∪ B ) ×C = (A ×C ) ∪ (B ×C )
7. Let A = The set of all natural numbers less than 8, B = The set of all prime numbers
less than 8, C = The set of even prime number. Verify that
(i) (A ∩ B ) ×C = (A ×C ) ∩ (B ×C ) (ii) A × (B − C ) = (A × B ) − (A ×C )
1.4 Relations
Many day-to-day occurrences involve two objects that are connected with each other
by some rule of correspondence. We say that the two objects are related under the specified
rule. How shall we represent it? Here are some examples,
Relationship Expressing using the Representation as

symbol R ordered pair
New Delhi is the capital of India New Delhi R India (New Delhi, India)
Line AB is perpendicular to line XY line AB R line XY (line AB, line XY)
–1 is greater than –5 –1 R –5 (–1, –5)
ℓ is a line of symmetry for DPQR ℓR DPQR (ℓ, DPQR )
How are New Delhi and India related? We may expect the response, “New Delhi
is the capital of India”. But there are several ways in which ‘New Delhi’ and ‘India’ are
related. Here are some possible answers.
� New Delhi is the capital of India.
� New Delhi is in the northern part of India.
� New Delhi is one of the largest cities of India etc.,
So, when we wish to specify a particular relation, providing only one ordered pair

(New Delhi, India) it may not be practically helpful. If we ask the relation in the following
set of ordered pairs,
{(New Delhi, India), (Washington, USA), (Beijing, China), (London, U.K.), (Kathmandu, Nepal)}
then specifying the relation is easy.
Progress Check
Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {a, b, c}.

1. Which of the following are 2. Which of the following are
relations from A to B? relations from B to A?
(i) { (1, b), (1, c), (3, a), (4, b) } (i) { (c, a), (c, b), (c, 1) }
(ii) { (1, a), (b, 4), ( c, 3) } (ii) { (c, 1), (c, 2), (c, 3), (c, 4) }
(iii) { (1, a), (a, 1), (2, b), (b, 2) } (iii) { (a, 4), (b, 3), (c, 2) }
Illustration 4
Students in a classS1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S9 S10
Heights (in feet) 4.5 5.2 5 4.5 5 5.1 5.2 5 4.7 4.9 Students
Heights S1
Let us define a relation between heights of corresponding 4.5 S2
S3
students. (Fig.1.7) 4.7
S4
4.9 S5
R = {(heights, students)} S6
5
R = {(4.5, S1 ), (4.5, S 4 ), (4.7, S 9 ), (4.9, S10 ), (5, S 3 ), (5, S 5 ), (5, S 8 ), 5.1
S7
S8
(5.1, S 6 ), (5.2, S 2 ), (5.2, S 7 )} 5.2 S9
Fig. 1.7 S10
Definition
Let A and B be any two non-empty sets. A ‘relation’ R from A to B is a subset of
A ´ B satisfying some specified conditions. If x Î A is related to y Î B through R , then
we write it as x Ry. x Ry if and only if (x , y ) Î R .
The domain of the relation R = {x Î A | x R y, for some y Î B}
The co-domain of the relation R is B
The range of the relation R = {y Î B | x Ry, for some x Î A}
From these definitions, we note that domain of R Í A , co-domain
of R = B and range of R Í B .
Illustration 5 A R B
Let A = {1,2,3,4,5} and B = {Mathi, Arul, John} 1
2 Mathi
A relation R between the above sets A and B can be
represented by an arrow diagram (Fig. 1.8). 3 Arul
Then, domain of R = {1,2,3,4} 4 John
range of R = {Mathi, Arul, John} = co-domain of R . 5
Fig. 1.8
Note that domain of R is a proper subset of A.

Activity 2
Let A and B be the set of lines in xy-plane such that A consists of lines parallel to
X-axis. For x Î A , y Î B , let R be a relation from A to B defined by x Ry if x is
perpendicular to y. Find the elements of B using a graph sheet.
Illustration 6
Let A = {1,3,5,7} and B = {4,8}. If R is a relation defined by “is less than” from
A to B, then 1R4 ( 1 is less than 4). Similarly, it is observed that 1R8, 3R4, 3R8,
5R8, 7R8
Equivalently R= {(1,4), (1,8), (3,4), (3,8), (5,8), (7,8)}
Note
In the above illustration A×B = {(1,4), (1,8), (3,4), (3,8), (5,4), (5,8), (7,4),(7,8)}
R = {(1,4), (1,8), (3,4), (3,8), (5,8), (7,8)} We see that R is a subset of A ´ B .
Arrow
Illustration 7 diagram
A
B
In a particular area of a town, let us consider ten families
C
A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I and J with two children. Among 0 D
these, families B, F, I have two girls; D, G, J have one boy and
1 E
one girl; the remaining have two boys. Let us define a relation F
2
R by xRy, where x denote the number of boys and y denote G
the family with x number of boys. Represent this situation as Number H
of boys
a relation through ordered pairs and arrow diagram. I
Since the domain of the relation R is concerned about J
Fig. 1.9
the number of boys, and we are considering families with two Families
children, the domain of R will consist of three elements given by {0,1,2}, where 0, 1, 2
represent the number of boys say no, one, two boys respectively. We note that families
with two girls are the ones with no boys. Hence the relation R is given by
R = {(0, B ),(0, F ),(0, I ),(1, D ),(1,G ),(1, J ),(2, A),(2,C ),(2, E ),(2, H )}
This relation is shown in an arrow diagram (Fig.1.9).
Example 1.4 Let A = {3,4,7,8} and B = {1,7,10}. Which of the following sets are relations
from A to B?
(i) R 1 ={(3,7), (4,7), (7,10), (8,1)} (ii) R2= {(3,1), (4,12)}
(iii) R3= {(3,7), (4,10), (7,7), (7,8), (8,11), (8,7), (8,10)}
Solution A ´ B = {(3,1), (3,7), (3,10), (4,1), (4,7), (4,10), (7,1), (7,7), (7,10), (8,1), (8,7), (8,10)}
(i) We note that, R1 ⊆ A × B . Thus, R1 is a relation from A to B.

(ii) Here, (4, 12) Î R 2 , but (4, 12) ∉ A × B . So, R2 is not a relation from A to B.
(iii) Here, (7, 8) Î R 3 , but (7, 8) ∉ A × B . So, R3 is not a relation from A to B.

Note
¾¾ A relation may be represented algebraically either by the roster method or by the set
builder method.
¾¾ An arrow diagram is a visual representation of a relation.
Example 1.5 The arrow diagram shows (Fig.1.10) a relationship between the sets P and
Q. Write the relation in (i) Set builder form (ii) Roster form (iii) What is the domain and
range of R.
Solution P Q
(i) Set builder form of R = {(x , y ) | y = x − 2, x ∈ P, y ∈ Q} 5 > 3
6 >
(ii) Roster form R = {(5, 3),(6, 4),(7, 5)} 4
7 >
(iii) Domain of R = {5,6,7} and range of R = {3, 4, 5} 8 5
Fig. 1.10
‘Null relation’
Let us consider the following example. Suppose A
= {–3,–2,–1} and B = {1,2,3,4}. A relation from A to B
is defined as a − b = 8 i.e., there is no pair(a,b) such If n(A) = p , n(B ) = q ,
that a − b = 8 . Thus R contain no element and so then the total number of
R =f. relations that exist from A
A relation which contains no element is called a to B is 2pq .
“Null relation”.
Exercise 1.2
1. Let A = {1,2,3,7} and B = {3,0,–1,7}, which of the following are relation from A to B ?
(i) R1 = {(2,1), (7,1)} (ii) R2= {(–1,1)}
(iii) R3 = {(2,–1), (7,7), (1,3)} (iv) R4= {(7,–1), (0,3), (3,3), (0,7)}
2. Let A={1,2,3,4,...,45} and R be the relation defined as “is square of a number” on A.
Write R as a subset of A ´ A . Also, find the domain and range of R.
3. A Relation R is given by the set {(x , y ) / y = x + 3, x ∈ {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}} . Determine its
domain and range.
4. Represent each of the given relations by (a) an arrow diagram, (b) a graph and (c) a set
in roster form, wherever possible.
(i) {(x,y)|x = 2y, x ∈{2,3,4,5}, y ∈{1,2,3,4}}
(ii)
{(x,y)|y = x+3, x, y are natural numbers < 10}
5. A company has four categories of employees given by Assistants (A), Clerks (C),
Managers (M) and an Executive Officer (E). The company provide ₹10,000,
₹25,000, ₹50,000 and ₹1,00,000 as salaries to the people who work in the categories

A, C, M and E respectively. If A 1, A 2, A 3, A 4 and A 5 were Assistants; C 1, C 2, C 3,
C 4 were Clerks; M 1, M 2, M 3 were managers and E 1, E 2 were Executive officers
and if the relation R is defined by x Ry, where x is the salary given to person y,
express the relation R through an ordered pair and an arrow diagram.
1.5 Functions
Among several relations that exist between two non-empty sets, some special
relations are important for further exploration. Such relations are called “Functions”.
Employees Salary
Illustration 8
E1 `20000
A company has 5 employees in different categories. If E2 `30000
we consider their salary distribution for a month as shown by E3 `45000
arrow diagram in Fig.1.11, we see that there is only one salary
E4 `50000
associated for every employee of the company.
E5 `100000
Fig. 1.11
Here are various real life situations illustrating some special relations:
1. Consider the set A of all of your classmates; corresponding to each student, there
is only one age.
2. You go to a shop to buy a book. If you take out a book, there is only one price
corresponding to it; it does not have two prices corresponding to it. (of course,
many books may have the same price).
3. You are aware of Boyle’s law. Corresponding to a given value of pressure P, there
is only one value of volume V.
4. In Economics, the quantity demanded can be expressed as Q = 360 − 4P , where P
is the price of the commodity. We see that for each value of P, there is only one
value of Q. Thus the quantity demanded Q depend on the price P of the commodity.
We often come across certain relations, in which, for each element of a set A, there is
only one corresponding element of a set B. Such relations are called functions. We
usually use the symbol f to denote a functional relation.
Cartesian
product
Definition Relation
A relation f between two non-empty sets X and Y is called a Function

function from X to Y if, for each x Î X there exists only one y Î Y
such that (x , y ) Î f .
That is, f ={(x,y)| for all x ∈ X, y ∈Y }.
Fig. 1.12(a)
A function f from X to Y is written as f : X ® Y .
Inputs
Comparing the definitions of relation and function, we see that
every function is a relation. Thus, functions are subsets of relations Functio
n Outputs
Machin
and relations are subsets of cartesian product. (Fig.1.12(a)) e
Fig. 1.12(b)

A function f can be thought as a mechanism
A function is also called as
(or device) (Fig.1.12(b)), which gives a unique
a mapping or transformation.
output f(x) to every input x.
Note
If f : X ® Y is a function then
¾¾ The set X is called the domain of the function f and the set Y is called its
co-domain.
¾¾ If f (a) = b, then b is called ‘image’ of a under f and a is called a ‘pre-image’ of b.
¾¾ The set of all images of the elements of X under f is called the ‘range’ of f.
¾¾ f : X ® Y is a function only if
(i) every element in the domain of f has an image.
(ii) t he image is unique.
¾¾ If A and B are finite sets such that n(A) = p , n(B ) = q then the total number of
functions that exist from A to B is q p .
¾¾ In this chapter we always consider f to be a real valued function.
¾¾ Describing domain of a function
1
(i) Let f (x ) = . If x = –1 then f (–1) is not defined. Hence f is defined for
x +1
all real numbers except at x = −1. So, domain of f is  - {-1} .
1
(ii) Let f (x ) = 2
; If x = 2, 3 then f (2) and f (3) are not defined. Hence f is
x − 5x + 6
defined for all real numbers except at x = 2 and 3. So, domain of f =  − {2, 3}.
Progress Check
1. Relations are subsets of ____. Functions are subsets of ____.

2. True or False: All the elements of a relation should have images.
3. True or False: All the elements of a function should have images.
4. True or False: If R : A ® B is a relation then the domain of R = A .
5. If f :  ®  is defined as f (x ) = x 2 the image of 1 and 2 are ____ and ____.
6. W
hat is the difference between relation and function?
7. Let A and B be two non-empty finite sets. Then which one among the following
two collection is large?
(i) The number of relations between A and B.
(ii) The number of functions between A and B.

Illustration 9 - Testing for functions
Representation by Arrow diagram
a p 1 m a x
b q 2 p y
c r 3 n b z
This represents a function. This represents a This is not a function.
Each input corresponds function. One of the input b is
to a single output. Each input corresponds associated with two outputs.
to a single output.
Fig. 1.13(a) Fig. 1.13(b) Fig. 1.13(c)
Functions play very important role in the understanding Note

of higher ideas in mathematics. They are basic tools to convert The range of a function is
from one form to another form. In this sense, functions are a subset of its co-domain.
widely applied in Engineering Sciences.
Example 1.6 Let X = {1, 2, 3, 4} and Y = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10} and R = {(1,2),(2,4),(3,6),(4,8)}.
Show that R is a function and find its domain, co-domain and range? X R Y
1 2
Solution Pictorial representation of R is given in Fig.1.14. From the 4
2
diagram, we see that for each x Î X , there exists only one y Î Y . Thus 6
3 8
all elements in X have only one image in Y. Therefore R is a function.
4 10
Fig. 1.14
Domain X = {1,2,3,4}; Co-domain Y = {2,4,6,8,10}; Range of f = {2,4,6,8}.
Example 1.7 A relation f :X →Y is defined by f (x ) = x 2 − 2 where, X = {−2, −1, 0, 3} and Y = R.

(i) List the elements of f (ii) Is f a function?
Solution f (x ) = x 2 – 2 where X = {−2, −1, 0, 3}
(i) f (-2) = (−2)2 – 2 = 2 ; f (-1) = (−1)2 – 2 = −1
f (0) = (0)2 – 2 = −2 ; f (3) =(3)2 – 2 =7
∴f = {(−2, 2),(−1, −1),(0, −2),(3, 7)}
(ii) We note that each element in the domain of f has a unique image.
Therefore, f is a function.
Thinking Corner
Is the relation representing the association between planets and their respective moons
a function?
Example 1.8 If X = {–5,1,3,4} and Y = {a,b,c}, then which of the following relations are
functions from X to Y ?

(i) R1 = {(–5,a), (1,a), (3,b)} (ii) R2 = {(–5,b), (1,b), (3,a),(4,c)}
(iii) R3 = {(–5,a), (1,a), (3,b),(4,c),(1,b)} X R1 Y

–5
Solution a
1 b
R1 = {(–5,a), (1,a), (3,b)}
(i) 3 c
We may represent the relation R1 in an arrow diagram 4
(Fig.1.15(a)). Fig. 1.15(a)
R1 is not a function as 4 Î X does not have an image in Y. X R2 Y
R2 = {(–5,b), (1,b), (3,a),(4,c)}
(ii) –5
a
1 b
Arrow diagram of R2 is shown in Fig.1.15(b).
3 c
R2 is a function as each element of X has an unique image in Y. 4
Fig. 1.15(b)
R3 = {(–5,a), (1,a), (3,b),(4,c),(1,b)}
(iii) X R3 Y
–5
Representing R3 in an arrow diagram (Fig.1.15(c)). a
1 b
R3 is not a function as 1 Î X has two images a Î Y and b Î Y . 3 c
4
Note that the image of an element should always be unique.
Fig. 1.15(c)
Example 1.9 Given f (x ) = 2x – x , 2
find (i)f (1) (ii) f (x+1) (iii) f (x) + f (1)

Solution (i) x = 1, we get
f (1) = 2(1) – (1)2 = 2 – 1 =1
(ii)
x = x+1, we get
f (x+1) = 2(x + 1) – (x + 1)2 =2x + 2 – (x 2 + 2x + 1) = −x 2 + 1
(iii) f (x) + f (1) = (2x – x 2 ) +1=−x 2 + 2x + 1
[Note that f (x ) + f (1) ≠ f (x + 1) . In general f (a + b) is not equal tof(a)+f(b)]
Exercise 1.3
1. Let f = {(x , y ) | x , y ∈ N and y = 2x } be a relation on ℕ. Find the domain, co-domain

and range. Is this relation a function?
2. Let X = {3, 4, 6, 8}. Determine whether the relation R = {(x , f (x )) | x ∈ X , f (x ) = x 2 + 1}

is a function from X to N?

3. Given the function f : x → x 2 − 5x + 6 , evaluate
(i) f (-1) (ii) f (2a )
(iii) f (2) (iv) f (x − 1)
4. A graph representing the function f (x) is given in Fig.1.16 10

9
it is clear that f (9) = 2. 8
y=
7
f(x
6
(i) Find the following values of the function
)
5
4
(a) f (0) (b) f (7) (c) f (2) (d) f (10) 3
2
1
(ii) For what value of x is f (x) = 1? o
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
(iii) Describe the following (i) Domain (ii) Range. Fig. 1.16
(iv) What is the image of 6 under f ?
f (x + 2) − f (2)
5. Let f (x) = 2x+5. If x ¹ 0 then find .
x
6. A function f is defined by f (x ) = 2x – 3
f (0) + f (1)
(i) find .
2
x 24–2x x
(ii) find x such that f (x) = 0.
(iii) find x such that f (x ) = x . x
(iv) find x such that f (x ) = f (1 − x ) . 24–2x

Fig. 1.17
7. An open box is to be made from a square piece of material, 24 cm on a side, by
cutting equal squares from the corners and turning up the sides as shown (Fig.1.17).
Express the volume V of the box as a function of x.
8. A function f is defined by f (x ) = 3 − 2x . Find x such that f (x 2 ) = ( f (x ))2 .
9. A plane is flying at a speed of 500 km per hour. Express the distance ‘d ’ travelled by
the plane as function of time t in hours.
10. The data in the adjacent table depicts the length Length ‘x’ of Height ‘y’
of a person forehand and their corresponding forehand (in cm) (in inches)
height. Based on this data, a student finds a 35 56
relationship between the height (y) and the 45 65
forehand length(x) as y = ax + b , where a, b 50 69.5
55 74
are constants.
(i) Check if this relation is a function.
(ii) Find a and b.

(iii) Find the height of a person whose forehand length is 40 cm.
(iv) Find the length of forehand of a person if the height is 53.3 inches.
1.6 Representation of Functions

A function may be represented by
(a) a set of ordered pairs (b) a table form
(c) an arrow diagram (d) a graphical form
Let f : A ® B be a function
(a) Set of ordered pairs

The set f = {(x , y ) | y = f (x ), x ∈ A} of all ordered pairs represent a function.
(b) Table form
The values of x and the values of their respective images under f can be given
in the form of a table.
(c) Arrow diagram
An arrow diagram indicates the elements of the domain of f and their respective
images by means of arrows.
(d) Graph
The ordered pairs in the collection f = {(x , y ) | y = f (x ), x ∈ A} are plotted as
points in the XY- plane. The graph of f is the totality of all such points.
Every function can be represented by a curve in a graph. But not every curve drawn
in a graph will represent a function.
The following test will help us in determining whether a given curve is a function or not.
1.6.1 Vertical line test

A curve drawn in a graph represents a function, if every vertical line intersects the
curve in at most one point.
Example 1.10 Using vertical line test, determine which of the following curves (Fig.1.18(a),
1.18(b), 1.18(c), 1.18(d)) represent a function?
Y Y Y
4 4 4
3 3 3
2 2 2
P
1 P 1 1
0 0 0

X′ -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 X
Q X′ -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 X

X′-4 -3 -2 -1 1X
-1 -1 -1
-2 -2 Q -2
P
-3 -3 -3
-4 -4 -4
Y¢ Y¢ Y¢
Fig. 1.18(a) Fig. 1.18(b) Fig. 1.18(c)

Solution The curves in Fig.1.18 (a) and Y
4
Fig.1.18 (c) do not represent a function as the 3
vertical lines meet the curves in two points 2
P and Q. 1
0
The curves in Fig.1.18 (b) and Fig.1.18 (d) P 5 6 X
X′ -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4

-1
represent a function as the vertical lines meet the -2
curve in at most one point. -3

-4
Y¢
Note Fig. 1.18(d)
Any equation represented in a graph is usually called a curve.
Example 1.11 Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {2, 5, 8, 11, 14} be two sets. Let f : A ® B be a
function given by f (x ) = 3x − 1 . Represent this function
(i) by arrow diagram (ii) in a table form
(iii) as a set of ordered pairs (iv) in a graphical form
Solution
A = {1, 2, 3, 4} ; B = {2, 5, 8, 11, 14} ; f (x ) = 3x − 1
f (1) = 3(1) – 1 = 3 – 1 = 2 ; f (2) = 3(2) – 1 = 6 – 1 = 5
f (3) = 3(3) – 1 = 9 – 1 = 8 ; f (4) = 4(3) – 1 = 12 – 1 = 11 A f B

1 2
(i) Arrow diagram 5
2
Let us represent the function f : A ® B by an arrow 8
3 11
diagram (Fig.1.19). 14
4
(ii) Table form Fig. 1.19
The given function f can be represented in a tabular form as given below
x 1 2 3 4
Y
f(x) 2 5 8 11 11 (4, 11)
10
(iii) Set of ordered pairs 9
8 (3, 8)
The function f can be represented as a set of ordered 7
pairs as 6
5 (2, 5)
f = {(1,2),(2,5),(3,8),(4,11)} 4
3
(iv) Graphical form (1, 2)
2
In the adjacent XY -plane the points 1
(1,2), (2,5), (3,8), (4,11) are plotted (Fig.1.20). 0 1 2 3 4 5 X

X′ -1
Y′
Fig. 1.20

1.7 Types of Functions
In this section, we will discuss the following types of functions with suitable examples.
(i) one – one (ii) many – one (iii) onto (iv) into
1.7.1 One – one function

Calls Friends
Let us assume that we have a cell phone with proper working A
#1 B
condition. If you make a usual call to your friend then you can make
#2 C
only one call at a time (Fig.1.21). D
#3
E
If we treat making calls as a function, then it will be one - one. Fig. 1.21
A function f : A ® B is called one – one function if distinct elements of A have distinct

images in B.
A one-one function is also called an injection.
Equivalently,
If for all a1, a2 Î A , f (a1 ) = f (a2 ) implies a1 = a2 , then f is called one – one function.
Illustration 10 A f B
A = {1,2,3,4} and B = {a,b,c,d,e} a
1
b
(i) Let f = {(1,a), (2,b), (3,d), (4,c)} 2 c
3 d
In Fig. 1.22, for different elements in A, there are different
e
images in B. 4
Fig. 1.22
Hence f is a one – one function.
g B
A
(ii) Let g = {(1,b), (2,b), (3,c), (4,e)} a
1
b
g is a function from A to B such that g(1) = g(2) = b , 2 c
but 1 ¹ 2. Thus two distinct elements 1 and 2 in the first set 3 d
A have same image b the second set in B (Fig.1.23). Hence, e
4
g is not a one–one function. Fig. 1.23
Persons Films
1.7.2 Many – one function
P1
In a theatre complex three films F1, F2, F3 are shown. Seven P2
persons (P1 to P7) arrive at the theatre and buy tickets as shown F1
P3
(Fig.1.24). P4 F2
If the selection of films is considered as a relation, then this P5 F3

is a function which is many–one, since more than one person may P6
choose to watch the same film. P7
Fig. 1.24

A function f : A ® B is called many-one function if two or more elements of A have
same image in B.
In other words, a function f : A ® B is called many-one if f it is not one–one.
Illustration 11
Let A = {1,2,3,4} and B = {a,b,c}, f = {(1,a), (2,a), (3,b), (4,c)}
Then f is a function from A to B in which different elements 1 and 2 of A have the

same image a in B. Hence f is a many – one function.
1.7.3 Onto function Calls Persons

C1
In a mobile phone assume that there are 3 persons in the contact. If P1
C2
every person in the contact receives a call, then the function representing
C3 P2
making calls will be onto. (Fig.1.25)
C4 P3
A function f : A ® B is said to be onto function if the range of f is C5
equal to the co-domain of f. Fig. 1.25
In other words, every element in the co-domain B has a pre-image in the domain A.
An onto function is also called a surjection.

Note
If f : A ® B is an onto function then, the range of f = B .
Illustration 12
A f B
Let A = {x , y, z }, B = {l, m, n} ; x l
Range of f = {l, m, n} = B (Fig.1.26) y m
z n
Hence f is an onto function.
Fig. 1.26
1.7.4 Into function
Customers Products
In a home appliance showroom, the products television, air
conditioner, washing machine and water heater were provided C1 television
with 20% discount as new year sale offer. If the selection of the washing machine
C2
above products by the three customers C1, C2, C3 is considered air conditioner
C3 water heater
as a function then the following diagram (Fig.1.27) will represent
an into function. Fig. 1.27
During winter season customers usually do not prefer buying air conditioner. Here
air conditioner is not chosen by any customer. This is an example of into function.

A function f : A ® B is called an into function if there exists atleast one element in B
which is not the image of any element of A.
That is the range of f is a proper subset of the co-domain of f.

In other words, a function f : A ® B is called ‘into’ if it is not ‘onto’.
Illustration 13
Let A = {1,2,3,} and B = {w, x , y, z } , f = {(1, w ),(2, z ),(3,x )}
A f B
Here, range of f = {w, x , z } ⊂ B (Fig.1.28) w
1 x
∴ f is a into function. 2 y
Note that y Î B is not an image of any element in A. 3 z
Fig. 1.28
1.7.5 Bijection
Consider the circle where each letter of the English alphabet

is changed from inner portion to a letter in the outer portion.
Thus A ® D , B ® E , C ® F , … Z ® C . We call this circle as
‘cipher circle’. (Fig.1.29) In this way if we try to change the word
‘HELLO’ then it will become ‘KHOOR’. Now using the same circle
if we substitute for each outer letter the corresponding inner letter Cipher Circle
we will get back the word ‘HELLO’. This process of converting Fig. 1.29
from one form to an other form and receiving back the required information is called
bijection. This process is widely used in the study of secret codes called cryptography.
If a function f : A ® B is both one–one and onto, then f is called a bijection from A to B.
Illustration 14
one to one and onto function (Bijection)

A f B
1 w Distinct elements of A have distinct images

2 x in B and every element in B has a pre-image
3 z in A.
Fig. 1.30

Illustration 15
Note
One to One Many to One
A f B A f B A one – one and onto function
1 a 1 is also called a one – one
b a
2 2 correspondence.
c b
3 d 3
e c
4 f 4
Thinking Corner
Fig. 1.31 Fig. 1.32
Can there be a one to
Distinct elements of A Two or more elements of
many function?
have distinct images in B. A have same image in B.
Onto Into
A f B A f B
1 1 a
a b
2 b 2 c
3 3 d
c e
4 4 f
Fig. 1.33 Fig. 1.34
Range of f = co-domain Range of f is a proper subset of co-domain

( Every element in B has a pre-image in A) (There exists at least one element in B which
is not the image of any element of A)
To determine whether the given function is one–one or not the following test may help us.
1.7.6 Horizontal Line Test
Previously we have seen the vertical line test. Now let us see the horizontal line test.
“A function represented in a graph is one–one, if every horizontal line intersects the curve
in at most one point”.
Example 1.12 Using horizontal line test (Fig.1.35 (a), 1.35 (b), 1.35 (c)), determine which
of the following functions are one – one.
Y Y
Y
P P
X′ O X X′ O X
X′ O X P Q
Y¢ Y¢
Y¢
Fig. 1.35(b) Fig. 1.35(c)
Fig. 1.35(a)
Solution The curves in Fig.1.35 (a) and Fig.1.35 (c) represent a one–one function as the
horizontal lines meet the curves in only one point P.
The curve in Fig. 1.35 (b) does not represent a one–one function, since, the horizontal
line intersects the curve at two points P and Q.

Example 1.13 Let A = {1, 2, 3} , B = {4, 5, 6, 7} and f = {(1, 4),(2, 5),(3, 6)} be a function
from A to B. Show that f is one – one but not onto function.
A f B
Solution A = {1, 2, 3} , B = {4, 5, 6, 7} ; f = {(1, 4),(2, 5),(3, 6)}
4
Then f is a function from A to B and for different elements in 1 5
A, there are different images in B. Hence f is one–one function. Note 2 6
that the element 7 in the co-domain does not have any pre-image in 3 7
the domain. Hence f is not onto (Fig.1.36). Fig. 1.36
∴ f is one–one but not an onto function.
Example 1.14 If A = {−2, −1, 0, 1, 2} and f : A ® B is an onto function defined by
f (x ) = x 2 + x + 1 then find B.
Solution Given A = {−2, −1, 0, 1, 2} and f (x ) = x 2 + x + 1 .
f (-2) = (−2)2 + (−2) + 1 =3;
f (-1) = (−1)2 + (−1) + 1 =1
f(0) = 02 + 0 + 1 =1;
f (1) = 12 + 1 + 1 = 3
f (2) = 22 + 2 + 1 = 7
∴ B = {1, 3, 7} .
Example 1.15 Let f be a function f :  ®  be defined by f (x ) = 3x + 2, x ∈ 

(i) Find the images of 1, 2, 3 (ii) Find the pre-images of 29, 53
(ii) Identify the type of function
Solution The function f :  ®  is defined by f (x ) = 3x + 2
(i) If x = 1, f (1) = 3(1) + 2 = 5
If x = 2, f (2) = 3(2) + 2 = 8
If x = 3 , f (3) = 3(3) + 2 = 11
The images of 1, 2, 3 are 5, 8, 11 respectively.
(ii) If x is the pre-image of 29, then f (x ) = 29 . Hence 3x + 2 = 29
3x = 27 ⇒ x = 9 .
Similarly, if x is the pre-image of 53, then f (x ) = 53 . Hence 3x + 2 = 53
3x = 51 ⇒ x = 17 .
Thus the pre-images of 29 and 53 are 9 and 17 respectively.
(iii) Since different elements of  have different images in the co-domain, the
function f is one – one function.
The co-domain of f is  .
But the range of f = {5, 8, 11, 14, 17, ...} is a proper subset of  .
∴ f is not an onto function. That is, f is an into function.
Thus f is one – one and into function.

Example 1.16 Forensic scientists can determine the height (in cm) of a person based on
the length of the thigh bone. They usually do so using the function h(b) = 2 ⋅ 47b + 54 ⋅ 10
where b is the length of the thigh bone.
(i) Verify the function h is one – one or not.
(ii) Also find the height of a person if the length of his thigh bone is 50 cm.
(iii) Find the length of the thigh bone if the height of a person is 147 × 96 cm.
Solution (i) To check if h is one – one, we assume that h(b1 ) = h(b2 ) .
Then we get, 2 ⋅ 47b1 + 54 ⋅ 10 = 2 ⋅ 47b2 + 54 ⋅ 10
2 × 47b1 = 2 ⋅ 47b2 ⇒ b1 = b2
= 2 ⋅ 47b2 ⇒ b1 = b2
Thus, h(b1 ) = h(b2 ) ⇒ b1 = b2 . So, the function h is one – one.
(ii) If the length of the thigh bone b = 50, then the height is
h(50) = (2 ⋅ 47 × 50) + 54 ⋅ 10 = 177 ⋅ 6 cm.
(iii) If the height of a person is 147 × 96 cm, then h(b) = 147 ⋅ 96 and so the length of
the thigh bone is given by
2 ⋅ 47b + 54 ⋅ 10 = 147 ⋅ 96
Þ 2 ⋅ 47b = 147 ⋅ 96 − 54 ⋅ 10 = 93 ⋅ 86
93 ⋅ 86
b= = 38
2 ⋅ 47
Therefore, the length of the thigh bone is 38 cm.
Activity 3
Check whether the following curves represent a function. In the case of a function,
check whether it is one-one? (Hint: Use the vertical and the horizontal line tests)
Y
(i) Y
(ii) (iii) Y
X′ X X′ X
X′ X
O O O
Y¢ Y¢ Y¢
Y Y Y
(iv) (v) (vi)
X′ X X′ X X′ X
O O O
Y¢ Y¢ Y¢
1.8 Special Cases of Functions

There are some special cases of a function which will be very useful. We discuss
some of them below
(i) Constant function (ii) Identity function (iii) Real – valued function

(i) Constant function
A function f : A ® B is called a constant function if the range of f contains only one
element. That is, f (x ) = c , for all x Î A and for some fixed c Î B . A f B
a
Illustration 16 1
b
From Fig.1.37, A = {a, b, c, d } , B = {1, 2, 3} and 2
c
f = {(a, 3), (b, 3), (c, 3), (d, 3)} . f (x ) = 3 ∀ x Î A , 3
d
Range of f = {3} , f is a constant function. Fig. 1.37
A f B
(ii) Identity function
x x
Let A be a non–empty set. Then the function f : A ® A defined by y y
z z
f (x ) = x for all x Î A is called an identity function on A and is denoted
by IA. Fig. 1.38
Illustration 17
If A = {a, b, c } then f =I A = {(a, a ),(b, b),(c, c)} is an Thinking Corner

identity function on A. Is an identity function
one to one function?
(iii) Real valued function
A function f : A ® B is called a real valued function if the range of f is a subset of
the set of all real numbers  . That is, f (a ) ⊆ , ∀ a ∈ A .
Progress Check
State True or False.

1. All one – one functions are onto functions.
2. There will be no one – one function from A to B when n(A) = 4 , n(B ) = 3 .
3. All onto functions are one – one functions.
4. There will be no onto function from A to B when n(A) = 4 , n(B ) = 5 .
5. If f is a bijection from A to B, then n(A) = n(B ) .
6. If n(A) = n(B ) , then f is a bijection from A to B.
7. All constant functions are bijections.
Example 1.17 Let f be a function from  to  defined by f (x ) = 3x − 5 . Find the values

of a and b given that (a, 4) and (1, b) belong to f.
Solution f (x ) = 3x – 5 can be written as f = {(x , 3x – 5) | x ∈ R}
(a, 4) means the image of a is 4. i.e., f (a ) = 4
3a – 5 = 4 ⇒ a = 3
(1, b) means the image of 1 is b. i.e., f (1) = b
3(1) – 5 = b ⇒ b = –2

2x + 7; x < −2

Example 1.18 If the function ff ::  
R is defined by f (x ) = x − 2; − 2 ≤ x < 3 ,
R ® 2

then find the values of 3x − 2; x ≥3

f (1) - 3 f (4)
(i) f (4) (ii) f (-2) (iii) f (4) + 2 f (1) (iv)
f (-3)
Solution I II III
)[ )[
X′
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 X
The function f is defined by three values in
f(x) = 2x+7 f(x) = x2–2 f(x) = 3x–2
intervals I, II, III as shown by the side Fig. 1.39
For a given value of x = a , find out the interval at which the point a is located, there
after find f (a ) using the particular value defined in that interval.
(i) First, we see that, x = 4 lie in the third interval.
∴ f (x ) = 3x − 2 ; f (4) = 3(4) – 2 = 10
(ii)
x = −2 lies in the second interval.
∴ f (x ) = x 2 – 2 ; f (−2) = (−2)2 – 2 = 2
(iii) From (i), f (4) = 10 .
To find f (1), first we see that x = 1 lies in the second interval.
∴ f (x ) = x 2 – 2 ⇒ f (1) = 12 – 2 = −1
f (4) + 2 f (1) = 10 + 2(−1) = 8
(iv) We know that f (1) = −1 and f (4) = 10 .

For finding f (-3) , we see that x = −3 , lies in the first interval.
∴ f (x ) = 2x + 7 ; thus, f (−3) = 2(−3) + 7 = 1
f (1) - 3 f (4) −1 − 3(10)
Hence, = = −31
f (-3) 1
Exercise 1.4
1. Determine whether the graph given below represent functions. Give reason for your
answers concerning each graph.
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)

Y Y
Y Y
O O O X′
O X
X′ X X′ X X′ X
Y¢ Y¢ Y¢ Y¢

x
2. Let f : A ® B be a function defined by f (x ) = − 1, where A = {2, 4, 6, 10, 12} ,
2
B = {0, 1, 2, 4, 5, 9} . Represent f by
(i) set of ordered pairs (ii) a table (iii) an arrow diagram (iv) a graph
3. Represent the function f = {(1, 2)(

, 2, 2)(
, 3, 2)( , 5, 4)} through
, 4, 3)(
(i) an arrow diagram (ii) a table form (iii) a graph
4. Show that the function f :  ®  defined by f (x ) = 2x – 1 is one-one but not onto.
5. Show that the function f :  ®  defined by f (m ) = m 2 + m + 3 is one-one function.
6. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B =  . Let f : A ® B be defined by f (x ) = x 3 then,

(i) find the range of f (ii) identify the type of function
7. In each of the following cases state whether the function is bijective or not. Justify
your answer.
(i) f :  ®  defined by f (x ) = 2x + 1 (ii) f :  ®  defined by f (x ) = 3 – 4x 2
8. Let A = {−1, 1} and B = {0, 2} . If the function f : A ® B defined by f (x ) = ax + b is

an onto function? Find a and b.
x + 2; x> 1


9. If the function f is defined by f (x ) = 2; − 1 ≤ x ≤1 find the values of

x – 1; − 3 < x < −1

(i) f (3) (ii) f (0) (iii) f (−1 ⋅ 5) (iv) f (2) + f (−2)
10. A function f : [−5, 9] →  is defined as follows:
6x + 1; − 5 ≤ x < 2

f (x ) = 5x 2 − 1; 2≤x <6

3x – 4; 6≤x ≤9

2 f (−2) − f (6)
Find (i) f (−3) + f (2) (ii) f (7) - f (1) (iii) 2 f (4) + f (8) (iv)
f (4) + f (−2)
11. The distance S an object travels under the influence of gravity in time t seconds is
1
given by S (t ) = gt 2 + at + b where, (g is the acceleration due to gravity), a, b are
2
constants. Verify wheather the function S (t ) is one-one or not.
12. The function ‘t’ which maps temperature in Celsius (C) into temperature in
9
Fahrenheit (F) is defined by t(C ) = F where F = C + 32 . Find,
5
(i) t(0) (ii) t(28) (iii) t(-10)
(iv) the value of C when t(C ) = 212
(v) the temperature when the Celsius value is equal to the Farenheit value.

1.9 Composition of Functions
When a car driver depresses the accelerator pedal, A B C
it controls the flow of fuel which in turn influences
f g
the speed of the car. Likewise, the composition of
two functions is a kind of ‘chain reaction’, where the x
f (x)
functions act upon one after another (Fig.1.40). g(f (x))
We can explain this further with the concept that a

function is a ‘process’. If f and g are two functions then the gf
composition g( f (x )) (Fig.1.41) is formed in two steps. Fig. 1.40
(i) Feed an input (say x) to f ;

(ii) Feed the output f(x) to g to get g( f (x )) and call it gf(x).
Illustration A B C
Consider the set A of all students, who appeared in f g
class X of Board Examination. Each student appearing f (a) = b
c = g (b)
Student g (f (a))
in the Board Examination is assigned a roll number. Roll
Code
Numbers
Numbers
In order to have confidentiality, the Board arranges to
deface the roll number of each student and assigns a
code number to each roll number. gf
Fig. 1.41
Let A be the set of all students appearing for the
board exam. B Í  be the set all roll numbers and C Í  be the set of all code numbers
(Fig.1.41). This gives rise to two functions f : A ® B and g : B ® C given by b = f (a ) be
the roll number assigned to student a, c = g(b) be the code number assigned to roll
number b, where a Î A , b Î B and c Î C .
We can write c = g(b) = g(f (a )) .
Thus, by the combination of these two functions, each student is eventually attached
a code number. This idea leads to the following definition. A B C
Definition f g
Let f : A ® B and g : B ® C be two functions

x f(x) g(f(x))
(Fig.1.42). Then the composition of f and g denoted
by g  f is defined as the function g  f (x ) = g( f (x ))
>
∀ x Î A.
gf
Fig. 1.42
Example 1.19 Find f  g and g  f when f (x ) = 2x + 1
and g(x ) = x 2 − 2 Thinking Corner
Solution f (x ) = 2x + 1 , g(x) = x2 – 2 If f (x ) = x m and
f  g(x ) = f (g(x )) = f (x 2 − 2) = 2(x 2 − 2) + 1 = 2x 2 − 3 g(x ) = x n does
f g =g  f ?
g  f (x ) = g( f (x )) = g(2x + 1) = (2x + 1)2 − 2 = 4x 2 + 4x − 1
Thus f  g = 2x 2 − 3, g  f = 4x 2 + 4x − 1 . From the above, we see that f  g ¹ g  f .

Note
Generally, f  g ¹ g  f for any two functions f and g. So, composition of functions is not
commutative.
Example 1.20 Represent the function f (x )= 2x 2 − 5x + 3 as a composition of two functions.

Solution f2 (x )= 2x 2 − 5x + 3 and f1(x )= x
f (x ) = 2x 2 − 5x + 3 = f2 (x )
= f1  f2 (x ) = f1 f2 (x )
Example 1.21 If f (x ) = 3x − 2 , g(x ) = 2x + k and if f  g = g  f , then find the value of k.

Solution f (x ) = 3x − 2 , g(x ) = 2x + k
f  g(x ) = f (g(x )) = f (2x + k ) = 3(2x + k ) − 2 = 6x + 3k − 2
f  g(x ) = 6x + 3k − 2 .
g  f (x ) = g(3x − 2) = 2(3x − 2) + k
g  f (x ) = 6x − 4 + k . The Composition
g  f (x ) exists only
Given that f  g = g  f
when range of f is a
∴ 6x + 3k − 2 = 6x − 4 + k subset of domain of g.
6x − 6x + 3k − k = −4 + 2 ⇒ k = −1
Example 1.22 Find k if f  f (k ) = 5 where f (k ) = 2k − 1 .

Solution f  f (k ) = f (f (k ))
= 2(2k − 1) − 1 = 4k − 3 .
f  f (k ) = 4k − 3
But, f  f (k ) = 5
∴ 4k - 3 = 5 ⇒ k = 2 .
(hg)f=h(gf)
1.9.1 Composition of three functions
gf
Let A, B, C, D be four sets and let
f :A ® B , g :B ®C and h : C ® D be A f B g C h D
three functions (Fig.1.43). Using composite
functions f  g and g  h , we get two new
hg
functions like ( f  g )  h and f  (g  h ) . Fig. 1.43
We observed that the composition of functions is not commutative. The natural
question is about the associativity of the operation.
Note
Composition of three functions is always associative. That is, f  (g  h ) = ( f  g )  h

Example 1.23 If f (x ) = 2x + 3, g(x ) = 1 − 2x and h(x ) = 3x . Prove that f  (g  h ) = (f  g )  h
Solution f (x ) = 2x + 3 , g(x ) = 1 − 2x , h(x ) = 3x
Now,
( f  g )(x ) = f (g(x )) = f (1 − 2x ) = 2(1 − 2x ) + 3 = 5 − 4x
Then,
( f  g )  h(x ) = ( f  g )(h(x )) = ( f  g )(3x ) = 5 − 4(3x ) = 5 − 12x ....(1)
(g  h )(x ) = g(h(x )) = g(3x ) = 1 − 2(3x ) = 1 − 6x
⇒ f  (g  h )(x ) = f (1 − 6x ) = 2(1 − 6x ) + 3 = 5 − 12x ....(2)
From (1) and (2), we get ( f  g )  h = f  (g  h )
Example 1.24 Find x if gff(x) = fgg(x), given f (x ) = 3x + 1 and g(x ) = x + 3 .
Solution gff(x) = g [f {f (x)}] (This means “g of f of f of x”)
= g [ f (3x +1)] = g [ 3(3x +1)+1] = g (9x + 4)

g (9x + 4) = [ (9x + 4) + 3] = 9x + 7
fgg(x) = f [g {g (x)}] (This means “f of g of g of x”)
= f [ g (x + 3)] = f [ (x + 3) + 3] = f (x + 6)
f (x + 6) = [ 3(x + 6) + 1 ] = 3x + 19
These two quantities being equal, we get 9x + 7 = 3x + 19. Solving this equation we
obtain x = 2.
Progress Check
State your answer for the following questions by selecting the correct option.
1. Composition of functions is commutative
(a) Always true (b) Never true (c) Sometimes true
2. Composition of functions is associative
(a) Always true (b) Never true (c) Sometimes true
Activity 4
Given that h(x ) = f  g(x ) , fill in the table for h(x )
How to find h(1) ?
x f(x) x g(x) x h(x)

h(x ) = f  g(x )
1 2 1 2 1 3
2 3 2 4 2 -
h(1) = f  g(1)
3 1 3 3 3 -

= f (2) = 3
4 4 4 1 4 -
∴ h(1) = 3

1.10 Identifying the Graphs of Linear, Quadratic, Cubic and Reciprocal Functions
Graphs provide visualization of curves and functions. Hence, graphs help a lot in
understanding the concepts in a much efficient way.
In this section, we will be discussing about the identification of some of the functions
through their graphs. In particular, we discuss graphs of Linear, Quadratic, Cubic and
Reciprocal functions.
1.10.1 Linear Function

A function f :  ®  defined by f (x ) = mx + c , m ¹ 0 is called a linear function.
Geometrically this represents a straight line in the graph.
Some Specific Linear Functions and their graphs are given below.
No. Function Domain and Definition Graph

1 The identity f :  ®  defined by 4
Y
function f (x ) = x 3
2
1
0
X′ -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 X

-1
-2 f (x ) = x
-3
-4
Y¢
Fig. 1.44
2 Additive inverse f :  ®  defined by 4
Y
function f (x ) = −x 3
2
1
0
X′ -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 X

-1
-2
-3
-4 f (x ) = −x
Y¢
Fig. 1.45
Y
1.10.2 Modulus or Absolute valued Function 5
y =| x |
4
f :  → [0, ∞) defined by f (x ) =| x | 3
2
x ; x ≥ 0 –x x
=  1
−x ; x < 0
 0
X′ -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 X

-1
-2
-3
Y¢
Fig. 1.46

Note
¾¾ Modulus function is not a linear function but it is composed of two linear functions x
and –x.
¾¾ Linear functions are always one-one functions and has applications in Cryptography as
well as in several branches of Science and Technology.
1.10.3 Quadratic Function

A function f :  ®  defined by f (x ) = ax 2 + bx + c, (a ¹ 0) is called a quadratic
function.
Some specific quadratic functions and their graphs
Function, Domain, Range and Definition Graph
Y
f :  ®  defined by f (x ) = x 2 , x ∈ . f (x ) ∈ [0, ∞)
X′ O X
Y′
Fig. 1.47(a)
Y
f :  ®  defined by f (x ) = −x 2 , x ∈ . O
X′ X
f (x ) ∈ (−∞, 0]
Y′
Fig. 1.47(b)
The equations of motion of a particle travelling under the influence of gravity is a

quadratic function of time. These functions are not one – one. (Why?) Y
1.10.4 Cubic Function

X′
A function f :  ®  defined by X
f (x ) = ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + d,(a ≠ 0) is called a cubic function.

The graph of f (x ) = x 3 is shown in Fig.1.48. Fig. 1.48
Y
1.10.5 Reciprocal Function

1
A function f :  − {0} →  defined by f (x ) = X′ O X
x
is called a reciprocal function (Fig.1.49).
Y′
Fig. 1.49

1.10.6 Constant Function Y
C f (x ) = c
A function f :  ®  defined by f (x ) = c, ∀ x Î 
is called a constant function (Fig.1.50). O
x1 x2 X
Fig. 1.50
Progress Check
1. Is a constant function a linear function?
2. Is quadratic function a one – one function?
3. Is cubic function a one – one function?
4. Is the reciprocal function a bijection?
5. If f : A ® B is a constant function, then the range of f will have ____ elements.
Exercise 1.5
1. Using the functions f and g given below, find f  g and g  f . Check whether
f g =g  f .
2
(i) f (x ) = x − 6, g(x ) = x 2 (ii) f (x ) = , g(x ) = 2x 2 − 1
x
x +6
(iii) f (x ) = , g(x ) = 3 − x (iv) f (x ) = 3 + x , g(x ) = x − 4
3
(v) f (x ) = 4x 2 − 1, g(x ) = 1 + x
2. Find the value of k, such that f  g = g  f

(i) f (x ) = 3x + 2, g(x ) = 6x − k (ii) f (x ) = 2x − k, g(x ) = 4x + 5
x +1
3. If f (x ) = 2x − 1, g(x ) = , show that f  g = g  f = x
2
4. If f (x ) = x 2 − 1, g(x ) = x − 2 find a, if g  f (a ) = 1 .
5. Let A, B,C Í  and a function f : A ® B be defined by f (x ) = 2x + 1 and g : B ® C

be defined by g(x ) = x 2 . Find the range of f  g and g  f .
6. Let f (x ) = x 2 − 1 . Find (i) f  f (ii) f  f  f
7. If f :  ®  and g :  ®  are defined by f (x ) = x 5 and g (x ) = x 4 then check if f, g

are one-one and f  g is one-one?

8. Consider the functions f (x ), g(x ), h(x ) as given below. Show that
( f  g )  h = f  (g  h ) in each case.
(i) f (x ) = x − 1, g(x ) = 3x + 1 and h(x ) = x 2

(ii)
f (x ) = x 2 , g(x ) = 2x and h(x ) = x + 4
(iii)
f (x ) = x − 4, g(x ) = x 2 and h(x ) = 3x − 5
9. Let f = {(−1, 3), (0, −1), (2, −9)} be a linear function from  into  . Find f (x).
10. In electrical circuit theory, a circuit C(t) is called a linear circuit if it satisfies the
superposition principle given by C (at1 + bt2 ) = aC (t1 ) + bC (t2 ) , where a, b are
constants. Show that the circuit C (t ) = 3t is linear.
Exercise 1.6
Multiple choice questions

1. If n(A × B ) = 6 and A = {1, 3} then n(B ) is
(A) 1 (B) 2 (C) 3 (D) 6
2. A = {a, b, p}, B = {2, 3}, C = {p, q, r, s} then n[(A ∪ C ) × B ] is

(A) 8 (B) 20 (C) 12 (D) 16
3. If A = {1, 2}, B = {1, 2, 3, 4}, C = {5, 6} and D = {5, 6, 7, 8} then state which of the
following statement is true.
(A) (A ×C ) ⊂ (B × D ) (B) (B × D ) ⊂ (A ×C )
(C) (A × B ) ⊂ (A × D ) (D) (D × A) ⊂ (B × A)
4. If there are 1024 relations from a set A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} to a set B, then the number of
elements in B is
(A) 3 (B) 2 (C) 4 (D) 8
5. The range of the relation R = {(x , x 2 ) | x is a prime number less than 13} is
(A) {2,3,5,7} (B) {2,3,5,7,11}
(C) {4,9,25,49,121} (D) {1,4,9,25,49,121}
6. If the ordered pairs (a + 2, 4) and (5, 2a + b) are equal then (a, b) is

(A) (2, –2) (B) (5,1) (C) (2,3) (D) (3, –2)
7. Let n(A) = m and n(B) = n then the total number of non-empty relations that can
be defined from A to B is
(A) m n (B) n m (C) 2mn - 1 (D) 2mn
8. If {(a, 8),(6, b)} represents an identity function, then the value of a and b are respectively
(A) (8,6) (B) (8,8) (C) (6,8) (D) (6,6)

9. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {4, 8, 9, 10}. A function f : A ® B given by
f = {(1, 4),(2, 8),(3, 9),(4, 10)} is a
(A) Many-one function (B) Identity function

(C) One-to-one function (D) Into function
1
10. If f (x ) = 2x 2 and g(x ) =
, then f  g is
3x
3 2 2 1
(A) 2 (B) 2 (C) 2 (D) 2
2x 3x 9x 6x
11. If f : A ® B is a bijective function and if n(B ) = 7 , then n(A) is equal to
(A) 7 (B) 49 (C) 1 (D) 14
12. Let f and g be two functions given by
f = {(0, 1),(2, 0),(3, −4),(4, 2),(5, 7)}
g = {(0, 2),(1, 0),(2, 4),(−4, 2),(7, 0)} then the range of f  g is
(A) {0,2,3,4,5} (B) {–4,1,0,2,7} (C) {1,2,3,4,5} (D) {0,1,2}
13. Let f (x ) = 1 + x 2 then

(A) f (xy ) = f (x ).f (y ) (B) f (xy ) ³ f (x ).f (y )
(C) f (xy ) £ f (x ).f (y ) (D) None of these
14. If g = {(1, 1),(2, 3),(3, 5),(4, 7)} is a function given by g(x ) = αx + β then the values of
a and b are
(A) (–1,2) (B)(2, –1) (C) (–1, –2) (D) (1,2)
15. f (x ) = (x + 1)3 − (x − 1)3 represents a function which is

(A) linear (B) cubic (C) reciprocal (D) quadratic
Unit Exercise - 1
1. If the ordered pairs (x 2 − 3x , y 2 + 4y ) and (-2, 5) are equal, then find x and y.
2. The cartesian product A×A has 9 elements among which (–1, 0) and (0, 1) are found.
Find the set A and the remaining elements of A×A.
 x − 1 x ≥ 1
3. Given that f (x ) =  . Find
 4 x < 1
 
(i) f (0) (ii) f (3) (iii) f (a + 1) in terms of a.(Given that a ³ 0 )
4. Let A = {9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17} and let f : A ® N be defined by f (n ) = the highest
prime factor of n Î A . Write f as a set of ordered pairs and find the range of f.

5. Find the domain of the function f (x ) = 1 + 1 − 1 − x 2
6. If f (x ) = x 2 , g(x ) = 3x and h(x ) = x − 2 , Prove that ( f  g )  h = f  (g  h ) .
7. Let A = {1, 2} and B = {1, 2, 3, 4} , C = {5, 6} and D = {5, 6, 7, 8} . Verify whether A×C
is a subset of B×D?
x −1 1
8. If f (x ) = , x ≠ −1 show that f ( f (x )) = − , provided x ¹ 0 .
x +1 x
x −2
9. The functions f and g are defined by f (x ) = 6x + 8; g(x ) =
3
 1 

(i) Calculate the value of gg  
 2 
(ii) Write an expression for gf (x ) in its simplest form.
10. Write the domain of the following real functions

2x + 1 −5
(i) f (x ) = (ii) p(x ) = 2 (iii) g(x ) = x − 2 (iv) h(x ) = x + 6
x −9 4x + 1
Points to Remember
zz The Cartesian Product of A with B is defined as A × B = {(a, b) | for all a Î A,
b Î B}
zz A relation R from A to B is always a subset of A ´ B . That is R ⊆ A × B
zz A relation R from X to Y is a function if for every x Î X there exists only one y Î Y .
zz A function can be represented by
(i) an arrow diagram

(ii) a tabular form
(iii) a set of ordered pairs
(iv) a graphical form
zz Some types of functions
(i) One-one function

(ii) Onto function
(iii) Many-one function
(iv) Into function
zz Identity function f (x ) = x
1
zz Reciprocal function f (x ) =
x

zz Constant function f (x ) = c
zz Linear function f (x ) = ax + b , a ¹ 0
zz Quadratic function f (x ) = ax 2 + bx + c , a ¹ 0
zz Cubic function f (x ) = ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + d , a ¹ 0
zz For three non-empty sets A, B and C, if f :A®B and g : B ® C are two

functions, then the composition of f and g is a function g  f : A ® C will be defined
as g  f (x ) = g( f (x )) for all x Î A .
zz If f and g are any two functions, then in general, f  g ¹ g  f
zz If f, g and h are any three functions, then f  (g  h ) = ( f  g )  h
ICT CORNER
ICT 1.1
Step 1: Open the Browser type the URL Link given below (or) Scan the QR Code. GeoGebra work
book named “Relations and Functions–X” will open. In the left side of the work book there are many
activity related to Relations and Functions chapter. Select the work sheet “Functions Identification”
Step 2: In the given worksheet click on the check boxes corresponding to each function on left hand
side. You can see the graph of respective function on Right hand side. Analyse each graph and then
click “New Functions” and continue till you understand.
Step 1 Step 2 Expected results
ICT 1.2
Step 1: Open the Browser type the URL Link given below (or) Scan the QR Code. GeoGebra work
book named “Relations and Functions–X” will open. In the left side of the work book there are many
activity related to Relations and Functions chapter. Select the work sheet “Composition of Functions”
Step 2: In the given worksheet click on the check boxes corresponding to each function on left hand
side. You can see the graph of respective function on Right hand side. Analyse each graph and then
click “New Functions” and continue till you understand.
You can repeat the same steps for other activities
https://www.geogebra.org/m/jfr2zzgy#chapter/356191
or Scan the QR Code.

2
NUMBERS AND SEQUENCES
“I know numbers are beautiful, if they aren’t beautiful, nothing is”
- Paul Erdos
Srinivasa Ramanujan was an Indian mathematical genius

who was born in Erode in a poor family. He was a child prodigy
and made calculations at lightning speed. He produced thousands
of precious formulae, jotting them on his three notebooks which
are now preserved at the University of Madras. With the help of
several notable men, he became the first research scholar in the
mathematics department of University of Madras. Subsequently,
Srinivasa Ramanujan
he went to England and collaborated with G.H. Hardy for five years (1887-1920)
from 1914 to 1919.
He possessed great interest in observing the pattern of numbers and produced
several new results in Analytic Number Theory. His mathematical ability was compared
to Euler and Jacobi, the two great mathematicians of the past Era. Ramanujan wrote
thirty important research papers and wrote seven research papers in collaboration with
G.H. Hardy. He has produced 3972 formulas and theorems in very short span of 32 years
lifetime. He was awarded B.A. degree for research in 1916 by Cambridge University which
is equivalent to modern day Ph.D. Degree. For his contributions to number theory, he was
made Fellow of Royal Society (F.R.S.) in 1918.
His works continue to delight mathematicians worldwide even today. Many
surprising connections are made in the last few years of work made by Ramanujan nearly
a century ago.
Learning Outcomes
zz To study the concept of Euclid’s Division Lemma.
zz To understand Euclid’s Division Algorithm.
zz To find the LCM and HCF using Euclid’s Division Algorithm.
zz To understand the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic.
zz To understand the congruence modulo ‘n’, addition modulo ‘n’ and
multiplication modulo ‘n’.
zz To define sequence and to understand sequence as a function.
zz To define an Arithmetic Progression (A.P.) and Geometric Progression (G.P.).
zz To find the n th term of an A.P. and its sum to n terms.
zz To find the n th term of a G.P. and its sum to n terms.
zz To determine the sum of some finite series such as å n , å n 2 , å n 3 .
2 Numbers and Seq.indd 36 15-12-2020 02:52:34 PM

2.1 Introduction
The study of numbers has fascinated humans
since several thousands of years. The discovery of
Lebombo and Ishango bones which existed around
25000 years ago has confirmed the fact that humans
made counting process for meeting various day to
day needs. By making notches in the bones they
carried out counting efficiently. Most consider
that these bones were used as lunar calendar for
knowing the phases of moon thereby understanding Number carvings in Ishango Bone
the seasons. Thus the bones were considered to be Fig.2.1
the ancient tools for counting. We have come a long
way since this primitive counting method existed.
It is very true that the patterns exhibited by numbers have fascinated almost all
professional mathematicians’ right from the time of Pythagoras to current time. We will be
discussing significant concepts provided by Euclid and continue our journey of studying
Modular Arithmetic and knowing about Sequences and Finite Series. These ideas are
most fundamental to your progress in mathematics for upcoming classes. It is time for us
to begin our journey to understand the most fascinating part of mathematics, namely, the
study of numbers.
2.2 Euclid’s Division Lemma

Euclid, one of the most important mathematicians wrote an important book named
“Elements” in 13 volumes. The first six volumes were devoted to Geometry and for this
reason, Euclid is called the “Father of Geometry”. But in the next few volumes, he made
fundamental contributions to understand the properties of numbers. One among them is
the “Euclid’s Divison Lemma”. This is a simplified version of the long division process that
you were performing for division of numbers in earlier classes.
Le us now discuss Euclid’s Lemma and its application through an Algorithm termed
as “Euclid’s Division Algorithm”.
Lemma is an auxiliary result used for proving an important theorem. It is usually
considered as a mini theorem.
Theorem 1: Euclid’s Division Lemma
Let a and b be any two positive integers. Then, there exist unique integers q and r
such that a = bq + r, 0 ≤ r < b .
Note
� The remainder is always less than the divisor.
� If r = 0 then a = bq so b divides a.
� Conversely, if b divides a then a = bq
Numbers and Sequences 37

Example 2.1 We have 34 cakes. Each box can hold 5 cakes only. How many boxes we
need to pack and how many cakes are unpacked?
Solution We see that 6 boxes are required to pack 30 cakes with 4 cakes left over. This
distribution of cakes can be understood as follows:
34 = 5 × 6 + 4
Total number = Number of cakes × Number of + Number of cakes
of cakes in each box boxes left over
(Dividend) = (Divisor) × (Quotient) + (Remainder)

a b q r
Note
¾¾ The above lemma is nothing but a restatement of the long division process, the integers
q and r are called quotient and remainder respectively.
¾¾ When a positive integer is divided by 2 the remainder is either 0 or 1. So, any positive
integer will of the form 2k, 2k+1 for some integer k.
Euclid’s Division Lemma can be generalised to any two integers.
Generalised form of Euclid’s division lemma
If a and b are (b ¹ 0) any two integers then there exist unique integers q and r such
that a �=bq
� +�r , where 0 ≤r <b
Example 2.2 Find the quotient and remainder when a is divided by b in the following
cases (i) a = −12 , b = 5 (ii) a = 17 , b = −3 (iii) a = −19 , b = −4
Solutions
Thinking Corner
(i) a = −12 , b = 5
When a positive integer is divided by 3
By Euclid’s division lemma
1. What are the possible remainders?
a = bq + r , where 0 ≤ r < b
2. In which form can it be written?
−12 = 5 × (−3) + 3 0≤r < 5
Therefore, Quotient q = −3, Remainder r = 3
(ii)
a = 17 b = −3
By Euclid’s division lemma Progress Check
a = bq + r , where 0 ≤ r < b
17 = (−3) × (−5) + 2 , 0 ≤ r < −3 Find q and r for the following pairs of
integers a and b satisfying a = bq + r .
Therefore Quotient q = −5,
1. a = 13, b = 3
Remainder r = 2
2. a = 18, b = 4
(iii)
a = −19, b = −4 3. a = 21, b = –4
By Euclid’s division lemma 4. a = –32, b = –12
a = bq + r , where 0 ≤ r < b 5. a = –31, b = 7
−19 = (−4) × (5) + 1 , 0 ≤ r < −4
Therefore Quotient q = 5, Remainder r = 1 .

Example 2.3 Show that the square of an odd integer is of the form 4q + 1 , for some
integer q.
Solution Let x be any odd integer. Since any odd integer is one more than an even integer,
we have x = 2k + 1 , for some integers k.
x 2 = (2k + 1)2
= 4k 2 + 4k + 1
= 4k (k + 1) + 1
= 4q + 1 , where q = k (k + 1) is some integer.
2.3 Euclid’s Division Algorithm
In the previous section, we have studied about Euclid’s division lemma and its
applications. We now study the concept Euclid’s Division Algorithm. The word ‘algorithm’
comes from the name of 9th century Persian Mathematician Al-khwarizmi. An algorithm
means a series of methodical step-by-step procedure of calculating successively on the
results of earlier steps till the desired answer is obtained.
Euclid’s division algorithm provides an easier way to compute the Highest Common
Factor (HCF) of two given positive integers. Let us now prove the following theorem.
Theorem 2
If a and b are positive integers such that a = bq + r, then every common divisor of
a and b is a common divisor of b and r and vice-versa.
Euclid’s Division Algorithm
To find Highest Common Factor of two positive integers a and b, where a > b
Step1: Using Euclid’s division lemma a = bq + r ; 0 ≤ r < b. where q is the quotient, r is
the remainder. If r = 0 then b is the Highest Common Factor of a and b.
Step 2: Otherwise applying Euclid’s division lemma divide b by r to get b = rq1 + r1,
0 ≤ r1 < r
Step 3: If r1 = 0 then r is the Highest common factor of a and b.
Step 4: Otherwise using Euclid’s division lemma, repeat the process until we get the
remainder zero. In that case, the corresponding divisor is the HCF of a and b.
Note
¾¾ The above algorithm will always produce remainder zero at some stage. Hence the
algorithm should terminate.
¾¾ Euclid’s Division Algorithm is a repeated application of Division Lemma until we get
zero remainder.
¾¾ Highest Common Factor (HCF) of two positive numbers is denoted by (a,b).
¾¾ Highest Common Factor (HCF) is also called as Greatest Common Divisor (GCD).

Progress Check
1. Euclid’s division algorithm is a repeated application of division lemma until we get

remainder as _____.
2. The HCF of two equal positive integers k, k is _____.
Illustration 1
Using the above Algorithm, let us find HCF of two given positive integers. Let a = 273
and b = 119 be the two given positive integers such that a > b .
We start dividing 273 by 119 using Euclid’s division lemma.
we get, 273 = 119 × 2 + 35 …(1)
The remainder is 35 ¹ 0 .
Therefore, applying Euclid’s Division Algorithm to the divisor 119 and remainder 35.
we get,
119 = 35 × 3 + 14 …(2)
The remainder is 14 ¹ 0 .
Applying Euclid’s Division Algorithm to the divisor 35 and remainder 14.
we get, 35 =14 ×2 +7 …(3)
The remainder is 7 ≠ 0.
Applying Euclid’s Division Algorithm to the divisor 14 and remainder 7.
we get, 14 =7 × 2 +0 …(4)
The remainder at this stage = 0 .
The divisor at this stage = 7 .
Therefore, Highest Common Factor of 273, 119 = 7.
Example 2.4 If the Highest Common Factor of 210 and 55 is expressible in the form
55x - 325 , find x.
Solution Using Euclid’s Division Algorithm, let us find the HCF of given numbers
210 = 55 × 3 + 45
55 = 45 × 1 + 10
45 = 10 × 4 + 5
10 = 5 × 2 + 0
The remainder is zero.
So, the last divisor 5 is the Highest Common Factor (HCF) of 210 and 55.
HCF is expressible in the form 55x − 325 = 5
⇒ 55x = 330
x = 6

Example 2.5 Find the greatest number that will divide 445 and 572 leaving remainders
4 and 5 respectively.
Solution Since the remainders are 4, 5 respectively the required number is the HCF of the
number 445 − 4 = 441, 572 − 5 = 567 .
Hence, we will determine the HCF of 441 and 567. Using Euclid’s Division Algorithm,
we have,
567 = 441 × 1 + 126
441 = 126 × 3 + 63
126 = 63 × 2 + 0
Therefore, HCF of 441, 567 = 63 and so the required number is 63.
Activity 1
This activity helps you to find HCF of two positive numbers. We first observe the
following instructions.
(i) Construct a rectangle whose length and breadth are the given numbers.
(ii) T
ry to fill the rectangle using small squares.
(iii) Try with 1 × 1 square; Try with 2 × 2 square; Try with 3 ´ 3 square and so on.
(iv) The side of the largest square that can fill the whole rectangle without any
gap will be HCF of the given numbers.
(v) Find the HCF of (a) 12,20 (b) 16,24 (c) 11,9
Theorem 3
If a and b are two positive integers with a > b then G.C.D of (a,b) = GCD of (a - b, b) .
Activity 2
This is another activity to determine HCF of two given positive integers.
(i) From the given numbers, subtract the smaller from the larger number.
(ii) From the remaining numbers, subtract smaller from the larger.
(iii) Repeat the subtraction process by subtracting smaller from the larger.
(iv) Stop the process, when the numbers become equal.
(v) The number representing equal numbers obtained in step (iv), will be the
HCF of the given numbers.
Using this Activity, find the HCF of

(i) 90,15 (ii) 80,25 (iii) 40,16 (iv) 23,12 (v) 93,13

Highest Common Factor of three numbers
We can apply Euclid’s Division Algorithm twice to find the Highest Common
Factor (HCF) of three positive integers using the following procedure.
Let a, b, c be the given positive integers.
(i) Find HCF of a,b. Call it as d
d = (a,b)
(ii) Find HCF of d and c.
This will be the HCF of the three given numbers a, b, c
Example 2.6 Find the HCF of 396, 504, 636.

Solution To find HCF of three given numbers, first we have to find HCF of the first two
numbers.
To find HCF of 396 and 504
Using Euclid’s division algorithm we get 504 = 396 × 1 + 108
The remainder is 108 ¹ 0
Again applying Euclid’s division algorithm 396 = 108 × 3 + 72
The remainder is 72 ¹ 0,
The remainder is 36 ¹ 0,
Here the remainder is zero. Therefore HCF of 396, 504 = 36 .
To find the HCF of 636 and 36.
Using Euclid’s division algorithm we get 636 = 36 × 17 + 24
Here the remainder is zero. Therefore HCF of 636,36 = 12
Therefore Highest Common Factor of 396, 504 and 636 is 12.
Two positive integers are said to be relatively prime or co prime if their

Highest Common Factor is 1.
Exercise 2.1
1. Find all positive integers, when divided by 3 leaves remainder 2.

2. A man has 532 flower pots. He wants to arrange them in rows such that each row
contains 21 flower pots. Find the number of completed rows and how many flower
pots are left over.

3. Prove that the product of two consecutive positive integers is divisible by 2.
4. When the positive integers a , b and c are divided by 13, the respective remainders are
9,7 and 10. Show that a+b+c is divisible by 13.
5. Prove that square of any integer leaves the remainder either 0 or 1 when divided by 4.
6. Use Euclid’s Division Algorithm to find the Highest Common Factor (HCF) of
(i) 340 and 412 (ii) 867 and 255
(iii)10224 and 9648 (iv) 84, 90 and 120
7. Find the largest number which divides 1230 and 1926 leaving remainder 12 in each
case.
8. If d is the Highest Common Factor of 32 and 60, find x and y satisfying d = 32 x + 60 y .
9. A positive integer when divided by 88 gives the remainder 61. What will be the
remainder when the same number is divided by 11?
10. Prove that two consecutive positive integers are always coprime.
2.4 Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic
Let us consider the following conversation between a Teacher and students.
Teacher : Factorise the number 240.
Malar : 24 ×10
Raghu : 8×30
Iniya : 12×20
Kumar : 15×16
Malar : Whose answer is correct Sir?
Teacher : All the answers are correct.
Raghu : How sir?
Teacher : Split each of the factors into product of prime numbers.
Malar : 2×2×2×3×2×5
Raghu : 2×2×2×2×3×5
Iniya : 2×2×3×2×2×5
Kumar : 3×5×2×2×2×2
Teacher : Good! Now, count the number of 2’s, 3’s and 5’s.
Malar : I got four 2’s, one 3 and one 5.
Raghu : I got four 2’s, one 3 and one 5.
Iniya : I also got the same numbers too.
Kumar : Me too sir.
Malar : All of us got four 2’s, one 3 and one 5. This is very surprising to us.
Teacher : Yes, It should be. Once any number is factorized up to a product of
prime numbers, everyone should get the same collection of prime
numbers.
This concept leads us to the following important theorem.

Theorem 4 (Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic) (without proof )
“Every positive integer (except the number 1) can be represented in exactly one
way apart from rearrangement as a product of one or more primes.”
The fundamental theorem
N
asserts that every composite
number can be decomposed as a
product of prime numbers and that
x1 x2 x3
the decomposition is unique. In the
sense that there is one and only way
to express the decomposition as
y1 y2 y3 y4 y5 y6
product of primes.
...
...
...
...
...
...
In general, we conclude that
q q q q
given a composite number N, we p1 p2 p3 p4 ...
q
1 2 3 4
pn n
decompose it uniquely in the form Fig.2.2

N = p1 × p2 × p3 ×  × pn where p1, p2, p3,..., pn are primes and q1, q2, q 3,..., qn are natural
q q 1
q 2
q 3 n
numbers.
First, we try to factorize N into its factors. If all the
Thinking Corner
factors are themselves primes then we can stop. Otherwise,
we try to further split the factors which are not prime. Is 1 a prime number?
Continue the process till we get only prime numbers.
Illustration
Progress Check
For example, if we try to factorize
32760 we get 1. Every natural number except ______
can be expressed as ______.
32760 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 5 × 7 × 13
2. In how many ways a composite
= 23 × 32 × 51 × 71 × 131
number can be written as product of
Thus, in whatever way we try to power of primes?
factorize 32760, we should finally get three
3. The number of divisors of any prime
2’s, two 3’s, one 5, one 7 and one 13. number is ______.
The fact that “Every composite number
can be written uniquely as the product of power of primes” is called Fundamental
Theorem of Arithmetic.
2.4.1 Significance of the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic

The fundamental theorem about natural numbers except 1, that we have stated
above has several applications, both in Mathematics and in other fields. The theorem is
vastly important in Mathematics, since it highlights the fact that prime numbers are the
‘Building Blocks’ for all the positive integers. Thus, prime numbers can be compared to
atoms making up a molecule.

1. If a prime number p divides ab then either p divides a or p divides b,
that is p divides at least one of them.
2. If a composite number n divides ab, then n neither divide a nor b.
For example, 6 divides 4 × 3 but 6 neither divide 4 nor 3.
m
Example 2.7 In the given factorisation, find the numbers m and n.
Solution Value of the first box from bottom = 5 × 2 = 10 2
Value of n = 5 × 10 = 50
Value of the second box from bottom = 3 × 50 = 150 3 n
Value of m = 2 × 150 = 300 5

Thus, the required numbers are m = 300, n = 50
Example 2.8 Can the number 6n , n being a natural number end with 5 2
Fig.2.3
the digit 5? Give reason for your answer.
Solution Since 6n = (2 × 3)n = 2n × 3n , Progress Check
2 is a factor of 6n . So, 6n is always even.
1. Let m divides n. Then GCD
But any number whose last digit is 5 is always odd. and LCM of m, n are ____ and
Hence, 6n cannot end with the digit 5. ____.
Example 2.9 Is 7 × 5 × 3 × 2 + 3 a composite 2. The HCF of numbers of the

number? Justify your answer. form 2m and 3n is _____.
Solution Yes, the given number is a composite number, because
7 × 5 × 3 × 2 + 3 = 3 × (7 × 5 × 2 + 1) = 3 × 71
Since the given number can be factorized in terms of two primes, it is a composite
number.
Example 2.10 ‘a’ and ‘b’ are two positive integers such that a b × ba = 800. Find ‘a’ and ‘b’.
Solution The number 800 can be factorized as
Thinking Corner
800 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 5 × 5 = 2 × 5
5 2
Can you think of positive

Hence, a b × ba = 25 × 52 integers a, b such that a b = ba ?
This implies that a = 2 and b = 5 (or) a = 5 and b = 2 .
Activity 3
Can you find the 4-digit pin number ‘pqrs’ of an

ATM card such that p 2 × q 1 × r 4 × s 3 =3, 15, 000 ?
Fig.2.4

Exercise 2.2
1. For what values of natural number n, 4n can end with the digit 6?
2. If m, n are natural numbers, for what values of m, does 2n ´ 5m ends in 5?
3. Find the HCF of 252525 and 363636.
4. If 13824 = 2a × 3b then find a and b.
5. If p1x × p2x × p3x × p4x = 113400 where p1, p2 , p3 , p4 are primes in ascending order and
1 2 3 4
x 1, x 2 , x 3 , x 4 are integers, find the value of p1, p2 , p3 , p4 and x 1, x 2 , x 3 , x 4 .

6. Find the LCM and HCF of 408 and 170 by applying the fundamental theorem of
arithmetic.
7. Find the greatest number consisting of 6 digits which is exactly divisible by 24,15,36?
8. What is the smallest number that when divided by three numbers such as 35, 56 and
91 leaves remainder 7 in each case?
9. Find the least number that is divisible by the first ten natural numbers.
2.5 Modular Arithmetic

In a clock, we use the numbers 1 to 12 to represent the time
period of 24 hours. How is it possible to represent the 24 hours of
a day in a 12 number format? We use 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11,
12 and after 12, we use 1 instead of 13 and 2 instead of 14 and so
on. That is after 12 we again start from 1, 2, 3,... In this system the
numbers wrap around 1 to 12. This type of wrapping around after
hitting some value is called Modular Arithmetic. Fig.2.5
In Mathematics, modular arithmetic is a system of arithmetic
for integers where numbers wrap around a certain value.
Unlike normal arithmetic, Modular Arithmetic process cyclically.
The ideas of Modular arithmetic was developed by great German
mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss, who is hailed as the “Prince of
mathematicians”.
Examples
1. The day and night change repeatedly.
Life Cycle of Plant
2. The days of a week occur cyclically from Sunday to Saturday.
3. The life cycle of a plant.
4. The seasons of a year change cyclically. (Summer, Autumn,
Winter, Spring)
5. The railway and aeroplane timings also work cyclically. The
railway time starts at 00:00 and continue. After reaching
23:59, the next minute will become 00:00 instead of 24:00.
Fig.2.6

2.5.1 Congruence Modulo
Two integers a and b are congruence modulo n if they differ by an integer multiple
of n. That a − b = kn for some integer k. This can also be written as a º b (mod n).
Here the number n is called modulus. In other words, a º b (mod n) means a - b is
divisible by n.
For example, 61 º 5 (mod 7) because 61 – 5 = 56 is divisible by 7.
Note
¾¾ When a positive integer is divided by n, then the possible remainders are 0, 1, 2, . . . ,
n - 1.
¾¾ Thus, when we work with modulo n, we replace all the numbers by their remainders
upon division by n, given by 0,1,2,3,..., n - 1 .
Two illustrations are provided to understand modulo concept more clearly.
Illustration 1 8
To find 8 (mod 4)
4
With a modulus of 4 (since the possible remainders are 0, 1, 2, 3)
we make a diagram like a clock with numbers 0,1,2,3. We start at 0 0
7 3 3 1 1 5
and go through 8 numbers in a clockwise sequence 1, 2, 3, 0, 1, 2, 3, 2
0. After doing so cyclically, we end at 0. 2
Therefore, 8 º 0 (mod 4) 6
Fig.2.7
Illustration 2
To find -5 (mod 3) 3
With a modulus of 3 (since the possible remainders are 0, 1, 2)
we make a diagram like a clock with numbers 0, 1, 2. 0
We start at 0 and go through 5 numbers in anti-clockwise 2 1
2
1 5
sequence 2, 1, 0, 2, 1. After doing so cyclically, we end at 1.
4
Therefore, −5 ≡ 1 (mod 3)
Fig.2.8
2.5.2 Connecting Euclid’s Division lemma and Modular Arithmetic
Let m and n be integers, where m is positive. Then by Euclid’s division lemma, we can
write n = mq + r where 0 ≤ r < m and q is an integer. Instead of writing n = mq + r we
can use the congruence notation in the following way.
We say that n is congruent to r modulo
m, if n = mq + r for some integer q. Progress Check
n = mq + r 1. Two integers a and b are congruent
n–r = mq modulo n if ___________.
2. The set of all positive integers which
n–r º 0 (mod m) leave remainder 5 when divided by
n º r (mod m) 7 are ___________.
Thus the equation n = mq + r through Euclid’s Division lemma can also be written
as n º r (mod m).

Note
Two integers a and b are congruent modulo m, Thinking Corner
written as a º b (mod m), if they leave the How many integers exist which leave
same remainder when divided by m. a remainder of 2 when divided by 3?
2.5.3 Modulo operations
Similar to basic arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction and multiplication
performed on numbers we can think of performing same operations in modulo arithmetic.
The following theorem provides the information of doing this.
Theorem 5
a, b, c and d are integers and m is a positive integer such that if a º b (mod m) and
c º d (mod m) then
(i) (a + c) ≡ (b + d ) (mod m) (ii) (a − c) ≡ (b − d ) (mod m)
(iii) (a × c) ≡ (b × d ) (mod m)
Illustration 3
If 17 º 4 (mod 13) and 42 º 3 (mod 13) then from theorem 5,
(i) 17 + 42 ≡ 4 + 3 (mod 13)
59 º 7 (mod 13)
(ii)
17 - 42 ≡ 4 − 3 (mod 13)
-25 º 1 (mod 13)
(iii)
17 ´ 42 ≡ 4 × 3 (mod 13)
714 º 12 (mod 13)

Theorem 6
If a º b (mod m) then
(i) ac º bc (mod m) (ii) a ± c º b ± c (mod m) for any integer c
Progress Check
1. The positive values of k such that (k − 3) ≡ 5 (mod11) are _________.
2. If 59 º3 (mod 7), 46 º4 (mod 7) then 105 º _______ (mod 7),
13 º _______ (mod 7), 413 º _______ (mod 7), 368 ≡ _______ (mod 7).
3. The remainder when 7 ´ 13 ´ 19 ´ 23 ´ 29 ´ 31 is divided by 6 is ________.

Example 2.11 Find the remainders when 70004 and 778 is divided by 7.
Solution Since 70000 is divisible by 7
70000 º 0 (mod 7)
70000 + 4 ≡ 0 + 4 (mod 7)
70004 º 4 (mod 7)
Therefore, the remainder when 70004 is divided by 7 is 4.
777 is divisible by 7
777 º 0 (mod 7)
777 + 1 ≡ 0 + 1 (mod 7)
778 º 1 (mod 7)
Therefore, the remainder when 778 is divided by 7 is 1.
Example 2.12 Determine the value of d such that 15 º 3 (mod d).

Solution 15 º 3 (mod d) means 15 − 3 = kd, for some integer k.
12 = kd.
⇒ d divides 12.
The divisors of 12 are 1,2,3,4,6,12. But d should be larger than 3 and so the possible
values for d are 4,6,12.
Example 2.13 Find the least positive value of x such that

(i) 67 + x ≡ 1 (mod 4) (ii) 98 ≡ (x + 4) (mod 5)
Solution (i) 67 + x º 1 (mod 4)

67 + x − 1 = 4n , for some integer n
66 + x = 4n
66 + x is a multiple of 4.
Therefore, the least positive value of x must be 2, since 68 is the nearest
multiple of 4 more than 66.
(ii) 98 ≡ (x + 4) (mod 5)
98 − (x + 4) = 5n , for some integer n.
94 - x = 5n
94 - x is a multiple of 5.
Therefore, the least positive value of x must be 4
94 − 4 = 90 is the nearest multiple of 5 less than 94.

Note
While solving congruent equations, we get infinitely many solutions compared to
finite number of solutions in solving a polynomial equation in Algebra.
Example 2.14 Solve 8x º 1 (mod 11)

Solution 8x º 1 (mod 11) can be written as 8x − 1 = 11k, for some integer k.
11k + 1
x=
8
When we put k = 5, 13, 21, 29,... then 11k+1 is divisible by 8.
11 × 5 + 1
x= =7
8
11 × 13 + 1
x= = 18
8
∴ The solutions are 7,18,29,40, …
Example 2.15 Compute x, such that 104 º x (mod 19)
Solution 102 = 100 ≡ 5 (mod 19)

104 = (102 )2 ≡ 52 (mod 19)
104 º 25 (mod 19)
104 º 6 (mod 19) ( 25 ≡ 6 (mod 19))
∴ x = 6.
Example 2.16 Find the number of integer solutions of 3x º 1 (mod 15).
Solution 3x º 1 (mod 15) can be written as

3x − 1 = 15k for some integer k
3x = 15k + 1
15k + 1
x=
3
1
x = 5k +
3
1
5k is an integer, 5k + cannot be an integer.
3
So there is no integer solution.
Example 2.17 A man starts his journey from Chennai to Delhi by train. He starts at 22.30
hours on Wednesday. If it takes 32 hours of travelling time and assuming that the train is
not late, when will he reach Delhi?

Solution Starting time 22.30, Travelling time 32 hours. Here we use modulo 24.
The reaching time is

22.30 + 32 (mod 24) º 54.30 (mod24)
º6.30 (mod24) ( 32 = (1×24) + 8
Thursday Friday)
Thus, he will reach Delhi on Friday at 6.30 hours.
Example 2.18 Kala and Vani are friends. Kala says, “Today is my birthday” and she
asks Vani, “When will you celebrate your birthday?” Vani replies, “Today is Monday
and I celebrated my birthday 75 days ago”. Find the day when Vani celebrated her
birthday.
Solution Let us associate the numbers 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 to represent the weekdays from
Sunday to Saturday respectively.
Vani says today is Monday. So the number for Monday is 1. Since Vani’s birthday was
75 days ago, we have to subtract 75 from 1 and take the modulo 7, since a week contain 7
days.
–74 (mod 7) º –4 (mod 7) º 7–4 (mod 7) º 3 (mod 7)
( −74 – 3 = −77 is divisible by 7)
Thus, 1 − 75 ≡ 3 (mod 7)
The day for the number 3 is Wednesday.
Therefore, Vani’s birthday must be on Wednesday.
Exercise 2.3
1. Find the least positive value of x such that
(i) 71 º x (mod 8) (ii) 78 + x ≡ 3 (mod 5) (iii) 89 ≡ (x + 3) (mod 4)
x
(iv) 96 º (mod 5) (v) 5x º 4 (mod 6)
7
2. If x is congruent to 13 modulo 17 then 7x - 3 is congruent to which number modulo 17?
3. Solve 5x º 4 (mod 6)
4. Solve 3x − 2 ≡ 0 (mod 11)
5. What is the time 100 hours after 7 a.m.?
6. What is the time 15 hours before 11 p.m.?
7. Today is Tuesday. My uncle will come after 45 days. In which day my uncle will be
coming?
8. Prove that 2n + 6 × 9n is always divisible by 7 for any positive integer n.
9. Find the remainder when 281 is divided by 17.

10. The duration of flight travel from Chennai to London through British Airlines is
approximately 11 hours. The airplane begins its journey on Sunday at 23:30 hours. If
the time at Chennai is four and half hours ahead to that of London’s time, then find
the time at London, when will the flight lands at London Airport.
2.6 Sequences
Consider the following pictures.

There is some pattern
or arrangement in these 0.5 ft.
pictures. In the first picture, 0.5 ft.
the first row contains one 0.5 ft.
apple, the second row 0.5 ft.
contains two apples and in
Fig.2.9
the third row there are three
apples etc... The number of apples in each of the rows are 1, 2, 3, ...
In the second picture each step have 0.5 feet height. The total height of the steps from
the base are 0.5 feet,1 feet, 1.5 feet,... In the third picture one square, 3 squares, 5 squares,
... These numbers belong to category called “Sequences”.
Definition
A real valued sequence is a function defined on the set of natural numbers and
taking real values.
Each element in the sequence is called a term of the sequence. The element in the
first position is called the first term of the sequence. The element in the second position
is called second term of the sequence and so on.
If the n th term is denoted by an , then a1 is the first term, a2 is the second term, and so on.
A sequence can be written as a1, a2 , a 3 ,..., an ,...
Illustration
1. 1,3,5,7,... is a sequence with general term an = 2n − 1 . When we put n = 1, 2, 3,..., we
get a1 =1, a2 = 3, a 3 = 5, a 4 = 7,...
1 1 1 1 1
2. , , , ,... is a sequence with general term . When we put n = 1,2,3,.... we get
2 3 4 5 n +1
1 1 1 1
a1 = , a2 = , a 3 = , a 4 = ,...
2 3 4 5
If the number of elements in a sequence is finite then it is called a Finite sequence.
If the number of elements in a sequence is infinite then it is called an Infinite sequence.

Sequence as a Function N f R
1 a1
A sequence can be considered as a function defined on the
2 a2
set of natural numbers  . In particular, a sequence is a function 3 a3
®
ff :: N
N ® R3, where  3is the set of all real numbers.
R 4 a4
5 a5
If the sequence is of the form a1, a2 , a 3 ,... then we can associate  
the function to the sequence a1, a2 , a 3 ,... by f (k ) = ak , k = 1,2,3,...
Fig 2.10
Progress Check
1. Fill in the blanks for the following sequences

(i) 7, 13, 19, _____ , ... (ii) 2, _____, 10, 17, 26,…
(iii) 1000, 100, 10, 1, _____, ...
2. A sequence is a function defined on the set of _____.
3. The nth term of the sequence 0,2,6,12,20,... can be expressed as _____.
4. Say True or False
(i) All sequences are functions (ii) All functions are sequences.
Example 2.19 Find the next three terms of the sequences

1 1 1 1
(i) , , , , . . . . (ii) 5, 2, -1, -4,. . . . (iii) 1, 0.1, 0.01,. . .
2 6 10 14
1 1 1 1
Solution (i) , , , ,
2 6 10 14 ...
+4 +4 +4
In the above sequence the numerators are same and the denominator is increased by 4.
1 1
So the next three terms are a 5 = =
14 + 4 18
Note
1 1
a 6 = = Though all the sequences
18 + 4 22
are functions, not all the
1 1 functions are sequences.
a 7 = =
22 + 4 26
(ii) 5, 2, –1, –4, ...

–3 –3 –3
Here each term is decreased by 3. So the next three terms are -7, -10, -13 .
(iii) 1, 0.1, 0.01, ...

√ 10 √ 10

Here each term is divided by 10. Hence, the next three terms are
0.01
a4 = = 0.001
10
0.001
a5 = = 0.0001
10
0.0001
a6 = = 0.00001
10
Example 2.20 Find the general term for the following sequences
1 2 3
(i) 3, 6, 9,... (ii) , , ,... (iii) 5, -25, 125,...
2 3 4
Solution (i) 3, 6, 9,...
Here the terms are multiples of 3. So the general term is
an = 3n,
1 2 3
(ii) , , ,...
2 3 4
1 2 3
a1 = ; a 2 = ; a 3 =
2 3 4
We see that the numerator of nth term is n, and the denominator is one
n
more than the numerator. Hence, an = ,n ∈ 
n +1
(iii) 5, -25, 125,...
The terms of the sequence have + and – sign alternatively and also they are
in powers of 5.
So the general term an = (−1)n +1 5n , n ∈ 
Example 2.21 The general term of a sequence is defined as

n (n + 3); n ∈  is odd

an = 

n 2 + 1 ; n ∈  is even


Find the eleventh and eighteenth terms.
Solution To find a11 , since 11 is odd, we put n = 11 in an = n(n + 3)
Thus, the eleventh term a11 =11(11 + 3) = 154 .
To find a18 , since 18 is even, we put n = 18 in an = n 2 + 1
Thus, the eighteenth term a18 = 182 + 1 = 325.
Example 2.22 Find the first five terms of the following sequence.
an −1
a1 = 1 , a 2 = 1 , a n = ; n ≥ 3, n ∈ 
an −2 + 3
Solution The first two terms of this sequence are given by a1 = 1 , a2 = 1 . The third term
a3 depends on the first and second terms.

a 3−1 a2 1 1
a 3 = = = =
a 3−2 + 3 a1 + 3 1+3 4
Similarly the fourth term a 4 depends upon a2 and a 3 .
1 1
a 4−1 a3 1 1 1
a4 = = = 4 = 4 = × =
a 4−2 + 3 a2 + 3 1 + 3 4 4 4 16
In the same way, the fifth term a 5 can be calculated as
1
a 5−1 a4 16 1 4 1
a 5 = = = = × =
a 5−2 + 3 a3 + 3 1 16 13 52
+3
4
1 1 1
Therefore, the first five terms of the sequence are 1, 1, , , and
4 16 52
Exercise 2.4
1. Find the next three terms of the following sequence.

1 2 3
(i) 8, 24, 72, … (ii) 5, 1, -3, … (iii)
, , ,…
4 9 16
2. Find the first four terms of the sequences whose nth terms are given by
(i) an = n 3 − 2 (ii) an = (−1)n +1 n(n + 1) (iii) an = 2n 2 − 6
3. Find the n th term of the following sequences

1 2
(i) 2, 5, 10, 17,... (ii) 0, , ,... (iii) 3, 8, 13, 18,...
2 3
4. Find the indicated terms of the sequences whose n th terms are given by
5n
(i) an = ; a6 and a13 (ii) an = − (n 2 − 4); a 4 and a11
n +2
n 2 − 1
 ; n is even, n ∈ 
th n + 3

5. Find a8 and a15 whose n term is an =  2
 n
 ; n is odd, n ∈ 
 2n + 1
6. If a1 = 1, a2 = 1 and an = 2 an −1 + an −2, n ≥ 3, n ∈  , then find the first six terms of the
sequence.
2.7 Arithmetic Progression
Let us begin with the following two illustrations.
Illustration 1
Make the following figures using match sticks
(i) How many match sticks are required for
each figure? 3, 5, 7 and 9. Fig.2.11
(ii) C
an we find the difference between the successive numbers?
5 − 3 = 7 − 5 = 9 − 7 = 2
Therefore, the difference between successive numbers is always 2.

Illustration 2
A man got a job whose initial monthly salary is fixed at ₹10,000 with an annual
increment of ₹ 2000 . His salary during 1st , 2nd and 3rd years will be ₹ 10000 , ₹ 12000 and
₹14000 respectively.
If we now calculate the difference of the salaries for the successive years, we get
12000 – 10000 = 2000; 14000 – 12000 = 2000 . Thus the difference between the successive
numbers (salaries) is always 2000.
Did you observe the common property behind these two illustrations? In these two
examples, the difference between successive terms always remains constant. Moreover,
each term is obtained by adding a fixed number (2 and 2000 in illustrations 1 and 2
presented above) to the preceding term except the first term. This fixed number which is
a constant for the differences between successive terms is called the “common difference”.
Definition
Let a and d be real numbers. Then the numbers of the form a, a + d , a + 2d ,
a + 3d , a + 4d , ... is said to form Arithmetic Progression denoted by A.P. The
number ‘a’ is called the first term and ‘d’ is called the common difference.
Simply, an Arithmetic Progression is a sequence whose successive terms differ by a
constant number. Thus, for example, the set of even positive integers 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12,… is
an A.P. whose first term is a = 2 and common difference is also d = 2 since 4 − 2 = 2,
6 − 4 = 2, 8 − 6 = 2, …
Most of common real−life situations often produce numbers in A.P.
Note
¾¾ The difference between any two consecutive terms of an A.P. is always constant. That
constant value is called the common difference.
¾¾ If there are finite numbers of terms in an A.P. then it is called Finite Arithmetic
Progression. If there are infinitely many terms in an A.P. then it is called Infinite
Arithmetic Progression.
2.7.1 Terms and Common Difference of an A.P.
1. The terms of an A.P. can be written as

t1 = a = a + (1 − 1)d , t2 = a + d = a + (2 − 1)d ,
t3 = a + 2d = a + (3 − 1)d , t4 = a + 3d = a + (4 − 1)d , . . .
In general, the nth term denoted by tn can be written as tn = a + (n − 1)d .
In an AP, nth term is, tn = a + (n − 1)d , here, a is the first term, d is the common difference.

2. In general to find the common difference of an A.P. we should subtract first term
from the second term, second from the third and so on.
For example, t1 = a, t2 = a + d
∴ t2 − t1 = (a + d ) − a = d
Similarly, t2 = a + d, t3 = a + 2d,...
∴ t3 − t2 = (a + 2d ) − (a + d ) = d
In general, d = t2 − t1 = t3 − t2 = t4 − t3 = ....
d = tn − tn −1 for n = 2, 3, 4,...
Progress Check
1. The difference between any two consecutive terms of an A.P. is _______.

2. If a and d are the first term and common difference of an A.P. then the 8th term is
_______.
3. If tn is the n th term of an A.P., then t2n -tn is _______.
Let us try to find the common differences

The common difference of
of the following A.P.’s
an A.P. can be positive, negative or zero.
(i) 1, 4, 7, 10,¼
d = 4 − 1 = 7 − 4 = 10 − 7 = ... = 3
Thinking Corner
(ii) 6, 2, −2, −6,…
If tn is the n th term of an A.P. then
d = 2 − 6 = −2 − 2 = −6 − (−2) = ... = −4
the value of tn +1 −tn −1 is _______.
Example 2.23 Check whether the following sequences are in A.P. or not?
(i) x + 2, 2x + 3, 3x + 4,... (ii) 2, 4, 8, 16,.... (iii) 3 2, 5 2, 7 2, 9 2,...
Solution To check that the given sequence is in A.P., it is enough to check if the differences
between the consecutive terms are equal or not.
(i) t2 - t1 = (2x + 3) − (x + 2) = x + 1
t3 - t2 = (3x + 4) − (2x + 3) = x + 1
t2 - t1 = t3 − t2
Thus, the differences between consecutive terms are equal.
Hence the sequence x + 2, 2x + 3, 3x + 4,... is in A.P.
(ii) t2 - t1 = 4 − 2 = 2
t3 - t2 = 8 − 4 = 4
t2 - t1 ≠ t3 − t2
Thus, the differences between consecutive terms are not equal. Hence the terms
of the sequence 2, 4, 8, 16, . . . are not in A.P.

(iii) t2 - t1 = 5 2 − 3 2 = 2 2
t 3 - t2 = 7 2 − 5 2 = 2 2
t4 - t3 = 9 2 − 7 2 = 2 2
Thus, the differences between consecutive terms are equal. Hence the terms of the
sequence 3 2, 5 2, 7 2, 9 2,... are in A.P.
Example 2.24 Write an A.P. whose first term is 20 and common difference is 8.
Solution First term = a = 20 ; common difference = d= 8
Arithmetic Progression is a, a + d, a + 2d, a + 3d,...
In this case, we get 20, 20 + 8, 20 + 2(8), 20 + 3(8),...
So, the required A.P. is 20, 28, 36, 44, … Note
An Arithmetic progression having a common difference of zero is called a constant
arithmetic progression.
Activity 4
There are five boxes here. You have to pick one number from each box and form five
Arithmetic Progressions.
8 6 14 1 26 3.5 20 11 32 8.5
–8 40 –14 –11 –2
12 85 –5 2 7 55 –3 70 17 100
Example 2.25 Find the 15th , 24th and n th term (general term) of an A.P. given by 3, 15,
27, 39,…
Solution We have, first term = a = 3 and common difference = d = 15 − 3 = 12 .
We know that n th term (general term) of an A.P. with first term a and common
difference d is given by tn = a + (n − 1)d
t15 =a +(15 − 1)d = a + 14d = 3 + 14 (12) = 171
(Here a = 3 and d = 12)
t24 = a + (24 − 1)d =a +23d =3 +23(12) = 279
The n th (general term) term is given by tn = a + (n − 1) d
Thus, tn = 3 + (n − 1)12
tn = 12n − 9

Note
In a finite A.P. whose first term is a and last term l, then the number of terms in the A.P. is
l − a 
given by l = a + (n − 1)d ⇒ n =   + 1
 d 
Example 2.26 Find the number of terms in the A.P. 3, 6, 9, 12,…, 111.
Solution
Progress Check
First term a = 3 ; common difference
d = 6 − 3 = 3 ; last term l = 111 1. The common difference of a
l − a  constant A.P. is _______.
We know that, n =   + 1 2. If a and l are first and last terms of
 d 
an A.P. then the number of terms is
111 − 3 
n =   + 1 = 37 _______.
 3 
Thus the A.P. contain 37 terms.
Example 2.27 Determine the general term of an A.P. whose 7th term is −1 and 16th term
is 17.
Solution Let the A.P. be t1, t2 , t3 , t4 ,...
It is given that t7 = −1 and t16 = 17

a + (7 − 1)d = −1 and a + (16 − 1)d = 17
a + 6d = −1 ...(1)
a + 15d = 17 ...(2)
Subtracting equation (1) from equation (2), we get 9d = 18 ⇒ d = 2
Putting d = 2 in equation (1), we get a + 12 = −1 ∴ a = –13
Hence, general term tn = a + (n − 1)d
= −13 + (n − 1) × 2 = 2n − 15
Example 2.28 If l th , m th and nth terms of an A.P. are x, y, z respectively, then show that
(i) x (m − n ) + y (n − l ) + z (l − m ) = 0 (ii) (x − y )n + (y − z )l + (z− x )m = 0
Solution (i) Let a be the first term and d be the common difference. It is given that
tl = x , tm = y, tn = z
Using the general term formula

a + (l − 1)d = x ...(1)
a + (m − 1)d = y ...(2)
a + (n −1)d = z ...(3)

We have, x (m − n ) + y(n − l ) + z (l − m )
= a[(m − n ) + (n − l ) + (l − m )] + d [(m − n )(l − 1) + (n − l )(m − 1) + (l − m )(n − 1)]
= a[0] + d[lm − ln − m + n + mn − lm − n + l + ln − mn − l + m ]
= a(0) + d (0) = 0
(ii) On subtracting equation (2) from equation (1), equation (3) from equation (2)
and equation (1) from equation (3), we get
x − y = (l − m )d
y − z = (m − n )d
z − x = (n − l )d
(x − y )n + (y − z )l + (z − x )m = [(l − m )n + (m − n )l + (n − l )m ]d
= ln − mn + lm − nl + nm − lm  d = 0
 
Note
In an Arithmetic Progression
¾¾ If every term is added or subtracted by a constant, then the resulting sequence is also
an A.P.
¾¾ If every term is multiplied or divided by a non-zero number, then the resulting sequence
is also an A.P.
¾¾ If the sum of three consecutive terms of an A.P. is given, then they can be taken as
a - d, a and a + d . Here the common difference is d.
¾¾ If the sum of four consecutive terms of an A.P. is given then, they can be taken as
a - 3d , a - d , a + d and a + 3d . Here common difference is 2d.
Example 2.29 In an A.P., sum of four consecutive terms is 28 and the sum of their squares
is 276. Find the four numbers.
Solution Let us take the four terms in the form (a - 3d ), (a - d ), (a + d ) and (a + 3d ) .
Since, sum of the four terms is 28,
a − 3d + a − d + a + d + a + 3d = 28
4a = 28 ⇒ a = 7
Similarly, since sum of their squares is 276,
(a − 3d )2 + (a − d )2 + (a + d )2 + (a + 3d )2 = 276.
a 2 − 6ad + 9d 2 + a 2 − 2ad + d 2 + a 2 + 2ad + d 2 + a 2 + 6ad + 9d 2 = 276
4a 2 +20d 2 =276 ⇒ 4(7)2 + 20d 2 = 276.
d 2 = 4 ⇒ d = ± 4 then, d = ± 2
If d = 2 then the four numbers are 7 - 3(2), 7 - 2, 7 + 2, 7+3(2)

That is the four numbers are 1, 5, 9 and 13.

If a = 7, d = −2 then the four numbers are 13, 9, 5 and 1
Therefore, the four consecutive terms of the A.P. are 1, 5, 9 and 13.
Condition for three numbers to be in A.P.
If a, b, c are in A.P. then a = a, b = a + d, c = a + 2d
so a + c = 2a + 2d = 2(a + d ) = 2b
Thus, 2b = a + c
Similarly, if 2b = a + c, then b − a = c − b so a, b, c are in A.P.
Thus three non-zero numbers a, b, c are in A.P. if and only if 2b = a + c
Example 2.30 A mother divides ₹207 into three parts such that the amount are in A.P.
and gives it to her three children. The product of the two least amounts that the children
had ₹4623. Find the amount received by each child.
Solution Let the amount received by the three children be in the form of A.P. is given by
a - d , a, a + d . Since, sum of the amount is ₹207, we have
(a − d ) + a + (a + d ) = 207
3a = 207 ⇒ a = 69
It is given that product of the two least amounts is 4623.
(a − d )a = 4623
(69 − d )69 = 4623
d =2
Therefore, amount given by the mother to her three children are
₹(69−2), ₹69, ₹(69+2). That is, ₹67, ₹69 and ₹71.
Progress Check
1. If every term of an A.P. is multiplied by 3, then the common difference of the new
A.P. is _______.
2. Three numbers a, b and c will be in A.P. if and only if _______.
Exercise 2.5
1. Check whether the following sequences are in A.P.

1 1 1 1
(i) a - 3, a - 5, a - 7,... (ii) , , , ,... (iii) 9, 13, 17, 21, 25,...
2 3 4 5
-1 1 2
(iv) , 0, , ,... (v) 1, -1, 1, -1, 1, -1,...
3 3 3
2. First term a and common difference d are given below. Find the corresponding A.P.
3 1
(i) a = 5 , d = 6 (ii) a = 7 , d = −5 (iii) a = ,d=
4 2

3. Find the first term and common difference of the Arithmetic Progressions whose nth
terms are given below
(i) tn = −3 + 2n (ii) tn = 4 − 7n
4. Find the 19th term of an A.P. -11, -15, -19,...
5. Which term of an A.P. 16, 11, 6, 1,... is -54 ?
6. Find the middle term(s) of an A.P. 9, 15, 21, 27,…,183.
7. If nine times ninth term is equal to the fifteen times fifteenth term, show that six
times twenty fourth term is zero.
8. If 3 + k, 18 - k, 5k + 1 are in A.P. then find k.
9. Find x, y and z, given that the numbers x, 10, y, 24, z are in A.P.
10. In a theatre, there are 20 seats in the front row and 30 rows were allotted. Each
successive row contains two additional seats than its front row. How many seats are
there in the last row?
11. The sum of three consecutive terms that are in A.P. is 27 and their product is 288.
Find the three terms.
12. The ratio of 6th and 8th term of an A.P. is 7:9. Find the ratio of 9th term to 13th term.
13. In a winter season let us take the temperature of Ooty from Monday to Friday to be
in A.P. The sum of temperatures from Monday to Wednesday is 0° C and the sum of
the temperatures from Wednesday to Friday is 18° C. Find the temperature on each
of the five days.
14. Priya earned ₹15,000 in the first month. Thereafter her salary increased by ₹1500 per
year. Her expenses are ₹13,000 during the first year and the expenses increases by
₹900 per year. How long will it take for her to save ₹20,000 per month.
2.8 Series
The sum of the terms of a sequence is called series. Let a1, a2, a 3,..., an ,... be the sequence
of real numbers. Then the real number a1 + a2 + a3 +  is defined as the series of real
numbers.
If a series has finite number of terms then it is called a Finite series. If a series has
infinite number of terms then it is called an Infinite series. Let us focus our attention only
on studying finite series.

2.8.1 Sum to n terms of an A.P.
A series whose terms are in Arithmetic progression is called Arithmetic series.
Let a, a + d, a + 2d, a + 3d,... be the Arithmetic Progression.
The sum of first n terms of a Arithmetic Progression denoted by Sn is given by,
Sn = a + (a + d ) + (a + 2d ) +  + (a + (n − 1)d ) ...(1)
Rewriting the above in reverse order
Sn = (a + (n − 1)d ) + (a + (n − 2)d ) +  + (a + d ) + a ...(2)
Adding (1) and (2) we get,
2Sn =[a +a +(n − 1)d ]+[a +d +a +(n − 2)d ] + + [a +(n −2)d +(a +d )]+[a +(n − 1)d + a ]
= [2a + (n − 1)d ] + [2a + (n − 1)d +  + [2a + (n − 1)d ] (n terms)

n
2Sn = n × [2a + (n − 1)d ] ⇒ Sn = 2a + (n − 1)d 
2  
Note
If the first term a, and the last term l ( n th term) are given then
n n
Sn = 2a + (n − 1)d  = a + a + (n − 1)d  (
  l = a + (n − 1)d )
2  2
n
Sn = [a + l ] .
2
Progress Check
1. The sum of terms of a sequence is called ______.

2. If a series have finite number of terms then it is called ______.
3. A series whose terms are in ______ is called Arithmetic series.
4. If the first and last terms of an A.P. are given, then the formula to find the sum is
______.
1 1 3
Example 2.31 Find the sum of first 15 terms of the A. P. 8, 7 , 6 , 5 ,...
4 2 4
1 3
Solution Here the first term a = 8, common difference d = 7 − 8 = − ,
4 4
n
Sum of first n terms of an A.P. Sn = 2a + (n − 1)d 
2 
15  3 
S15 = 2 × 8 + (15 − 1)(− )
2  4 
15  21  165
S15 = 16 −  =
2  2  4

Example 2.32 Find the sum of 0.40 + 0.43 + 0.46 +  + 1 .
Solution Here the value of n is not given. But the last term is given. From this, we can
find the value of n.
Given, a = 0.40 and l = 1 , we find d = 0.43 − 0.40 = 0.03 .
l − a 
Therefore, n = 
 + 1
  d
1 − 0.40 
=   + 1 = 21
 0.03 
n
Sum of first n terms of an A.P. Sn = a + l 
2
21
, n = 21 . Therefore, S 21 = 0.40 + 1 = 14.7
2
So, the sum of 21 terms of the given series is 14.7.
Example 2.33 How many terms of the series 1 + 5 + 9 + ... must be taken so that their
sum is 190?
Solution Here we have to find the value of n, such that Sn = 190.
First term a = 1, common difference d = 5 − 1 = 4 .
Sum of first n terms of an A.P.
n Thinking Corner
Sn = [2a + (n − 1)d ] = 190
2 The value of n must be
n
[2 × 1 + (n − 1) × 4 ] = 190 positive. Why?
2
n[4n - 2] = 380
2n 2 - n - 190 = 0
(n − 10)(2n + 19) = 0
19
But, n = 10 as n = − is impossible. Therefore, n = 10 .
2
Progress Check
State True or False. Justify it.
1. The nth term of any A.P. is of the form pn+q where p and q are some constants.
2. The sum to nth term of any A.P. is of the form pn2+qn + r where p, q, r are some
constants.
Example 2.34 The 13th term of an A.P. is 3 and the sum of first 13 terms is 234. Find the
common difference and the sum of first 21 terms.
Solution Given, the 13th term = 3 so, t13 = a + 12d = 3 ...(1)

13
Sum of first 13 terms = 234 ⇒ S13 = [2a + 12d ] = 234
2
2a + 12d = 36 ...(2)
−5
Solving (1) and (2) we get, a = 33, d =
2
-5
Therefore, common difference is .
2
21   5  21
−  = [66 − 50] = 168.
Sum of first 21 terms S 21 = 2 × 33 + (21 − 1) ×  2 
2   2
5n 2 3n
Example 2.35 In an A.P. the sum of first n terms is + . Find the 17th term.
2 2
Solution The 17th term can be obtained by subtracting the sum of first 16 terms from the
sum of first 17 terms
5 × (17)2 3 × 17 1445 51
S17 = + = + = 748
2 2 2 2
5 × (16)2 3 × 16 1280 48
S16 = + = + = 664
2 2 2 2
Now, t17 = S17 − S16 = 748 − 664 = 84
Example 2.36 Find the sum of all natural numbers between 300 and 600 which are
divisible by 7.
Solution The natural numbers between 300 and 600 which are divisible by 7 are 301, 308,
315, …, 595.
The sum of all natural numbers between 300 and 600 is 301 + 308 + 315 +  + 595 .
The terms of the above series are in A.P.
First term a = 301 ; common difference d = 7 ; Last term l = 595.
l − a   595 − 301
n =   + 1 = 

 + 1 = 43
 d  7 
n 43
Sn = [a + l ] , we have S 43 = [301 + 595]= 19264.
2 2
Example 2.37 A mosaic is designed in the shape of an
equilateral triangle, 12 ft on each side. Each tile in the mosaic
is in the shape of an equilateral triangle of 12 inch side. The
tiles are alternate in colour as shown in the figure. Find the
12
number of tiles of each colour and total number of tiles in

fe e
the mosaic.
t.
Solution Since the mosaic is in the shape of an equilateral

triangle of 12 feet, and the tile is in the shape of an equilateral
Fig.2.12
triangle of 12 inch (1 feet), there will be 12 rows in the mosaic.

From the figure, it is clear that number of white tiles in each row are 1, 2, 3, 4, …, 12
which clearly forms an Arithmetic Progression.
Similarly the number of blue tiles in each row are 0, 1, 2, 3, …, 11 which is also an
Arithmetic Progression.
12
Number of white tiles = 1 + 2 + 3 +  + 12 = [1 + 12] = 78
2
12
Number of blue tiles = 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 +  + 11 = [0 + 11] = 66
2
The total number of tiles in the mosaic = 78 + 66 = 144
Example 2.38 The houses of a street are numbered from 1 to 49. Senthil’s house is
numbered such that the sum of numbers of the houses prior to Senthil’s house is equal to
the sum of numbers of the houses following Senthil’s house. Find Senthil’s house number?
Solution Let Senthil’s house number be x.
It is given that 1 + 2 + 3 +  + (x − 1) = (x + 1) + (x + 2) +  + 49
1 + 2 + 3 +  + (x − 1) = 1 + 2 + 3 +  + 49 − 1 + 2 + 3 +  + x 
x −1  49  x

1 + (x − 1) = 
1 + 49 − 1 + x 
2 2 2
x (x - 1) 49 × 50 x (x + 1)
= −
2 2 2
x - x = 2450 − x − x ⇒ 2x 2 = 2450
2 2
x 2 = 1225 ⇒ x = 35
Therefore, Senthil’s house number is 35.
Example 2.39 The sum of first n, 2n and 3n terms of an A.P. are S1, S 2 and S3 respectively.
Prove that S 3 = 3(S 2 − S1 ) .
Solution If S1, S 2 and S3 are sum of first n, 2n and 3n terms of an A.P. respectively then
n  , S = 2n 2a + (2n − 1)d  , S = 3n 2a + (3n − 1)d 
S1 = 2a + (n − 1)d
2  2
2   3
2  
2n  n
Consider, S 2 - S1 = 
2a + (2n − 1)d  − 2a + (n − 1)d 
2 2
n
= [4a + 2(2n − 1)d ] − [2a + (n − 1)d ]
2
n  Thinking Corner
S 2 - S1 = × 2a + (3n − 1)d 
2 
1. What is the sum of first
3n 
3(S 2 - S1 ) = 2a + (3n − 1)d  n odd natural numbers?
2 
2. What is the sum of first
3(S 2 - S1 ) = S 3 n even natural numbers?

Exercise 2.6
1. Find the sum of the following

(i) 3, 7, 11,… up to 40 terms. (ii) 102, 97, 92,… up to 27 terms.
(iii) 6 + 13 + 20 +  + 97
2. How many consecutive odd integers beginning with 5 will sum to 480?
3. Find the sum of first 28 terms of an A.P. whose nth term is 4n - 3 .
4. The sum of first n terms of a certain series is given as 2n 2 - 3n . Show that the series
is an A.P.
5. The 104th term and 4th term of an A.P. are 125 and 0. Find the sum of first 35 terms.
6. Find the sum of all odd positive integers less than 450.
7. Find the sum of all natural numbers between 602 and 902 which are not divisible by 4.
8. Raghu wish to buy a laptop. He can buy it by paying ₹40,000 cash or by giving it in
10 installments as ₹4800 in the first month, ₹4750 in the second month, ₹4700 in the
third month and so on. If he pays the money in this fashion, find
(i) total amount paid in 10 installments.
(ii) how much extra amount that he has to pay than the cost?
9. A man repays a loan of ₹65,000 by paying ₹400 in the first month and then increasing
the payment by ₹300 every month. How long will it take for him to clear the loan?
10. A brick staircase has a total of 30 steps. The bottom step requires 100 bricks. Each
successive step requires two bricks less than the previous step.
(i) How many bricks are required for the top most step?
(ii) How many bricks are required to build the stair case?
11. If S1, S 2 , S 3 ,..., Sm are the sums of n terms of m A.P.’s whose first terms are 1, 2, 3,...,m
and whose common differences are 1, 3, 5,...,(2m - 1) respectively, then show that
1
S1 + S 2 + S 3 +  + S m = mn(mn + 1) .
2
 a − b 3a − 2b 5a − 3b 
12. Find the sum  + + + to 12 terms  .
a + b a + b a+b 
2.9 Geometric Progression
In the diagram given in Fig.2.13, D DEF is formed by joining the mid points of the
sides AB, BC and CA of D ABC. Then the size of the triangle D DEF is exactly one-fourth
of the size of D ABC. Similarly D GHI is also one-fourth of D DEF and so on. In general,
the successive areas are one-fourth of the previous areas.

A
The area of these triangles are L K

I H
1 1 1 J
D ABC, D ABC, ´ D ABC,...
4 4 4 F E
G
1 1
That is, D ABC, D ABC, D ABC,...
4 16
In this case, we see that beginning with D ABC,
we see that the successive triangles are formed whose B
D
C
areas are precisely one-fourth the area of the previous Fig.2.13

1
triangle. So, each term is obtained by multiplying
4
to the previous term.
As another case, let us consider that a viral
disease is spreading in a way such that at any stage two
new persons get affected from an affected person. At
first stage, one person is affected, at second stage two
persons are affected and is spreading to four persons
and so on. Then, number of persons affected at each
stage are 1, 2, 4, 8, ... where except the first term,
each term is precisely twice the previous term.
Fig.2.14
From the above examples, it is clear that each
term is got by multiplying a fixed number to the preceding number.
This idea leads us to the concept of Geometric Progression.
Definition
A Geometric Progression is a sequence in which each term is obtained by multiplying a
fixed non-zero number to the preceding term except the first term. The fixed number is
called common ratio. The common ratio is usually denoted by r.
2.9.1 General form of Geometric Progression

Let a and r ¹ 0 be real numbers. Then the numbers of the form a, ar, ar 2 , ...ar n -1... is
called a Geometric Progression. The number ‘a’ is called the first term and number ‘r’ is
called the common ratio.
We note that beginning with first term a, each term is obtained by multiplied with
the common ratio ‘r’ to give ar, ar 2 , ar 3 ,...
2.9.2 General term of Geometric Progression
We try to find a formula for n th term or general term of Geometric Progression (G.P.)
whose terms are in the common ratio.

a, ar , ar 2 ,..., ar n -1,... where a is the first term and ‘r’ is the common ratio. Let tn be the
nth term of the G.P.
Then t1 =a = a × r 0 = a × r 1−1

t2 = t1 × r = a × r = a × r 2−1
t3 = t2 × r = ar × r = ar 2 = ar 3−1
 
tn = tn −1 × r = ar n −2 × r = ar n −2+1 = ar n −1
Thus, the general term or n th term of a G.P. is tn = ar n-1

Note
If we consider the ratio of successive terms of the G.P. then we have
t2 ar t ar 2 t ar 3 t ar 4
= =r, 3 = = r , 4 = 2 = r , 5 = 3 = r ,…
t1 a t2 ar t3 ar t4 ar
Thus, the ratio between any two consecutive terms of the Geometric Progression is
always constant and that constant is the common ratio of the given Progression.
Progress Check
1. A G.P. is obtained by multiplying _____ to the preceding term.

2. The ratio between any two consecutive terms of the G.P. is _____ and it is called
_____.
3. Fill in the blanks if the following are in G.P.
1 3 9 7
(i) , , , _____ (ii) 7, , _____ (iii) _____, 2 2, 4 ,…
8 4 2 2
Example 2.40 Which of the following sequences form a Geometric Progression?

1
(i) 7, 14, 21, 28, … (ii) , 1, 2, 4, ... (iii) 5, 25, 50, 75, …
2
Solution To check if a given sequence form a G.P. we have to see if the ratio between
successive terms are equal.
(i) 7, 14, 21, 28, …
t2 14 t3 21 3 t4 28 4
= = 2; = = ; = =
t1 7 t2 14 2 t3 21 3
Since the ratios between successive terms are not equal, the sequence 7, 14, 21,
28, … is not a Geometric Progression.
1
(ii) , 1, 2, 4, ...
2
t2 1 t3 2 t4 4
= = 2; = = 2 ; = =2
t1 1
2
t2 1 t3 2

Here the ratios between successive terms are equal. Therefore the sequence
1
, 1, 2, 4, ... is a Geometric Progression with common ratio r = 2.
2
(iii)
5, 25, 50, 75,... Thinking Corner
t2 25 t3 50 t 75 3 Is the sequence
= = 5; = = 2; 4 = = 2 22
t1 5 t2 25 t3 50 2 2, 22 , 22 , 22 ,... is a G.P. ?
Since the ratios between successive terms are not equal, the sequence
5, 25, 50, 75,... is not a Geometric Progression.
Example 2.41 Find the geometric progression whose first term and common ratios are
given by (i) a = −7 , r = 6 (ii) a = 256 , r = 0.5
Solution (i) The general form of Geometric progression is a, ar, ar 2 ,...
a = −7 , ar = −7 × 6 = −42 , ar 2 = −7 × 62 = −252
Therefore the required Geometric Progression is −7, − 42, − 252,...
(ii) The general form of Geometric progression is a, ar, ar 2 ,...
a = 256 , ar = 256 × 0.5 = 128 , ar 2 = 256 × (0.5)2 = 64
Therefore the required Geometric progression is 256, 128, 64,....
Progress Check
1. If first term = a, common ratio = r, then find the value of t9 and t27.
1 1
2. In a G.P. if t1 = and t2 = then the common ratio is ______.
5 25
Example 2.42 Find the 8th term of the G.P. 9, 3, 1,…

Solution To find the 8th term we have to use the n th term formula tn = ar n −1
t2 3 1
First term a = 9 , Common ratio r = = =
t1 9 3
8−1 7
1 1 1
t8 = 9 ×   = 9 ×   =
 3   3  243
1
Therefore the 8th term of the G.P. is .
243
8 64
Example 2.43 In a Geometric progression, the 4th term is and the 7th term is .
9 243
Find the Geometric Progression.
8 8
Solution 4th term, t4 = ⇒ ar 3 = …(1)
9 9
64 64
7th term, t7 = ⇒ ar 6 = …(2)
243 243

64
ar 6
Dividing (2) by (1) we get, 3 = 243
ar 8
9
8 2
r3 = ⇒r =
27 3
3
2 8
Substituting the value of r in (1), we get a ×   = ⇒ a = 3
 3 9
4
Therefore the Geometric Progression is a, ar, ar 2 , … That is, 3, 2, , ...
3
Note
¾¾ When the product of three consecutive terms of a G.P. are given, we can take the three
a
terms as , a, ar.
r
¾¾ When the products of four consecutive terms are given for a G.P. then we can take the
a a
four terms as 3 , , ar, ar 3 .
r r
¾ ¾ When each term of a Geometric Progression is multiplied or divided by a non–
zero constant then the resulting sequence is also a Geometric Progression.
Example 2.44 The product of three consecutive terms of a Geometric Progression is 343
91
and their sum is . Find the three terms.
3
Solution Since the product of 3 consecutive terms is given.
we can take them as

a
, a , ar .
Thinking Corner
r
Product of the terms = 343 1. Split 64 into three parts such that the
a numbers are in G.P.
´ a ´ ar = 343
r 2. If a, b, c, … are in G.P. then 2a, 2b, 2c, ….
a = 73 ⇒ a = 7
3
are in ______
91 3. If 3, x, 6.75 are in G.P. then x is ______
Sum of the terms =
3
1  91 1 + r + r 2  91

Hence a  + 1 + r  = ⇒ 7   =
r  3  r  3
3 + 3r + 3r 2 = 13r ⇒ 3r 2 − 10r + 3 = 0
1 Progress Check
(3r - 1)(r - 3) = 0 ⇒ r = 3 or r =
3
Three non-zero numbers a,b,c
7
If a = 7, r = 3 then the three terms are , 7, 21. are in G.P. if and only if _____.
3
1 7
If a = 7 , r = then the three terms are 21, 7, .
3 3
Condition for three numbers to be in G.P.
If a, b, c are in G.P. then b = ar , c = ar 2 . So ac = a × ar 2 = (ar )2 = b 2 .Thus b 2 = ac
b c
Similarly, if b 2 = ac , then
= . So a, b, c are in G.P.
a b
Thus three non-zero numbers a, b, c are in G.P. if and only if b 2 = ac .

Example 2.45 The present value of a machine is ₹40,000 and its value depreciates each
year by 10%. Find the estimated value of the machine in the 6th year.
Solution The value of the machine at present is ₹40,000. Since it is depreciated at the rate
of 10% after one year the value of the machine is 90% of the initial value.
90
That is the value of the machine at the end of the first year is 40, 000 ´
100
After two years, the value of the machine is 90% of the value in the first year.
2
 90 
Value of the machine at the end of the 2nd year is 40,000×  
100 
Continuing this way, the value of the machine depreciates in the following way as
2
90  90 
40000, 40000 × , 40000 ×   ...
100 100 
90
This sequence is in the form of G.P. with first term 40,000 and common ratio .
100
For finding the value of the machine at the end of 5th year (i.e. in 6th year), we need to find
the sixth term of this G.P.
90
Thus, n = 6, a = 40,000, r = .
100 6−1 5
 90   90 
Using tn = ar n −1
, we have t6 = 40, 000 ×   = 40000 ×  
100  100 
9 9 9 9 9
t6 = 40, 000 × × × × × = 23619.6
10 10 10 10 10
Therefore the value of the machine in 6th year = ₹23619.60
Exercise 2.7
1. Which of the following sequences are in G.P.?

(i) 3, 9, 27, 81,… (ii) 4, 44, 444, 4444,... (iii) 0.5, 0.05, 0.005,…
1 1 1 1
(iv) , , ,... (v) 1, −5, 25, −125,… (vi) 120, 60, 30, 18,… (vii) 16, 4, 1, , ...
3 6 12 4
2. Write the first three terms of the G.P. whose first term and the common ratio are
given below.
(i) a = 6, r = 3 (ii) a = 2, r = 2 (iii) a = 1000, r = 2
5
3. In a G.P. 729, 243, 81,… find t7 .

4. Find x so that x + 6, x + 12 and x + 15 are consecutive terms of a Geometric
Progression.
5. Find the number of terms in the following G.P.
1 1 1 1
(i) 4, 8, 16,…, 8192? (ii) , , ,... ,
3 9 27 2187

6. In a G.P. the 9th term is 32805 and 6th term is 1215. Find the 12th term.
7. Find the 10th term of a G.P. whose 8th term is 768 and the common ratio is 2.
8. If a, b, c are in A.P. then show that 3a , 3b , 3c are in G.P.
9. In a G.P. the product of three consecutive terms is 27 and the sum of the product of
57
two terms taken at a time is . Find the three terms.
2
10. A man joined a company as Assistant Manager. The company gave him a starting
salary of ₹60,000 and agreed to increase his salary 5% annually. What will be his
salary after 5 years?
11. Sivamani is attending an interview for a job and the company gave two offers to him.
Offer A: ₹20,000 to start with followed by a guaranteed annual increase of 6% for the
first 5 years.
Offer B: ₹22,000 to start with followed by a guaranteed annual increase of 3% for the
first 5 years.
What is his salary in the 4th year with respect to the offers A and B?
12. If a, b, c are three consecutive terms of an A.P. and x, y, z are three consecutive terms
of a G.P. then prove that x b−c × y c−a × z a −b = 1 .
2.10 Sum to n terms of a Geometric progression

A series whose terms are in Geometric progression is called Geometric series.
Let a, ar, ar 2 , ... ar n-1 , ... be the Geometric Progression.
The sum of first n terms of the Geometric progression is
Sn = a + ar + ar 2 +  + ar n −2 + ar n −1 ... (1)
Multiplying both sides by r, we get rSn = ar + ar 2 + ar 3 +  + ar n −1 + ar n … (2)
(2)−(1) ⇒ rSn − Sn = ar n − a
Sn (r − 1) = a(r n − 1)
a(r n − 1)
Thus, the sum to n terms is Sn = , r ¹ 1.
r −1
Progress Check
Note
1. A series whose terms are in Geometric progression
The above formula for sum of is called _______.
first n terms of a G.P. is not
applicable when r = 1 . 2. When r = 1 , the formula for finding sum to n
terms of a G.P. is ______.
If r = 1 , then
Sn = a + a + a +  + a = na 3. When r ¹ 1 , the formula for finding sum to n
terms of a G.P. is ______.

2.10.1 Sum to infinite terms of a G.P.
a
The sum of infinite terms of a G.P. is given by S ∞ = a + ar + ar 2 + ar 3 +  = , −1 < r < 1
1−r
Example 2.46 Find the sum of 8 terms of the G.P. 1, −3, 9, −27 …
−3
Solutions Here, the first term a = 1 , common ratio r = = −3 < 1 , Here, n = 8.
1
a(r n − 1)
Sum to n terms of a G.P. is Sn = if r ¹ 1
r −1
Hence, S 8 =
1 (−3)8 − 1
=
(
6561 − 1
= −1640
)
(−3) − 1 −4
Example 2.47 Find the first term of a G.P. in which S 6 = 4095 and r = 4 .
Solution Common ratio = 4 > 1 , Sum of first 6 terms S 6 = 4095
a(r n − 1)
Hence,
= 4095 S6 =
r −1
a(46 − 1) 4095
r = 4, = 4095 ⇒ a × = 4095
4 −1 3
First term a = 3 .
Example 2.48 How many terms of the series 1 + 4 + 16 +  make the sum 1365?
Solution Let n be the number of terms to be added to get the sum 1365
4
a = 1, r = = 4>1
1
a(r n - 1)
Sn = 1365 ⇒ = 1365
r -1
1(4n - 1)
= 1365 so, (4n − 1) = 4095
4 -1
4n = 4096 then 4n = 46 Progress Check
n =6
1 1. Sum to infinite number of terms
Example 2.49 Find the sum 3 + 1 + + ...∞ of a G.P. is ___.
3
t2 1
Solution Here a = 3 , r= = 2. For what values of r, does the
t1 3
a 3 9 formula for infinite G.P. valid?
Sum of infinite terms S ∞ = = =
1−r 1 2
1−
3
Example 2.50 Find the rational form of the number 0.6666¼
Solution We can express the number 0.6666¼ as follows
0.6666… = 0.6 + 0.06 + 0.006 + 0.0006 + 
We now see that numbers 0.6, 0.06, 0.006 ... form a G.P. whose first term a = 0.6 and
0.06
common ratio r = = 0.1 . Also −1 < r = 0.1 < 1
0.6
Using the infinite G.P. formula, we have
0.6 0.6 2
0.6666... = 0.6 + 0.06 + 0.006 + 0.0006 +  = = =
1 − 0.1 0.9 3
2
Thus the rational number equivalent of 0.6666¼ is
3

Activity 5
The sides of a given square is 10 cm. The mid points of its sides 10 cm
are joined to form a new square. Again, the mid points of the
sides of this new square are joined to form another square.
10 cm
10 cm
This process is continued indefinitely. Find the sum of the
areas and the sum of the perimeters of the squares formed
through this process.
10 cm
Fig.2.15
Example 2.51 Find the sum to n terms of the series 5 + 55 + 555 + 

Solution The series is neither Arithmetic nor Geometric series. So it can be split into two
series and then find the sum.
5 + 55 + 555 +  + n terms = 5 1 + 11 + 111 +  + n terms 
5
= 9 + 99 + 999 +  + n terms 
9 Progress Check
5
= (10 − 1) + (100 − 1) + (1000 − 1) +  + n terms  1. Is the series
9 
3 + 33 + 333 + ...
5
= (10 + 100 + 1000 +  + n terms ) − n  a Geometric series?
9
2. The value of r, such that
5  10(10n − 1)  50(10n − 1) 5n
=  − n  = − 3
9  (10 − 1) 81 9 1 + r + r 2 + r 3 ... = is___.
 4
Example 2.52 Find the least positive integer n such that 1 + 6 + 62 +  + 6n > 5000
Solution We have to find the least number of terms for which the sum must be greater
than 5000.
That is, to find the least value of n. such that Sn > 5000
a(r n − 1) 1(6n − 1) 6n − 1
We have, Sn = = =
r −1 6 −1 5
6n − 1
Sn > 5000 ⇒ > 5000
5
6n - 1 > 25000 ⇒ 6n > 25001
65 = 7776 and 66 = 46656
The least positive value of n is 6 such that 1 + 6 + 62 +  + 6n > 5000 .

Example 2.53 A person saved money every year, half as much as he could in the previous
year. If he had totally saved ₹ 7875 in 6 years then how much did he save in the first year?
Solution Total amount saved in 6 years is S 6 = 7875
Since he saved half as much money as every year he saved in the previous year,

1
We have r = <1
2  6 
 1
a 1 −   

a 1−r n
=

(

  2  ) = 7875
1−r 1
1−
 1  2
a 1 − 
 64  63
= 7875 ⇒ a × = 7875
1 32
2
7875 × 32
a =
63
a = 4000
The amount saved in the first year is ₹ 4000.
Exercise 2.8
9 27
1. Find the sum of first n terms of the G.P. (i) 5, -3, , - ,... (ii) 256,64,16,…
5 25
2. Find the sum of first six terms of the G.P. 5, 15, 45, …
3. Find the first term of the G.P. whose common ratio 5 and whose sum to first 6 terms
is 46872.
28
4. Find the sum to infinity of (i) 9 + 3 + 1 +  (ii) 21 + 14 + +
3
32
5. If the first term of an infinite G.P. is 8 and its sum to infinity is then find the
3
common ratio.
6. Find the sum to n terms of the series
(i) 0.4 + 0.44 + 0.444 +  to n terms (ii) 3 + 33 + 333 +  to n terms
7. Find the sum of the Geometric series 3 + 6 + 12 +  + 1536 .
8. Kumar writes a letter to four of his friends. He asks each one of them to copy the
letter and mail to four different persons with the instruction that they continue the
process similarly. Assuming that the process is unaltered and it costs ₹2 to mail one
letter, find the amount spent on postage when 8th set of letters is mailed.
9. Find the rational form of the number 0.123 .

10. If Sn = (x + y ) + (x 2 + xy + y 2 ) + (x 3 + x 2y + xy 2 + y 3 ) + n terms then prove that
 x 2 (x n − 1) y 2 (y n − 1) 

(x − y )Sn =  − 
x − 1 y − 1 
 
2.11 Special Series
There are some series whose sum can be expressed by explicit formulae. Such series
are called special series.

Here we study some common special series like
(i) Sum of first ‘n’ natural numbers
(ii) Sum of first ‘n’ odd natural numbers.
(iii) Sum of squares of first ‘n’ natural numbers.
(iv) Sum of cubes of first ‘n’ natural numbers.
We can derive the formula for sum of any powers of first n natural numbers using the
expression (x + 1)k +1 − x k +1 . That is to find 1k + 2k + 3k + ... + n k we can use the expression
(x + 1)k +1 − x k +1 .
2.11.1 Sum of first n natural numbers
To find 1 + 2 + 3 +  + n , let us consider the identity (x + 1)2 − x 2 = 2x + 1
Where x = 1, 2, 3,.....n – 1, n
x = 1 , 22 − 12 = 2(1) + 1
x = 2 , 32 − 22 = 2(2) + 1
x = 3 , 42 − 32 = 2(3) + 1
  
x = n − 1 , n − (n − 1)2 = 2(n − 1) + 1
2
x = n , (n + 1)2 − n 2 = 2(n ) + 1
Adding all these equations and cancelling the terms on the Left Hand side, we get,
(n + 1)2 − 12 = 2(1 + 2 + 3 +  + n ) + n
n 2 + 2n = 2(1 + 2 + 3 +  + n ) + n
2(1 + 2 + 3 +  + n ) = n 2 + n = n(n + 1)
n(n + 1)
1+ 2 + 3 ++n =
2
2.11.2 Sum of first n odd natural numbers
1 + 3 + 5 +  + (2n − 1)
It is an A.P. with a = 1 , d = 2 and l = 2n − 1
n
a + l  Sn =
2 
n
= 1 + 2n − 1
2
n
Sn = × 2n = n 2
2
2.11.3 Sum of squares of first n natural numbers
To find 12 + 22 + 32 +  + n 2 , let us consider the identity (x + 1)3 − x 3 = 3x 2 + 3x + 1
Where x = 1, 2, 3,.....n – 1, n
x = 1 , 23 − 13 = 3(1)2 + 3(1) + 1
x = 2 , 33 − 23 = 3(2)2 + 3(2) + 1
x = 3 , 4 3 − 33 = 3(3)2 + 3(3) + 1
  
x = n − 1 , n 3 − (n − 1)3 = 3(n − 1)2 + 3(n − 1) + 1
x = n , (n + 1)3 − n 3 = 3n 2 + 3n + 1

(n + 1)3 − 13 = 3(12 + 22 + 32 +  + n 2 ) + 3(1 + 2 + 3 +  + n ) + n
3n(n + 1)
n 3 + 3n 2 + 3n = 3(12 + 22 + 32 +  + n 2 ) + +n
2
3n(n + 1) 2n 3 + 6n 2 +4n − 3n 2 − 3n
3(12 + 22 + 32 +  + n 2 ) = n 3 + 3n 2 +2n − =
2 2
3 2 2
2n + 3 n + n n (2n + 3n + 1) n (n + 1)(2n + 1)
3(12 + 22 + 32 + ... + n 2 ) = = =
2 2 2
n (n + 1 )(2 n + 1)
12 + 22 + 32 +  + n 2 =
6
2.11.4 Sum of cubes of first n natural numbers
To find 13 + 23 + 33 +  + n 3 , let us consider the identity
(x + 1)4 − x 4 = 4x 3 + 6x 2 + 4x + 1
Where x = 1, 2, 3,.....n – 1, n
x = 1 , 24 − 14 = 4(1)3 + 6(1)2 + 4(1) + 1
x =2 , 34 − 24 = 4(2)3 + 6(2)2 + 4(2) + 1
x = 3 , 4 4 − 34 = 4(3)3 + 6(3)2 + 4(3) + 1
  
x = n − 1 , n 4 − (n − 1)4 = 4(n − 1)3 + 6(n − 1)2 + 4(n − 1) + 1
x = n , (n + 1)4 − n 4 = 4n 3 + 6n 2 + 4n + 1
(n+1)4–14 = 4(13 + 23 + 33 +  + n 3 ) + 6(12 + 22 + 32 +  + n 2 ) + 4(1 + 2 + 3 +  + n ) + n
n(n + 1)(2n + 1) n(n + 1)
n 4 + 4n 3 + 6n 2 + 4n = 4(13 + 23 + 33 +  + n 3 ) + 6 × + 4× +n
6 2
4(13 + 23 + 33 +  + n 3 ) = n 4 + 4n 3 + 6n 2 +4n − 2n 3 − n 2 − 2n 2 − n − 2n 2 − 2n − n
4(13 + 23 + 33 +  + n 3 ) = n 4 + 2n 3 + n 2 = n 2 (n 2 + 2n + 1) = n 2 (n + 1)2
2
 n(n + 1)
1 + 2 + 3 +  + n = 
3 3 3 3

 2 
Ideal Friendship
Consider the numbers 220 and 284.
Sum of the divisors of 220 (excluding 220) = 1+2+4+5+10+11+20+22+44+55+110=284
Sum of the divisors of 284 (excluding 284) =1+2+4+71+142=220.
Thus, sum of divisors of one number excluding itself is the other. Such pair of numbers
is called Amicable Numbers or Friendly Numbers.
220 and 284 are least pair of Amicable Numbers. They were discovered by Pythagoras.
We now know more than 12 million amicable pair of Numbers.

Activity 6
Take a triangle like this Make another triangle like this.
Fig.2.16 (1 + 2 + 3 + 4) Fig.2.17 (4 + 3 + 2 + 1)
Join the second triangle Thus, two copies of 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 provide a rectangle
with the first to get of size 4 ´ 5 .
We can write in numbers, what we did with pictures.
Let us write, (4 + 3 + 2 + 1) + (1 + 2 + 3 + 4) = 4 × 5
2(1 + 2 + 3 + 4) = 4 × 5
4×5
Therefore, 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 = = 10
2
In a similar, fashion, try to find the sum of first 5
natural numbers. Can you relate these answers to any of
Fig.2.18
the known formula?
1. The sum of first n natural numbers are also called Triangular Numbers
because they form triangle shapes.
2. The sum of squares of first n natural numbers are also called Square
Pyramidal Numbers because they form pyramid shapes with square base.
Thinking Corner
1. How many squares are there in a standard chess board?
2. How many rectangles are there in a standard chess board?
Here is a summary of list of some useful summation formulae which we discussed.
These formulae are used in solving summation problems with finite terms.
n
n(n + 1)
∑k = 1 + 2 + 3 ++ n =
2
k =1
n
∑ (2k − 1) = 1 + 2 + 3 +  + (2n − 1) = n 2
k =1
n
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
∑k 2
= 12 + 22 + 32 +  + n 2 =
6
k =1
2
n  n(n + 1) 
∑k 3
= 13 + 23 + 33 +  + n 3 =
 2


k =1  

Example 2.54 Find the value of (i) 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + 50 (ii) 16 + 17 + 18 + ... + 75
Solution (i) 1 + 2 + 3 +  + 50
n(n + 1)
Using, 1 + 2 + 3 +  + n =
2
50 × (50 + 1)
1 + 2 + 3 +  + 50 = = 1275
2
(ii) 16 + 17 + 18 +  + 75 = (1 + 2 + 3 +  + 75) − (1 + 2 + 3 +  + 15)
75(75 + 1) 15(15 + 1)
= −
2 2
= 2850 − 120 = 2730
Progress Check
1. The sum of cubes of first n natural numbers is __________ of the first n natural
numbers.
2. The average of first 100 natural numbers is __________.
Example 2.55 Find the sum of (i) 1 + 3 + 5 +  +

to 40 terms
(ii) 2 + 4 + 6 +  + 80 (iii) 1 + 3 + 5 +  + 55
Solution (i) 1 + 3 + 5 +  40 terms = 402 = 1600
40 × (40 + 1)
(ii) 2 + 4 + 6 +  + 80 = 2(1 + 2 + 3 +  + 40) = 2 × = 1640
2
(iii) 1 + 3 + 5 +  + 55
Here the number of terms is not given. Now we have to find the number of terms
(l − a ) (55 − 1)
using the formula, n = +1 ⇒ n = + 1 = 28
d 2
Therefore, 1 + 3 + 5 +  + 55 = (28)2 = 784
Example 2.56 Find the sum of (i) 12 + 22 +  + 192
(ii) 52 + 102 + 152 +  + 1052 (iii) 152 + 162 + 172 +  + 282
19 × (19 + 1)(2 × 19 + 1) 19 × 20 × 39
Solution (i) 12 + 22 +  + 192 = = = 2470
6 6
(ii)
52 + 102 + 152 +  + 1052 = 52 (12 + 22 + 32 +  + 212 )
21 × (21 + 1)(2 × 21 + 1)
= 25 ×
6
25 × 21 × 22 × 43
= = 82775
6
(iii)
152 + 162 + 172 +  + 282 = (12 + 22 + 32 +  + 282 ) − (12 + 22 + 32 +  + 142 )
28 × 29 × 57 14 × 15 × 29
= − = 7714 − 1015 = 6699
6 6

Example 2.57 Find the sum of (i) 13 + 23 + 33 +  + 163 (ii) 93 + 103 +  + 213
2
 16 × (16 + 1)
Solution (i) 13 + 23 + 33 +  + 163 =   = (136)2 = 18496

 2 
 
(ii) 9 + 10 +  + 21 = (1 + 2 + 3 +  + 213 ) − (13 + 23 + 33 +  + 83 )
3 3 3 3 3 3
2 2
 21 × (21 + 1)   
=   −  8 × (8 + 1)  = (231)2 − (36)2 = 52065
2   2 
   
Example 2.58 If 1 + 2 + 3 +  + n = 666 then find n.
n(n + 1) n(n + 1)
Solution Since, 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n =, we have = 666
2 2
n 2 + n − 1332 = 0 ⇒ (n + 37)(n − 36) = 0
So, n = −37 or n = 36
But n ≠ −37 ( n is a natural number); Hence n = 36 .
Progress Check
Say True or False. Justify them.

1. The sum of first n odd natural numbers is always an odd number.
2. The sum of consecutive even numbers is always an even number.
3. The difference between the sum of squares of first n natural numbers and the
sum of first n natural numbers is always divisible by 2.
4. The sum of cubes of the first n natural numbers is always a square number.
Exercise 2.9
1. Find the sum of the following series

(i) 1 + 2 + 3 +  + 60 (ii) 3 + 6 + 9 +  + 96 (iii) 51 + 52 + 53 +  + 92
(iv) 1 + 4 + 9 + 16 +  + 225 (v) 62 + 72 + 82 +  + 212
(vi) 103 + 113 + 123 +  + 203 (vii) 1 + 3 + 5 +  + 71
2. If 1 + 2 + 3 +  + k = 325 , then find 13 + 23 + 33 +  + k 3 .
3. If 13 + 23 + 33 +  + k 3 =44100 then find 1 + 2 + 3 +  + k .
4. How many terms of the series 13 + 23 + 33 +  should be taken to get the sum 14400?
5. The sum of the cubes of the first n natural numbers is 2025, then find the value of n.
6. Rekha has 15 square colour papers of sizes 10 cm, 11 cm, 12 cm,…, 24 cm. How much
area can be decorated with these colour papers?
7. Find the sum of the series (23 − 13 ) + (43 − 33 ) + (63 − 53 ) +  to
(i) n terms (ii) 8 terms

Exercise 2.10
1. Euclid’s division lemma states that for positive integers a and b, there exist unique
integers q and r such that a = bq + r , where r must satisfy.
(A) 1 < r < b (B) 0 < r < b (C) 0 ≤ r < b (D) 0 < r ≤ b
2. Using Euclid’s division lemma, if the cube of any positive integer is divided by 9 then
the possible remainders are
(A) 0, 1, 8 (B) 1, 4, 8 (C) 0, 1, 3 (D) 1, 3, 5
3. If the HCF of 65 and 117 is expressible in the form of 65m - 117 , then the value of m is
(A) 4 (B) 2 (C) 1 (D) 3
4. The sum of the exponents of the prime factors in the prime factorization of 1729 is
(A) 1 (B) 2 (C) 3 (D) 4
5. The least number that is divisible by all the numbers from 1 to 10 (both inclusive) is
(A) 2025 (B) 5220 (C) 5025 (D) 2520
6. 74k º _____ (mod 100)
(A) 1 (B) 2 (C) 3 (D) 4
7. Given F1 = 1 , F2 = 3 and Fn = Fn −1 + Fn −2 then F5 is
(A)3 (B)5 (C)8 (D)11
8. The first term of an arithmetic progression is unity and the common difference is 4.
Which of the following will be a term of this A.P.
(A) 4551 (B) 10091 (C) 7881 (D) 13531
9. If 6 times of 6th term of an A.P. is equal to 7 times the 7th term, then the 13th term of the A.P. is
(A) 0 (B) 6 (C) 7 (D) 13
10. An A.P. consists of 31 terms. If its 16th term is m, then the sum of all the terms of
this A.P. is
31
(A) 16 m (B) 62 m (C) 31 m (D) m
2
11. In an A.P., the first term is 1 and the common difference is 4. How many terms of the
A.P. must be taken for their sum to be equal to 120?
(A) 6 (B) 7 (C) 8 (D) 9
12. If A = 265 and B = 264 + 263 + 262 +  + 20 which of the following is true?
(A) B is 264 more than A (B) A and B are equal
(C) B is larger than A by 1 (D) A is larger than B by 1

3 1 1 1
13. The next term of the sequence , , , , is
16 8 12 18
1 1 2 1
(A) (B) (C) (D)
24 27 3 81
14. If the sequence t1, t2 , t3 ,... are in A.P. then the sequence t6 , t12 , t18 ,... is
(A) a Geometric Progression (B) an Arithmetic Progression
(C) neither an Arithmetic Progression nor a Geometric Progression
(D) a constant sequence
15. The value of (13 + 23 + 33 +  + 153 ) − (1 + 2 + 3 +  + 15) is
(A) 14400 (B) 14200 (C) 14280 (D) 14520
Unit Exercise - 2
1. Prove that n 2 - n divisible by 2 for every positive integer n.

2. A milk man has 175 litres of cow’s milk and 105 litres of buffalow’s milk. He wishes
to sell the milk by filling the two types of milk in cans of equal capacity. Calculate
the following (i) Capacity of a can (ii) Number of cans of cow’s milk (iii) Number
of cans of buffalow’s milk.
3. When the positive integers a, b and c are divided by 13 the respective remainders are
9, 7 and 10. Find the remainder when a + 2b + 3c is divided by 13.
4. Show that 107 is of the form 4q + 3 for any integer q.
5. If (m + 1)th term of an A.P. is twice the (n + 1)th term, then prove that (3m+1)th term
is twice the (m + n + 1)th term.
6. Find the 12th term from the last term of the A. P -2, -4, -6,... - 100 .
7. Two A.P.’s have the same common difference. The first term of one A.P. is 2 and that
of the other is 7. Show that the difference between their 10th terms is the same as the
difference between their 21st terms, which is the same as the difference between any
two corresponding terms.
8. A man saved ₹16500 in ten years. In each year after the first he saved ₹100 more than
he did in the preceding year. How much did he save in the first year?
9. Find the G.P. in which the 2nd term is 6 and the 6th term is 9 6 .
10. The value of a motor cycle depreciates at the rate of 15% per year. What will be the
value of the motor cycle 3 year hence, which is now purchased for ₹ 45,000?
Points to Remember
zz Euclid’s division lemma
If a and b are two positive integers then there exist unique integers q and r such
that a = bq + r, 0 ≤ r < b
zz Fundamental theorem of arithmetic
Every composite number can be expressed as a product of primes and this
factorization is unique except for the order in which the prime factors occur.

zz Arithmetic Progression
(i) Arithmetic Progression is a, a + d, a + 2d, a + 3d,…. n th term is given by
tn = a + (n − 1)d
n
(ii) Sum to first n terms of an A.P. is Sn = [2a + (n − 1)d ]
2
n
(iii) If the last term l ( n term) is given, then Sn = [a + l ]
th
2
zz Geometric Progression
(i) Geometric Progression is a , ar, ar 2 ,…., ar n −1 . n th term is given by tn = ar n −1
a(r n − 1)
(ii) Sum to first n terms of an G.P. is Sn = if r ¹ 1
r −1
(iii) Suppose r =1 then Sn = na
a
(iv) Sum to infinite terms of a G.P. a + ar + ar 2 +  is S ∞ = , where –1< r < 1
1−r
zz Special Series
n(n + 1)
(i) The sum of first n natural numbers 1 + 2 + 3 +  + n =
2
(ii) The sum of squares of first n natural numbers
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
12 + 22 + 32 +  + n 2 =
6 2
 n(n + 1) 
(iii) The sum of cubes of first n natural numbers 1 + 2 + 3 +  + n = 
3 3 3 3  
2 
 
(iv) The sum of first n odd natural numbers 1 + 3 + 5 +  + (2n − 1) = n 2
ICT CORNER
ICT 2.1
Step 1: Open the Browser type the URL Link given below (or) Scan the QR Code. GeoGebra work book named “Numbers
and Sequences” will open. In the left side of the work book there are many activity related to mensuration chapter. Select the
work sheet “Euclid’s Lemma division”
Step 2: In the given worksheet Drag the point mentioned as “Drag Me” to get new set of points. Now compare the Division
algorithm you learned from textbook.
ICT 2.2
Step 1: Open the Browser type the URL Link given below (or) Scan the QR Code. GeoGebra work book named
“Numbers and Sequences” will open. In the left side of the work book there are many activity related to mensuration
chapter. Select the work sheet “Bouncing Ball Problem”.
Step 2: In the given worksheet you can change the height, Number of bounces and debounce ratio by typing new value. Then
click “Get Ball”, and then click “Drop”. The ball bounces as per your value entered. Observe the working given on right
hand side to learn the sum of sequence.

3
ALGEBRA
“A person who can, within a year, solve x 2 − 92y 2 = 1 is
amathematician” - Brahmagupta
Niccolo Fontana Tartaglia was an Italian mathematician,

engineer, surveyor and bookkeeper from then Republic of
Venice (now Italy). He published many books, including the first
Italian translations of Archimedes and Euclid, and an acclaimed
compilation of mathematics. Tartaglia was the first to apply
mathematics to the investigation of the paths of cannonballs; his
work was later validated by Galileo’s studies on falling bodies.
Tartaglia along with Cardano were credited for finding
Niccolo Fontana Tartaglia
methods to solve any third degree polynomials called cubic 1499/1500 – 1557 AD(CE)
equations. He also provided a nice formula for calculating volume
of any tetrahedron using distance between pairs of its four vertices.
Learning Outcomes
zz o solve system of linear equations in three
T
variables by the method of elimination
zz To find GCD and LCM of polynomials
zz To simplify algebraic rational expressions
zz To understand and compute the square root of polynomials
zz To learn about quadratic equations
zz To draw quadratic graphs
zz To learn about matrix, its types and operations on matrices
3.1 Introduction
Algebra can be thought of as the next level of study of numbers. If we need to determine
anything subject to certain specific conditions, then we need Algebra. In that sense, the
study of Algebra is considered as “Science of determining unknowns”. During third
century AD(CE) Diophantus of Alexandria wrote a monumental book titled “Arithmetica”
in thirteen volumes of which only six has survived. This book is the first source where
the conditions of the problems are stated as equations and they are eventually solved.
Diophantus realized that for many real life situation problems, the variables considered
are usually positive integers.
85
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The term “Algebra” has evolved as a misspelling of the word ‘al-jabr’ from one of
the important work titled Al-Kitāb al-mukhtaşar fī hisāb al-jabr wa’l-muqābala (“The
Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing”) written by Persian
Mathematician Al-Khwarizmi of 9th Century AD(CE) Since Al-Khwarizmi’s Al-Jabr book
provided the most appropriate methods of solving equations, he is hailed as “Father of
Algebra”.
In the earlier classes, we had studied several important concepts in Algebra. In this
class, we will continue our journey to understand other important concepts which will be
of much help in solving problems of greater scope. Real understanding of these ideas will
benefit much in learning higher mathematics in future classes.
Simultaneous Linear Equations in Two Variables
Let us recall solving a pair of linear equations in two variables.
Definition
Linear Equation in two variables
Any first degree equation containing two variables x and y is called a linear
equation in two variables. The general form of linear equation in two variables x and
y is ax+by+c = 0 , where atleast one of a, b is non-zero and a, b, c are real numbers.
Note that linear equations are first degree equations in the given variables.
Note
¾¾ xy – 7 = 3 is not a linear equation in two variables since the term xy is of degree 2.
¾¾ A linear equation in two variables represent a straight line in xy plane.
Example 3.1 The father’s age is six times his son’s age. Six years hence the age of father
will be four times his son’s age. Find the present ages (in years) of the son and father.
Solution Let the present age of father be x years and
the present age of son be y years
Given, x = 6y … (1)
x + 6 = 4(y + 6) … (2)
Substituting (1) in (2), 6y + 6 = 4 (y + 6)

6y + 6 = 4y + 24 Þ y = 9
Therefore, son’s age = 9 years and father’s age = 54 years.
Example 3.2 Solve 2x − 3y = 6 , x + y = 1

Solution 2x − 3y = 6 … (1)
x + y = 1 … (2)
3 Algebra.indd 86 16-12-2020 01:04:54 PM

(1) × 1 Þ 2x - 3y = 6 3
Y
2x–3y =6
(2) × 2 Þ 2x +2y = 2 x+y =1 2
1
-------------------------------------------------------------
−4
X′ -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X
-5y = 4 Þ y = -1
5 -2 9 
 , − 4 
 5 
−4 4 9 5 
-4
Substituting y = in (2), x − = 1 we get, x = Y¢
5 5 5
9 −4 Fig. 3.1
Therefore, x = , y = .
5 5
3.2 Simultaneous Linear Equations in Three Variables
Right from the primitive needs of calculating amount
spent for various items in a super market, finding ages of
people under specific conditions, finding path of an object
when it is thrown upwards at an angle, Algebra plays a vital
role in our daily life.
Any point in the space can be determined uniquely
by knowing its latitude, longitude and altitude. Hence
to locate the position of an object at a particular place
situated on the Earth, three satellites are positioned to
arrive three equations. Among these three equations,
we get two linear equations and one quadratic (second
degree) equation. Hence we can solve for the variables
latitude, longitude and altitude to uniquely fix the position
of any object at a given point of time. This is the basis of Fig. 3.2
Geo-Positioning System (GPS). Hence the concept of linear equations in three variables
is used in GPS systems.
3.2.1 System of Linear Equations in Three Variables
In earlier classes, we have learnt different methods of solving Simultaneous Linear
Equations in two variables. Here we shall learn to solve the system of linear equations in
three variables namely, x, y and z. The general form of a linear equation in three variables
x, y and z is ax + by + cz + d = 0 where a, b, c, d are real numbers, and atleast one of
a, b, c is non-zero.
Note
¾¾ A linear equation in two variables of the ¾¾ A linear equation in three variables of the
form ax + by + c = 0 , represents a form ax + by + cz + d = 0 , represents a
straight line. Y plane. Z
ax+by+cz+d =0
ax
+b
y+
c
=0
O X
O
X′ X
Y ¢ Fig. 3.3(i)
Y Fig. 3.3(ii)
Y¢
Algebra 87
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General Form: A system of linear equations in three variables x, y, z has the general form
a1x + b1y + c1z + d1 = 0
a2x + b2y + c2z + d2 = 0
a 3x + b3y + c3z + d3 = 0
Each equation in the system represents a plane in three dimensional space and
solution of the system of equations is precisely the point of intersection of the three
planes defined by the three linear equations of the system. The system may have only one
solution, infinitely many solutions or no solution depending on how the planes intersect
one another.
The figures presented below illustrate each of these possibilities
only one solution Infinitely many No solution

solutions
Fig. 3.4
Procedure for solving system of linear equations in three variables
Step 1: By taking any two equations from the given three, first multiply by some suitable
non-zero constant to make the co-efficient of one variable (either x or y or z)
numerically equal.
Step 2: Eliminate one of the variables whose co-efficients are numerically equal from
the equations.
Step 3: Eliminate the same variable from another pair.
Step 4: Now we have two equations in two variables.
Step 5: Solve them using any method studied in earlier classes.
Step 6: The remaining variable is then found by substituting in any one of the given
equations.
Note
¾¾ If you obtain a false equation such as 0=1, in any of the steps then the system has no
solution.
¾¾ If you do not obtain a false solution, but obtain an identity, such as 0=0 then the system
has infinitely many solutions.
Example 3.3 Solve the following system of linear equations in three variables
3x – 2y + z =2 , 2x + 3y – z = 5 , x + y + z = 6 .
Solution 3x − 2y + z = 2 …(1) 2x + 3y – z = 5 …(2) x + y + z = 6 …(3)
3 Algebra.indd 88 16-12-2020 01:04:56 PM

Adding (1) and (2), 3x – 2y + z = 2
(+)
2x + 3y – z = 5
5x + y = 7 …(4)
Adding (2) and (3), 2x + 3y – z = 5

(+)
x + y + z = 6
3x + 4y = 11 …(5)
4 × (4)−(5) 20x + 4y = 28
(−)
3x + 4y = 11
17x = 17 Þ x = 1
Substituting x = 1 in (4), 5 + y = 7 Þ y = 2
Substituting x = 1 , y = 2 in (3), 1 + 2 + z = 6 we get, z = 3
Therefore, x = 1, y = 2 , z = 3
Example 3.4 In an interschool atheletic meet, with total of 24 individual prices, securing
a total of 56 points, a first place secures 5 points, a second place secures 3 points, and a
third place secures 1 point. Having as many third place finishers as first and second place
finishers, find how many athletes finished in each place.
Solution Let the number of I, II and III place finishers be x , y and z respectively.
Total number of events = 24; Total number of points = 56.
Hence, the linear equations in three variables are
x + y + z = 24 …(1) 5x + 3y + z = 56 …(2) x +y = z …(3)
Substituting (3) in (1) we get, z + z = 24 Þ z = 12
∴ (3) will be, x + y = 12
(2) Þ 5x + 3y = 44
(−)
3×(3) Þ 3x + 3y = 36
2x = 8 we get, x = 4
Substituting x = 4 , z = 12 in (3) we get, y = 12 − 4 = 8
Therefore, Number of first place finishers is 4
Number of second place finishers is 8
Number of third place finishers is 12.
Example 3.5 Solve x + 2y – z = 5 ; x − y + z = −2 ; −5x − 4y + z = −11
Solution x + 2y – z =5 …(1) x – y + z =–2 …(2) –5x –4y + z = –11 …(3)
Adding (1) and (2) we get, x + 2y – z = 5
(+)
x – y + z = –2
2x + y = 3 …(4)
Algebra 89
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Subtracting (2) and (3), x − y + z = – 2
(−)
−5x − 4y + z = – 11
6x + 3y =9
Dividing by 3 2x + y = 3 …(5)
Subtracting (4) and (5), 2x + y =3
2x + y =3
0 = 0
Here we arrive at an identity 0=0.

Hence the system has an infinite number of solutions.
Example 3.6 Solve 3x + y – 3z = 1 ; –2x – y + 2z = 1 ; –x – y + z = 2 .
Solution 3x + y − 3z = 1 … (1) –2x – y + 2z = 1 …(2) −x − y + z = 2 …(3)
Adding (1) and (2), 3x + y − 3z = 1

(+)
−2x − y + 2z = 1
x – z = 2 … (4)
Adding (1) and (3), 3x + y − 3z = 1

(+)
−x − y + z = 2
2x - 2z = 3 … (5)
2x - 2z = 3
(−)
Now, (5) −2×(4) we get, 2x - 2z = 4
0 = –1
Here we arrive at a contradiction as 0 ≠ –1.

This means that the system is inconsistent and has no solution.
x y z y z
Example 3.7 Solve − 1 = + 1 = + 2 ; + = 13
2 6 7 3 2
x y
Solution Considering, −1 = +1
2 6
x y 6x − 2y
− = 1+1 Þ = 2 we get, 3x − y = 12 … (1)
2 6 12
x z
Considering, − 1 = + 2
2 7
x z 7x − 2z
− =1+2 Þ = 3 we get, 7x − 2z = 42 … (2)
2 7 14
y z 2y + 3z
Also, from + = 13 Þ = 13 we get, 2y + 3z = 78 … (3)
3 2 6
3 Algebra.indd 90 16-12-2020 01:05:00 PM

Eliminating z from (2) and (3)
(2) × 3 Þ 21x – 6z = 126
(+)
(3) × 2 Þ 4y + 6z = 156
21x + 4y = 282
(+)
(1) × 4 Þ 12x - 4y = 48
33x = 330 so, x = 10

Substituting x = 10 in (1), 30 − y = 12 we get, y = 18
Substituting x = 10 in (2), 70 − 2z = 42 then, z = 14
∴ x = 10 , y = 18 , z = 14 .
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4 2
Example 3.8 Solve : + − = ; = ; − + =2
2x 4y 3z 4 x 3y x 5y z 15
1 1 1
Solution Let =p , =q , =r
x y z
The given equations are written as
p q r 1
+ − =
2 4 3 4
q
p =
3
q 2 32
p − + 4r = 2 =
5 15 15
By simplifying we get,
6p + 3q − 4r = 3 …(1)
3p = q …(2)
15p − 3q + 60r = 32 …(3)

Substituting (2) in (1) and (3) we get,
15p - 4r
= 3 …(4)
6p + 60r = 32 reduces to 3p + 30r = 16 …(5)
Solving (4) and (5),
15p - 4r = 3
(−)
15p + 150r = 80
1
-154r = – 77 we get, r =
2
1 1
Substituting r =
in (4) we get, 15p - 2 = 3 Þ p =
2 3
From (2), q = 3p we get
⇒q =1
1 1 1
Therefore, x = = 3, y = = 1, z = = 2 . i.e., x = 3, y = 1, z = 2 .
p q r
Algebra 91
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Example 3.9 The sum of thrice the first number, second number and twice the third
number is 5. If thrice the second number is subtracted from the sum of first number and
thrice the third we get 2. If the third number is subtracted from the sum of twice the first,
thrice the second, we get 1. Find the numbers.
Solution Let the three numbers be x, y, z
From the given data we get the following equations,
3x + y + 2z = 5 …(1) x + 3z – 3y = 2 …(2) 2x + 3y – z = 1 …(3)
(1) × 1 Þ 3x + y + 2z = 5
(−)
(2) × 3 Þ 3x – 9y + 9z = 6 Thinking Corner
10y – 7z = –1 …(4) 1. The number of
possible solutions
(1) × 2 Þ 6x + 2y + 4z = 10
(−) when solving system
(3) ×3 Þ 6x + 9y − 3z = 3 of linear equations
−7y + 7z = 7 …(5) in three variables are
_____.
Adding (4) and (5), 10y – 7z = –1
2. If three planes
−7y + 7z = 7
are parallel then
3y =6 Þ y =2 the number of
possible point(s) of
Substituting y = 2 in (5), −14 + 7z = 7 Þ z = 3
intersection is/are
Substituting y = 2 and z = 3 in (1),
_____.
3x + 2 + 6 = 5 we get
⇒ x = −1
Therefore, x = –1, y = 2, z = 3.
Progress Check
1. For a system of linear equations in three variables the minimum number of

equations required to get unique solution is _______.
2. A system with _______ will reduce to identity.
3. A system with _______ will provide absurd equation.
Exercise 3.1
1. Solve the following system of linear equations in three variables

(i) x + y + z = 5 ; 2x − y + z = 9 ; x − 2y + 3z = 16
1 2 1 1 2 3
(ii) − + 4 = 0; − + 1 = 0; + = 14
x y y z z x
3y
(iii) x + 20 = + 10 = 2z + 5 = 110 – (y + z)
2
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2. Discuss the nature of solutions of the following system of equations
(i) x + 2y − z = 6 ; −3x − 2y + 5z = −12 ; x − 2z = 3
1
(ii) 2y + z = 3 (−x + 1) ; −x + 3y − z = −4 ; 3x + 2y + z = −
2
y +z z +x x +y
(iii) = = ; x + y + z = 27
4 3 2
3. V
ani, her father and her grand father have an average age of 53. One-half of her
grand father’s age plus one-third of her father’s age plus one fourth of Vani’s age is 65.
Four years ago if Vani’s grandfather was four times as old as Vani then how old are
they all now ?
e sum of the digits of a three-digit number is 11. If the digits are reversed, the new
4. Th
number is 46 more than five times the former number. If the hundreds digit plus twice
the tens digit is equal to the units digit, then find the original three digit number ?
5. There are 12 pieces of five, ten and twenty rupee currencies whose total value is ₹105.
When first 2 sorts are interchanged in their numbers its value will be increased by
₹20. Find the number of currencies in each sort.
3.3 GCD and LCM of Polynomials

3.3.1 Greatest Common Divisor (GCD) or Highest Common Factor (HCF) of Polynomials
In our previous class we have learnt how to find the GCD (HCF) of second degree
and third degree expressions by the method of factorization. Now we shall learn how to
find the GCD of the given polynomials by the method of long division.
As discussed in Chapter 2, (Numbers and Sequences) to find GCD of two positive
integers using Euclidean Algorithm, similar techniques can be employed for two given
polynomials also.
The following procedure gives a systematic way of finding Greatest Common Divisor
of two given polynomials f (x ) and g(x ) .
Step 1: First, divide f(x) by g(x ) to obtain f (x ) = g(x )q(x ) + r (x ) where q(x ) is the quotient
and r (x ) is the remainder. Then, deg r (x ) < deg g(x )
Step 2: If the remainder r (x ) is non-zero, divide g(x ) by r (x ) to obtain g(x ) = r (x )q1(x ) + r1(x )
where r1(x ) is the new remainder. Then deg r1(x ) < deg r (x ) . If the remainder
r1(x ) is zero, then r (x ) is the required GCD.
Step 3: If r1(x ) is non-zero, then continue the process until we get zero as remainder. The
divisor at this stage will be the required GCD.
We write GCD  f (x ), g(x ) to denote the GCD of the polynomials f (x ), g(x ).
Note
If f (x ) and g(x ) are two polynomials of same degree then the polynomial carrying the
highest coefficient will be the dividend. In case, if both have the same coefficient then
compare the next least degree’s coefficient and proceed with the division.
Algebra 93
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Progress Check
1. When two polynomials of same degree has to be divided, __________ should be

considered to fix the dividend and divisor.
2. If r (x ) = 0 when f(x) is divided by g(x) then g(x) is called ________ of the

polynomials.
3. If f (x ) = g(x )q(x ) + r (x ), _________ must be added to f(x) to make f(x) completely

divisible by g(x).
4. If f (x ) = g(x )q(x ) + r (x ), _________ must be subtracted to f(x) to make f(x)

completely divisible by g(x).
Example 3.10 Find the GCD of the polynomials x 3 + x 2 − x + 2 and 2x 3 − 5x 2 + 5x − 3 .

Solution Let f (x ) = 2x 3 − 5x 2 + 5x − 3 and g(x ) = x 3 + x 2 − x + 2
2
x3 + x2 − x + 2 2x 3 − 5x 2 + 5x − 3
2x 3 + 2x 2 − 2x + 4 (−)
−7x 2 + 7x − 7
= −7(x 2 − x + 1)
−7(x 2 − x + 1) ≠ 0 , note that -7 is not a divisor of g(x )
Now dividing g(x ) = x 3 + x 2 − x + 2 by the new remainder x2–x+1 (leaving the

constant factor), we get
x+2
x2 − x + 1 x3 + x2 − x + 2
x3 − x2 + x (−)
2x 2 − 2x + 2
(−)
2x 2 − 2x + 2
0
Here, we get zero remainder.
Therefore, GCD(2x 3 − 5x 2 + 5x − 3, x 3 + x 2 − x + 2) = x 2 − x + 1 .
Example 3.11 Find the GCD of 6x 3 − 30x 2 + 60x − 48 and 3x 3 − 12x 2 + 21x − 18 .
Solution Let, f (x) = 6x 3 − 30x 2 + 60x − 48 = 6(x 3 − 5x 2 + 10x − 8) and
g (x) = 3x 3 − 12x 2 + 21x − 18 = 3 (x 3 − 4x 2 + 7x − 6)
3 Algebra.indd 94 16-12-2020 01:05:09 PM

Now, we shall find the GCD of x 3 − 5x 2 + 10x − 8 and x 3 − 4x 2 + 7x − 6
1
x 3 − 5x 2 + 10x − 8 x 3 − 4x 2 + 7x − 6
(−)
x 3 − 5x 2 + 10x − 8
x2 − 3x + 2
x -2
3 2
x 2 − 3x + 2 x − 5x + 10x − 8
x 3 − 3x 2 + 2x (−)
−2x 2 + 8x − 8
−2x 2 + 6x − 4 (−)
2x - 4
= 2(x − 2)
x -1
x - 2 x − 3x + 2
2
(−)
x 2 - 2x
−x + 2
−x + 2 (−)
0 Here, we get zero as remainder.
GCD of leading coefficients 3 and 6 is 3.
Thus, GCD (6x 3 − 30x 2 + 60x − 48, 3x 3 − 12x 2 + 21x − 18) = 3(x − 2) .
 
3.3.2 Least Common Multiple (LCM) of Polynomials
The Least Common Multiple of two or more algebraic expressions is the expression
of highest degree (or power) such that the expressions exactly divide it.
Consider the following simple expressions a 3b 2 , a 2b 3 .
For these expressions LCM = a 3b 3 .
To find LCM by factorization method
(i) Each expression is first resolved into its factors.
(ii) The highest power of the factors will be the LCM.
(iii) If the expressions have numerical coefficients, find their LCM.
(iv) The product of the LCM of factors and coefficient is the required LCM.
Example 3.12 Find the LCM of the following
(i) 8x 4y 2 , 48x 2y 4 (ii) 5x - 10, 5x 2 - 20
(iii) x 4 - 1, x 2 − 2x + 1 (iv) x 3 - 27, (x - 3)2 , x 2 - 9
Algebra 95
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Solution (i) 8x 4y 2 , 48x 2y 4
First let us find the LCM of the numerical coefficients.
That is, LCM (8, 48) = 2 × 2 × 2 × 6 = 48
Then find the LCM of the terms involving variables.
That is, LCM (x 4y 2, x 2y 4 ) = x 4y 4
Finally find the LCM of the given expression.
We condclude that the LCM of the given expression is the product of the
LCM of the numerical coefficient and the LCM of the terms with variables.
Therefore, LCM (8x 4y 2, 48x 2y 4 ) = 48x 4y 4
(ii) (5x - 10), (5x 2 - 20)
5x - 10 = 5(x − 2)
5x 2 - 20 = 5(x 2 − 4) = 5(x + 2)(x − 2)
Therefore, LCM [(5x − 10),(5x 2 − 20)] = 5(x + 2)(x − 2)

(iii) (x 4 - 1), x 2 − 2x + 1
x 4 - 1 = (x 2 )2 − 1 = (x 2 + 1)(x 2 − 1) = (x 2 + 1)(x + 1)(x − 1)
x 2 − 2x + 1 = (x − 1)2
Therefore, LCM [(x 4 − 1),(x 2 − 2x + 1)] = (x 2 + 1)(x + 1)(x − 1)2
(iv) x 3 - 27, (x - 3)2 , x 2 - 9

x 3 - 27 = (x − 3)(x 2 + 3x + 9) ; (x − 3)2 = (x − 3)2 ; (x 2 − 9) = (x + 3)(x − 3)
Therefore, LCM [(x 3 - 27),(x - 3)2,(x 2 - 9)] = (x − 3)2 (x + 3)(x 2 + 3x + 9)
Thinking Corner
Complete the factor tree for the given polynomials f(x) and g(x). Hence find their
GCD and LCM.
f(x) = 2x3 – 9x2 – 32x –21 g(x) = 2x3 – 7x2 – 43x – 42
2x + 3 x+1 x+2
GCD [f (x) and g (x)] = _____ LCM [f (x) and g (x)] = _____
Exercise 3.2
1. Find the GCD of the given polynomials
(i) x 4 + 3x 3 − x − 3, x 3 + x 2 − 5x + 3 (ii) x 4 - 1 , x 3 − 11x 2 + x − 11
(iii) 3x 4 + 6x 3 − 12x 2 − 24x , 4x 4 + 14x 3 + 8x 2 − 8x
(iv) 3x 3 + 3x 2 + 3x + 3 , 6x 3 + 12x 2 + 6x + 12
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2. F
ind the LCM of the given expressions.
(i) 4x 2y, 8x 3y 2 (ii)
-9a 3b 2 , 12a 2b 2c (iii) 16m,-12m 2n 2 , 8n 2
(iv) p 2 − 3p + 2, p 2 - 4 (v) 2x 2 - 5x - 3, 4x 2 - 36
(vi) (2x 2 - 3xy )2 , (4x - 6y )3 , 8x 3 - 27y 3
3.3.3 Relationship between LCM and GCD
Let us consider two numbers 12 and 18.
We observe that, LCM (12, 18) = 36, GCD (12, 18) = 6 .
Now, LCM (12,18) × GCD(12,18) = 36 × 6 = 216 = 12 × 18
Thus LCM × GCD is equal to the product of two given numbers.
Similarly, the product of two polynomials is the product of their LCM and GCD,
That is, f (x ) × g(x ) = LCM [ f (x ), g(x )]×GCD[ f (x ), g(x )]
Illustration
Consider f(x) = 12(x 2 − y 2 ) and g(x ) = 8(x 3 − y 3 )
Now f(x) = 12(x 2 − y 2 ) = 22 × 3 × (x + y )(x − y ) ...(1)

and g(x) = 8(x 3 − y 3 ) = 23 × (x − y )(x 2 + xy + y 2 ) ...(2)
From (1) and (2) we get,
LCM[f(x), g(x)] = 23 × 3 × (x + y )(x − y )(x 2 + xy + y 2 )
= 24 × (x 2 − y 2 )(x 2 + xy + y 2 )
GCD  f (x ), g(x ) = 22 × (x − y ) = 4(x − y )
LCM ´GCD = 24 × 4 × (x 2 − y 2 ) × (x 2 + xy + y 2 ) × (x − y )
LCM ´GCD = 96(x 3 − y 3 )(x 2 − y 2 ) ...(3)
product of f(x) and g(x) = 12(x 2 − y 2 ) × 8(x 3 − y 3 )
= 96(x 2 − y 2 )(x 3 − y 3 ) ...(4)
From (3) and (4) we obtain LCM × GCD = f (x ) × g(x )
Thinking Corner
Is f (x ) ´ g(x ) ´ r (x ) =LCM [ f (x ), g(x ), r (x )] × GCD [ f (x ), g(x ), r (x )] ?
Exercise 3.3
1. Find the LCM and GCD for the following and verify that f (x ) × g(x ) = LCM ×GCD
(i) 21x 2y, 35xy 2 (ii) (x 3 − 1)(x + 1), (x 3 + 1) (iii) (x 2y + xy 2 ), (x 2 + xy )
2. Find the LCM of each pair of the following polynomials

(i) a 2 + 4a − 12, a 2 − 5a + 6 whose GCD is a - 2
(ii) x 4 - 27a 3x , (x - 3a )2 whose GCD is (x - 3a )
Algebra 97
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3. F
ind the GCD of each pair of the following polynomials
(i) 12(x 4 - x 3 ), 8(x 4 − 3x 3 + 2x 2 ) whose LCM is 24x 3 (x - 1)(x - 2)
(ii) (x 3 + y 3 ), (x 4 + x 2y 2 + y 4 ) whose LCM is (x 3 + y 3 )(x 2 + xy + y 2 )
4. Given the LCM and GCD of the two polynomials p(x) and q(x) find the unknown
polynomial in the following table
S.No. LCM GCD p(x) q(x)
(i) a 3 − 10a 2 + 11a + 70 a -7 a 2 − 12a + 35
(ii) (x 4 − y 4 )(x 4 + x 2y 2 + y 4 ) (x 2 - y 2 ) (x 4 − y 4 )(x 2 + y 2 − xy )
3.4 Rational Expressions

Definition : An expression is called a rational expression if it can be written in the form
p(x )
where p(x) and q(x) are polynomials and q(x) ¹ 0 . A rational expression is the ratio
q(x )
of two polynomials.
The following are examples of rational expressions.
9 2y + 1 z3 + 5 a
, 2 , , .
x y − 4y + 9 z − 4 a + 10
The rational expressions are applied for describing distance-time, modeling multi-
task problems, to combine workers or machines to complete a job schedule and much
more.
3.4.1 Reduction of Rational Expression
p(x )
A rational expression is said to be in its lowest form if GCD (p(x ), q(x )) = 1 .
q(x )
To reduce a rational expression to its lowest form, follow the given steps
(i) Factorize the numerator and the denominator
(ii) If there are common factors in the numerator and denominator, cancel them.
(iii) The resulting expression will be a rational expression in its lowest form.
Example 3.13 Reduce the rational expressions to its lowest form
x -3 x 2 − 16
(i) (ii)
x2 - 9 x 2 + 8x + 16
x -3 x −3 1
Solution (i) 2 = =
x -9 (x + 3)(x − 3) x +3
2
x − 16 (x + 4)(x − 4) x −4
(ii) 2 = =
x + 8x + 16 (x + 4)2
x +4
3.4.2 Excluded Value

p(x )
A value that makes a rational expression (in its lowest form) undefined is called
q(x )
an Excluded value.
3 Algebra.indd 98 16-12-2020 01:05:20 PM

To find excluded value for a given rational expression in its lowest form, say
p(x )
, consider the denominator q(x) = 0.
q(x )
5
For example, the rational expression is undefined when x = 10 . So, 10 is
x - 10
5
called an excluded value for .
x - 10
Example 3.14 Find the excluded values of the following expressions (if any).
x + 10 7p + 2 x
(i) (ii) 2
(iii) 2
8x 8 p + 13p + 5 x +1
Solution
x + 10
(i)
8x
x + 10
The expression is undefined when 8x = 0 or x = 0 . Hence the excluded
8x
value is 0.
7p + 2
(ii) 2
8 p + 13p + 5
7p + 2
The expression is undefined when 8p 2 + 13p + 5 = 0
2
8 p + 13p + 5
that is, (8 p + 5)(p + 1) = 0
−5 -5
p= , p = −1 . The excluded values are and -1 .
8 8
x
(iii) 2
x +1
Here x 2 ³ 0 for all x. Therefore, x 2 + 1 ≥ 0 + 1 = 1 . Hence, x 2 + 1 ≠ 0 for any x.
Therefore, there can be no real excluded values for the given rational
x
expression 2 .
x +1
Thinking Corner
sin x
1. Are x 2 - 1 and tan x = rational expressions?
cos x
x 3 + x 2 − 10x + 8
2. The number of excluded values of is _____.
x 4 + 8x 2 − 9
Exercise 3.4
1. Reduce each of the following rational expressions to its lowest form.

x2 −1 x 2 − 11x + 18 9x 2 + 81x p 2 − 3p − 40
(i) 2 (ii) 2 (iii) 3 (iv) 3
x +x x − 4x + 4 x + 8x 2 − 9x 2p − 24 p 2 + 64 p
2. Find the excluded values, if any of the following expressions.
y t x 2 + 6x + 8 x 3 − 27
(i) 2 (ii) 2 (iii) 2 (iv) 3
y - 25 t − 5t + 6 x +x −2 x + x 2 − 6x
Algebra 99
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3.4.3 Operations of Rational Expressions
We have studied the concepts of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division
of rational numbers in previous classes. Now let us generalize the above for rational
expressions.
Multiplication of Rational Expressions
p(x ) r (x )
If and are two rational expressions where q(x ) ¹ 0, s(x ) ¹ 0 ,
q(x ) s(x )
p(x ) r (x ) p(x ) × r (x )
their product is ´ =
q(x ) s(x ) q(x ) × s(x )
In other words, the product of two rational expression is the product of their
numerators divided by the product of their denominators and the resulting expression is
then reduced to its lowest form.
Division of Rational Expressions

p(x ) r (x )
If and are two rational expressions, where q(x ), s(x ) ¹ 0 then,
q(x ) s(x )
p(x ) r (x ) p(x ) s(x ) p(x ) × s(x )
√ = × =
q(x ) s(x ) q(x ) r (x ) q(x ) × r (x )
Thus division of one rational expression by other is equivalent to the product of first
and reciprocal of the second expression. If the resulting expression is not in its lowest
form then reduce to its lowest form.
Progress Check
Find the unknown expression in the following figures.

1. 2. altitude =
2(x + y )
m
x −y
(x − 4)(x + 3) breadth = ?
Area = km 2 (x > y)
3x − 12
Area=?
x -3
length = km base = (x+y)(x+y)m
3
Fig. 3.5 Fig. 3.6
x3 27y x 4b 2 x2 -1
Example 3.15 (i) Multiply by 5 (ii) Multiply by 4 3
9y 2
x x -1 ab
x 3 27y 3 xb4 2
x − 1 x × b (x + 1)(x − 1) x 4 (x + 1)
2 4 2
Solution (i) ´ 5 = 2 (ii) × = × =
9y 2
x xy x − 1 a 4b 3 x −1 a 4 ×b 3 a 4b
Example 3.16 Find

14x 4 7x x 2 − 16 x − 4 16x 2 − 2x − 3 8x 2 + 11x + 3
(i) √ 4 (ii) ÷ (iii) 2 ÷ 2
y 3y x +4 x +4 3x − 2x − 1 3x − 11x − 4
3 Algebra.indd 100 16-12-2020 01:05:25 PM

14x 4 7x 14x 4 3y 4
Solution : (i) √ 4 = × = 6x 3y 3
y 3y y 7x
2
x − 16 x − 4 (x + 4)(x − 4)  x + 4 
(ii) ÷ = ×   = x + 4
x +4 x +4 (x + 4)  x − 4 
16x 2 − 2x − 3 8x 2 + 11x + 3 16x 2 − 2x − 3 3x 2 − 11x − 4
(iii) ÷ = ×
3x 2 − 2x − 1 3x 2 − 11x − 4 3x 2 − 2x − 1 8x 2 + 11x + 3
(8x + 3)(2x − 1) (3x + 1)(x − 4) (2x − 1)(x − 4) 2x 2 − 9x + 4
= × = =
(3x + 1)(x − 1) (8x + 3)(x + 1) (x − 1)(x + 1) x2 −1
Exercise 3.5
1. Simplify
4x 2y 6xz 3 p 2 − 10p + 21 p 2 + p − 12 5t 3 6t − 12
(i) ´ (ii) × (iii) ×
2z 2 20y 4 p −7 (p − 3)2
4t − 8 10t
2. Simplify
x +4 9x 2 − 16y 2 x 3 − y3 x 2 + 2xy + y 2
(i) × 2 (ii) ×
3x + 4y 2x + 3x − 20 3x 2 + 9xy + 6y 2 x 2 − y2
3. Simplify
2a 2 + 5a + 3 a 2 + 6a + 5 b 2 + 3b − 28 b 2 − 49
(i) ÷ (ii) 2 ÷
2a 2 + 7a + 6 −5a 2 − 35 a − 50 b + 4b + 4 b 2 − 5b − 14
x + 2 x2 − x − 6 12t 2 − 22t + 8 3t 2 + 2t − 8
(iii) ÷ (iv) ÷
4y 12y 2 3t 2t 2 + 4t
a 2 + 3a − 4 a 2 + 2a − 8
4. If x = 2
and y = 2
find the value of x 2y -2 .
3a − 3 2a − 2a − 4
5. I f a polynomial p(x ) = x 2 − 5x − 14 is divided by another polynomial q(x ) we get

x −7
, find q(x ) .
x +2
Activity 1
(i) The length of a rectangular garden is the sum of a number
and its reciprocal. The breadth is the difference of the
square of the same number and its reciprocal. Find the
length, breadth and the ratio of the length to the breadth
of the rectangle.
(ii) Find the ratio of the perimeter to the area of the given 13x 37x
12x
triangle.
5x 35x
Algebra 101
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Addition and Subtraction of Rational Expressions
Addition and Subtraction of Rational Expressions with Like Denominators
(i) Add or Subtract the numerators
rite the sum or difference of the numerators found in step (i) over the common
(ii) W
denominator.
(iii) Reduce the resulting rational expression into its lowest form.
x 2 + 20x + 36 x 2 + 12x + 4
Example 3.17 Find − 2
x 2 − 3x − 28 x − 3x − 28
x + 20x + 36 x + 12x + 4 (x 2 + 20x + 36) − (x 2 + 12x + 4)
2 2
Solution − 2 =
x 2 − 3x − 28 x − 3x − 28 x 2 − 3x − 28
8x + 32 8(x + 4) 8
= 2 = =
x − 3x − 28 (x − 7)(x + 4) x − 7
Addition and Subtraction of Rational Expressions with unlike Denominators
(i) Determine the Least Common Multiple of the denominator.
(ii) Rewrite each fraction as an equivalent fraction with the LCM obtained in
step (i). This is done by multiplying both the numerators and denominator of
each expression by any factors needed to obtain the LCM.
(iii) Follow the same steps given for doing addition or subtraction of the rational
expression with like denominators.
Progress Check
1. Write an expression that represents the 2. Find the base of the given parallelogram
perimeter of the figure and simplify. 4x 2 + 10x − 50
whose perimeter is
(x − 3)(x + 5)
2 cm x +1
cm
3x x
5 m
3
x-
6
cm ?
x2
1 1 1
Example 3.18 Simplify + 2
2
− 2
x − 5x + 6 x − 3x + 2 x − 8x + 15
1 1 1 Thinking Corner
Solution 2 + 2 − 2
x − 5x + 6 x − 3x + 2 x − 8x + 15 Say True or False
1 1 1 1. The sum of two rational
= + −
(x − 2)(x − 3) (x − 2)(x − 1) (x − 5)(x − 3) expressions is always a
rational expression.
(x − 1)(x − 5) + (x − 3)(x − 5) − (x − 1)(x − 2)
= 2. The product of two
(x − 1)(x − 2)(x − 3)(x − 5)
rational expressions
2 2 2
(x − 6x + 5) + (x − 8x + 15) − (x − 3x + 2) is always a rational
= expression.
(x − 1)(x − 2)(x − 3)(x − 5)
3 Algebra.indd 102 16-12-2020 01:05:29 PM

x 2 − 11x + 18 (x − 9)(x − 2)
= =
(x − 1)(x − 2)(x − 3)(x − 5) (x − 1)(x − 2)(x − 3)(x − 5)
x −9
=
(x − 1)(x − 3)(x − 5)
Exercise 3.6
x (x + 1) x (1 − x ) x + 2 x −1 x3 y3
1. Simplify (i) + (ii) + (iii) +
x −2 x −2 x + 3 x −2 x −y y −x
(2x + 1)(x − 2) (2x 2 − 5x + 2) 4x x +1
2. S implify (i) − (ii) 2 −
x −4 x −4 x −1 x −1
1 2x 3 + x 2 + 3
3. Subtract 2 from
x +2 (x 2 + 2)2
x 2 + 6x + 8 3
4. W
hich rational expression should be subtracted from 3
to get 2
x +8 x − 2x + 4
2x + 1 2x − 1 1 2B
5. If A = ,B= find - 2
2x − 1 2x + 1 A - B A - B2
x 1 (A + B )2 + (A − B )2 2(x 2 + 1)
6. If A = ,B= , prove that =
x +1 x +1 A÷B x (x + 1)2
7. Pari needs 4 hours to complete a work. His friend Yuvan needs 6 hours to complete
the same work. How long will it take to complete if they work together?
8. Iniya bought 50 kg of fruits consisting of apples and bananas. She paid twice as
much per kg for the apple as she did for the banana. If Iniya bought ₹ 1800 worth of
apples and ₹ 600 worth bananas, then how many kgs of each fruit did she buy?
3.5 Square Root of Polynomials

The square root of a given positive real number is another number which when
multiplied with itself is the given number.
Similarly, the square root of a given expression p(x) is another expression q(x) which
when multiplied by itself gives p(x), that is, q(x ). q(x ) = p(x )
So, q(x ) = p(x ) where q(x ) is the absolute value of q(x).
The following two methods are used to find the square root of a given expression
(i) Factorization method (ii) Division method
Progress Check
1. Is x 2 + 4x + 4 a perfect square? 2. What is the value of x in 3 x = 9 ?

3. The square root of 361x 4y 2 is _______. 4. a 2x 2 + 2abx + b 2 = _______.
5. If a polynomial is a perfect square then, its factors will be repeated _______ number
of times (odd / even).
Algebra 103
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3.5.1 Find the Square Root by Factorization Method
Example 3.19 Find the square root of the following expressions
144 a 8 b 12 c 16
(i) 256(x - a ) (x - b) (x - c) (x - d ) (ii)
8 4 16 20
81 f 12g 4 h 14
Solution (i) 256(x - a )8 (x - b)4 (x - c)16 (x - d )20 = 16 (x − a )4 (x − b)2 (x − c)8 (x − d )10

144a 8b 12c 16 4 a 4b 6c 8
(ii) =
81f 12g 4h 14 3 f 6g 2h 7
Example 3.20 Find the square root of the following expressions
(i) 16x 2 + 9y 2 − 24xy + 24x − 18y + 9 (ii) (6x 2 + x − 1)(3x 2 + 2x − 1)(2x 2 + 3x + 1)
(iii)  15x 2 +

( 

) 
(
3 + 10 x + 2   5x 2 + 2 5 + 1 x + 2  3x 2 +

) ( ) 
2 + 2 3 x + 2 2

Solution (i) 16x 2 + 9y 2 − 24xy + 24x − 18y + 9
= (4x )2 + (−3y )2 + (3)2 + 2(4x )(−3y ) + 2(−3y )(3) + 2(4x )(3)
= (4x − 3y + 3)2 = 4x − 3y + 3
(ii) (6x 2 + x − 1)(3x 2 + 2x − 1)(2x 2 + 3x + 1)
= (3x − 1)(2x + 1)(3x − 1)(x + 1)(2x + 1)(x + 1) = (3x − 1)(2x + 1)(x + 1)
(iii) First let us factorize the polynomials
15x 2 + ( )
3 + 10 x + 2 = 15x 2 + 3x + 10x + 2
= 3x ( 5x + 1 + 2) ( 5x + 1 )
= 5x + 1 × ( ) ( 3x + 2 )
( )
5x 2 + 2 5 + 1 x + 2 = 5x 2 + 2 5x + x + 2
= 5x (x + 2) + 1(x + 2) = ( )
5x + 1 (x + 2)
3x 2 + ( )
2 + 2 3 x + 2 2 = 3x 2 + 2x + 2 3x + 2 2
=x ( 3x + 2 + 2 ) ( 3x + 2 = (x + 2)) ( 3x + 2 )
Therefore,

 2
 15x +

( 

) 
3 + 10 x + 2   5x 2 + 2 5 + 1 x + 2  3x 2 +

( ) ( 2 + 2 3 )x + 2 2 
= ( 5x + 1 )( 3x + 2 )( 5x + 1 (x + 2) ) ( 3x + 2 )(x + 2) = ( 5x + 1) ( 3x + 2 )(x + 2)
3 Algebra.indd 104 16-12-2020 01:05:34 PM

Exercise 3.7
1. F
ind the square root of the following rational expressions.
400x 4y 12z 16 7x 2 + 2 14x + 2 121(a + b)8 (x + y )8 (b − c)8
(i) (ii) (iii)
100x 8y 4z 4 2 1 1 81(b − c)4 (a − b)12 (b − c)4
x − x+
2 16
2. F
ind the square root of the following
(i) 4x 2 + 20x + 25 (ii) 9x 2 − 24xy + 30xz − 40yz + 25z 2 + 16y 2
(iii)
(4x 2 − 9x + 2) (7x 2 - 13x - 2) (28x 2 - 3x - 1)
 17  3  4 11 
2x 2 +
(iv)  x + 1  x 2 + 4x + 2  x 2 + x + 2
 6   2   3 3 
3.5.2 Finding the Square Root of a Polynomial by Division Method

The long division method in finding the square root of a polynomial is useful when
the degree of the polynomial is higher.
Example 3.21 Find the square root of 64x 4 − 16x 3 + 17x 2 − 2x + 1

Solution Note
8x 2 − x + 1
8x 2 64x − 16x + 17x − 2x + 1
4 3 2 Before proceeding to find the
64x 4 (−) square root of a polynomial,
−16x 3 + 17x 2 one has to ensure that the
16x 2 - x
(−) degrees of the variables are
−16x 3 + x2 in descending or ascending
16x 2 − 2x + 1 16x 2 − 2x + 1 order.
16x 2 − 2x + 1 (−)
0
Therefore, 64x 4 − 16x 3 + 17x 2 − 2x + 1 = 8x 2 − x + 1
Example 3.22 If 9x 4 + 12x 3 + 28x 2 + ax + b is a perfect square, find the values of a and b.
Solution 3x 2 + 2x + 4
4 3 2
3x 2 9x + 12x + 28x + ax + b
(−)
9x 4
6x 2 + 2x 12x 3 + 28x 2
(−)
12x 3 + 4x 2
6x 2 + 4x + 4 24x 2 + ax + b
(−)
24x 2 + 16x + 16
0
Algebra 105
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Because the given polynomial is a perfect square a − 16 = 0 , b − 16 = 0
Therefore a = 16, b = 16 .
Exercise 3.8
1. F
ind the square root of the following polynomials by division method
(i) x 4 − 12x 3 + 42x 2 − 36x + 9 (ii) 37x 2 − 28x 3 + 4x 4 + 42x + 9
(iii) 16x 4 + 8x 2 + 1 (iv) 121x 4 − 198x 3 − 183x 2 + 216x + 144
2. F
ind the values of a and b if the following polynomials are perfect squares
(i) 4x 4 − 12x 3 + 37x 2 + bx + a (ii) ax 4 + bx 3 + 361x 2 + 220x + 100
3. F
ind the values of m and n if the following polynomials are perfect sqaures
(i) 36x 4 − 60x 3 + 61x 2 − mx + n (ii) x 4 − 8x 3 + mx 2 + nx + 16
3.6 Quadratic Equations

Introduction
Arab mathematician Abraham bar Hiyya Ha-Nasi, often known by the Latin name
Savasorda, is famed for his book ‘Liber Embadorum’ published in 1145 AD(CE) which
is the first book published in Europe to give the complete solution of a quadratic
equation.
For a period of more than three thousand years beginning from early civilizations to
current times, humanity knew how to solve a general quadratic equation in terms of its
co-efficients by using four arithmetical operations and extraction of roots. This process
is called “Solving by Radicals”. Huge amount of research has been carried to this day in
solving various types of equations.
Quadratic Expression
An expression of degree n in variable x is a 0x n + a1x n −1 + a2x n −2 + ... + an −1x + an where
a 0 ¹ 0 and a1, a2 ,...an are real numbers. a 0 , a1, a2 , ... an are called coefficients of the
expression.
In particular an expression of degree 2 is called a Quadratic Expression which is
expressed as p(x ) = ax 2 + bx + c, a ¹ 0 and a, b, c are real numbers.
3.6.1 Zeroes of a Quadratic Polynomial
Let p(x) be a polynomial. x=a is called zero of p(x) if p(a)=0
For example, if p(x)=x2–2x–8 then p(–2)=4+4–8 = 0 and p(4)= 16– 8 –8 = 0
Therefore –2 and 4 are zeros of the polynomial p(x)=x2–2x–8.
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3.6.2 Roots of Quadratic Equations
Let ax 2 + bx + c = 0, (a ≠ 0) be a quadratic equation. The values of x such that the
expression ax 2 + bx + c becomes zero are called roots of the quadratic equation
ax 2 + bx + c = 0 .
We have, ax 2 + bx + c = 0
 b c
a x 2 + x +  = 0
 a a 

b c
(
x 2 + x + = 0 since a ≠ 0
a a
)
2 2
b b  b  c
x + (2x ) +   −   + = 0
2
2a  2a   2a  a
2
 b   b  b2 c
That is, x + (2x )  +   = 2 −
2    
 
 2a   2a  4a a
2
  2
x + b  = b − 4ac
 2a  4a 2
b ± b 2 − 4ac
x+ =
2a 2a
−b ± b 2 − 4ac
x =
2a
−b + b 2 − 4ac -b - b 2 - 4ac
Therefore, the roots are and
2a 2a
3.6.3 Formation of a Quadratic Equation
If a and b are roots of a quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 then
−b + b 2 − 4ac −b − b 2 − 4ac
a = and b = .
2a 2a
−b + b 2 − 4ac − b − b 2 − 4ac −b
Also, α + β = =
2a a
   
 −b + b 2 − 4ac   −b − b 2 − 4ac  c
Note
and αβ =  ×
   = .
 2a 
  2a  a ax 2 + bx + c = 0

can equivalently
Since, (x - a) and (x - b ) are factors of ax 2 + bx + c = 0 , be expressed as
We have (x - α)(x - β ) = 0 b c
x2 + x+ =0 .
a a
Hence, x 2 − (α + β )x + αβ = 0 since a≠0
That is, x 2 - (sum of roots) x + product of roots = 0 is the
general form of the quadratic equation when the roots are given.
Algebra 107
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Activity 2
(2k+6)m
Consider a rectangular garden in front of a
house, whose dimensions are (2k + 6) metre
k metre
and k metre. A smaller rectangular portion of
the garden of dimensions k metre and 3 metres
3 metres
is leveled. Find the area of the garden, not
leveled.
k metre
Example 3.23 Find the zeroes of the quadratic expression x 2 + 8x + 12 .

Solution Let p(x)= x 2 + 8x + 12 =(x+2)(x+6)
p(–2)= 4 – 16 + 12=0
p(–6)= 36 – 48 + 12=0
Therefore –2 and –6 are zeros of p(x)= x 2 + 8x + 12
Example 3.24 Write down the quadratic equation in general form for which sum and
product of the roots are given below.
7 5 3 1
(i) 9, 14 (ii) - , (iii) - , -
2 2 5 2
Solution (i) General form of the quadratic equation when the roots are given is
x 2 - (sum of the roots) x + product of the roots = 0
x 2 − 9x + 14 = 0
 7 5
(ii) x 2 − −  x + = 0 Þ
⇒ 2x 2 + 7x + 5 = 0
 2  2
 3  1 10x 2 + 6x − 5
(iii) x 2 − −  x + −  = 0 ⇒ =0
 5   2  10
Therefore, 10x 2 + 6x − 5 = 0 .
Example 3.25 Find the sum and product of the roots for each of the following quadratic
equations : (i) x 2 + 8x − 65 = 0 (ii) 2x 2 + 5x + 7 = 0
(iii) kx 2 − k 2x − 2k 3 = 0
Solution Let a and b be the roots of the given quadratic equation
(i) x 2 + 8x − 65 = 0
a = 1, b = 8, c = –65
b c
α+β =− = –8 and αβ = = –65
a a
α + β = −8 ; αβ = −65
3 Algebra.indd 108 16-12-2020 01:05:43 PM

(ii) 2x 2 + 5x + 7 = 0
a = 2, b = 5, c = 7
b -5 c 7
α+β =− = and αβ = =
a 2 a 2
5 7
α + β = − ; αβ =
2 2
(iii) kx 2 − k 2x − 2k 3 = 0
a = k, b = -k 2 , c = –2k3
b -(-k 2 ) c -2k 3
α+β =− = =k and αβ = = =–2k 2
a k a k
Exercise 3.9
1. D
etermine the quadratic equations, whose sum and product of roots are
5 -3
(i) -9, 20 (ii) , 4 (iii) , -1 (iv) −(2 − a )2 , (a + 5)2
3 2
2. F
ind the sum and product of the roots for each of the following quadratic equations
1 10
(i) x 2 + 3x − 28 = 0 (ii) x 2 + 3x = 0 (iii) 3 + = 2 (iv) 3y 2 − y − 4 = 0
a a
3.6.4 Solving Quadratic Equations
We have already learnt how to solve linear equations in one, two and three
variable(s). Recall that the values of the variables which satisfies a given equation are
called its solution(s). In this section, we are going to study three methods of solving
quadratic equation, namely factorization method, completing the square method and
using formula.
Solving a quadratic equation by factorization method.

We follow the steps provided below to solve a quadratic equation through factorization
method.
Step 1: Write the equation in general form ax 2 + bx + c = 0
Step 2: By splitting the middle term, factorize the given equation.
Step 3: After factorizing, the given quadratic equation can be written as product of two
linear factors.
Step 4: Equate each linear factor to zero and solve for x.
These values of x gives the roots of the equation.
Algebra 109
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Example 3.26 Solve 2x 2 − 2 6 x + 3 = 0
Solution 2x 2 − 2 6 x + 3 = 2x 2 − 6 x − 6x + 3 (by spliting the middle term)
= 2x ( )
2x − 3 − 3 ( ) (
2x − 3 = 2x − 3 )( 2x − 3 )
Now, equating the factors to zero we get,
( 2x − 3 )( 2x − 3 ) = 0
( 2x − 3 ) = 0
2

2x − 3 = 0
3
∴ the solution is x = .
2
Example 3.27 Solve 2m 2 + 19m + 30 = 0

Solution 2m 2 + 19m + 30 = 2m 2 + 4m + 15m + 30 = 2m(m + 2) + 15(m + 2)
= (m + 2)(2m + 15)

E quating the factors to zero we get,
(m + 2)(2m + 15) = 0
−15
m + 2 = 0 Þ m = – 2 or 2m + 15 = 0 we get, m =
2
-15
Therefore the roots are -2 , .
2
Some equations which are not quadratic can be solved by reducing them to quadratic
equations by suitable substitutions. Such examples are illustrated below.
Example 3.28 Solve x 4 − 13x 2 + 42 = 0
Solution Let x 2 = a . Then, (x 2 )2 − 13x 2 + 42 = a 2 − 13a + 42 = (a − 7)(a − 6)
Given, (a − 7)(a − 6) = 0 we get, a = 7 or 6.
Since a = x 2 , x 2 = 7 then, x = ± 7 or x 2 = 6 we get, x = ± 6
Therefore the roots are x = ± 7 , ± 6

x x −1 1
Example 3.29 Solve + =2
x −1 x 2
x 1 x −1
Solution Let y = then = .
x −1 y x
x x −1 1 1 5
Therefore, + = 2 becomes y + =
x −1 x 2 y 2
1
2y 2 − 5y + 2 = 0 then, y = , 2
2
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x 1
= we get, 2x = x − 1 implies x = −1
x −1 2
x
= 2 we get, x = 2x − 2 implies x = 2
x −1
Therefore, the roots are x = −1 , 2.
Exercise 3.10
1. S olve the following quadratic equations by factorization method
(i) 4x 2 − 7x − 2 = 0 (ii) 3(p 2 − 6) = p(p + 5) (iii) a(a − 7) = 3 2

1
(iv) 2x 2 + 7x + 5 2 = 0 (v) 2x 2 − x + =0
8
2. T
he number of volleyball games that must be scheduled in a league with n teams is
n2 − n
given by G (n ) = where each team plays with every other team exactly once. A
2
league schedules 15 games. How many teams are in the league?
Solving a Quadratic Equation by Completing the Square Method

In deriving the formula for the roots of a quadratic equation we used completing
the squares method. The same technique can be applied in solving any given quadratic
equation through the following steps.
Step 1: Write the quadratic equation in general form ax 2 + bx + c = 0 .
Step 2: Divide both sides of the equation by the coefficient of x2 if it is not 1.
Step 3: Shift the constant term to the right hand side.
Step 4: Add the square of one-half of the coefficient of x to both sides.
Step 5: Write the left hand side as a square and simplify the right hand side.
Step 6: Take the square root on both sides and solve for x.
Example 3.30 Solve x 2 − 3x − 2 = 0

Solution x 2 − 3x − 2 = 0
x 2 - 3x = 2 (Shifting the Constant to RHS)
2 2 2
3 3 1 
2
 2   2  2 ( )
x − 3x +   = 2 +   (Add  co-efficient of x  to both sides)
 
2
 
x − 3  = 17 (writing the LHS as complete square)
 2  4
Algebra 111
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3 17
x- =± (Taking the square root on both sides)
2 2
3 17 3 17
x= + or x = −
2 2 2 2
3 + 17 3 - 17
Therefore, x = ,
2 2
Example 3.31 Solve 2x 2 − x − 1 = 0

Solution 2x 2 − x − 1 = 0
x 1
x2 - - =0 (÷2 make co-efficient of x 2 as 1)
2 2
x 1
x2 - =
2 2
2 2
x 1 1 1
x − +   = +  
2
2  4  2  4 
2 2
   
x − 1  = 9 =  3 
 4  16  4 
1 3 1
x − = ± ⇒ x = 1, -
4 4 2
Solving a Quadratic Equation by Formula Method
The formula for finding roots of a quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 (derivation
−b ± b 2 − 4ac
given in section 3.6.2) is x = .
2a
The formula for finding roots of a quadratic equation was known to Ancient
Babylonians, though not in a form as we derived. They found the roots by
creating the steps as a verse, which is a common practice at their times.
Babylonians used quadratic equations for deciding to choose the dimensions
of their land for agriculture.
Example 3.32 Solve x 2 + 2x − 2 = 0 by formula method

Solution Compare x 2 + 2x − 2 = 0 with the standard form ax 2 + bx + c = 0
a = 1, b = 2, c = -2
−b ± b 2 − 4ac
x =
2a
substituting the values of a, b and c in the formula we get,
−2 ± (2)2 − 4(1)(−2) −2 ± 12
x= = = −1 ± 3
2(1) 2
Therefore, x = −1 + 3 , −1 − 3
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Example 3.33 Solve 2x 2 − 3x − 3 = 0 by formula method.
Solution Compare 2x 2 − 3x − 3 = 0 with the standard form ax 2 + bx + c = 0
a = 2, b = −3 , c = −3
−b ± b 2 − 4ac
x=
2a
−(−3) ± (−3)2 − 4(2)(−3) 3 ± 33

x = =
2(2) 4
3 + 33 3 − 33
Therefore, x = x =,
4 4
Example 3.34 Solve 3p 2 + 2 5p − 5 = 0 by formula method.
Solution Compare 3p 2 + 2 5p − 5 = 0 with the Standard form ax 2 + bx + c = 0
a = 3, b = 2 5, c = −5 .
− b ± b 2 − 4ac
p=
2a
( )
2
±
− 2 5± 2 5 − 4(3)(− 5)
−2 5 ± 80 − 5 ± 2 5
p= = =
2(3) 6 3
5
Therefore, x = ,- 5
3
Example 3.35 Solve pqx 2 − (p + q )2 x + (p + q )2 = 0

Solution Compare the coefficients of the given equation with the standard form
ax 2 + bx + c = 0
a = pq , b = −(p + q )2 , c = (p + q )2
± b 2 − 4ac
−b ±
x=
2a
2
− −(p + q )2  ±
± −(p + q )  − 4(pq )(p + q )
2 2
x =  
2pq
± (p + q )4 − 4(pq )(p + q )2
(p + q )2 ±
=
2pq
Algebra 113
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(p + q )2 ± (p + q )2 (p + q )2 − 4pq 
=  
2pq
(p + q )2 ± (p + q )2 (p 2 + q 2 + 2pq − 4 pq )
=
2pq
(p + q )2 ± (p + q )2 (p − q )2
=
2pq
(p + q )2 ± (p + q )(p − q ) (p + q ){(p + q ) ± (p − q )}
= =
2pq 2pq
p +q p +q p +q p +q
Therefore, x = × 2p , × 2q we get, x = ,
2pq 2pq q p
Activity 3
Serve the fishes (Equations) with its appropriate food (roots). Identify a fish which
cannot be served?
4x2+12x+9 =0
x2 + 6x + 9 =0
x2–x–20 =0
2x 2
–5x–12=0
x2 –1=0
3 3 x2+16 = 0
- ,-
2 2
4.5
1, –1 –4, 5
3 4,–4
– ,4
2 –3, –3
Exercise 3.11
1. S olve the following quadratic equations by completing the square method

5x + 7
(i) 9x 2 − 12x + 4 = 0 (ii) = 3x + 2
x −1
2. S olve the following quadratic equations by formula method
(i) 2x 2 − 5x + 2 = 0 (ii) 2 f 2 − 6 f + 3 2 = 0 (iii) 3y 2 − 20y − 23 = 0
(iv) 36y 2 − 12ay + (a 2 − b 2 ) = 0
3. A
ball rolls down a slope and travels a distance d = t 2 − 0.75t feet in t seconds. Find
the time when the distance travelled by the ball is 11.25 feet.
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3.6.5 Solving Problems Involving Quadratic Equations
Steps to solve a problem
Step 1: Convert the word problem to a quadratic equation form
Step 2: Solve the quadratic equation obtained in any one of the above three methods.
Step 3: Relate the mathematical solution obtained to the statement asked in the
question.
Example 3.36 The product of Kumaran’s age (in years) two years ago and his age four
years from now is one more than twice his present age. What is his present age?
Solution Let the present age of Kumaran be x years.
Two years ago, his age = (x − 2) years.
Four years from now, his age = (x + 4) years.
Given, (x − 2)(x + 4) = 1 +2x
x 2 + 2x − 8 = 1 +2x Þ (x − 3)(x + 3) = 0 then, x = ±3
Therefore, x = 3 (Rejecting −3 as age cannot be negative)
Kumaran’s present age is 3 years.
Example 3.37 A ladder 17 feet long is leaning against a wall. If the ladder, vertical wall
and the floor from the bottom of the wall to the ladder form a right triangle, find the
height of the wall where the top of the ladder meets if the distance between bottom of the
wall to bottom of the ladder is 7 feet less than the height of the wall? A
Solution Let the height of the wall AB = x feet

As per the given data BC = (x–7) feet
x
In the right triangle ABC, AC =17 ft, BC = (x–7) feet 17

fe e
wall
t
By Pythagoras theorem, AC 2 = AB 2 + BC 2
(17)2 = x 2 + (x − 7)2 ; 289 = x 2 + x 2 − 14x + 49 B x–7 C
Fig. 3.7
x 2 − 7x − 120 = 0 hence, (x − 15)(x + 8) = 0 then, x = 15 (or) −8
Therefore, height of the wall AB = 15 ft (Rejecting −8 as height cannot be negative)
Example 3.38 A flock of swans contained x 2 members. As the clouds gathered, 10x went
to a lake and one-eighth of the members flew away to a garden. The remaining three pairs
played about in the water. How many swans were there in total?
Solution As given there are x2 swans.
1
As per the given data x 2 − 10x − x 2 = 6 we get, 7x 2 − 80x − 48 = 0
8
−b ± b 2 − 4ac 80 ± 6400 − 4(7)(−48) 80 ± 88
x = = =
2a 14 14
Algebra 115
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4
Therefore,
x = 12, - .
7
4
Here x = - is not possible as the number of swans cannot be negative.
7
Hence, x = 12. Therefore total number of swans is x 2 = 144.
Example 3.39 A passenger train takes 1 hr more than an express train to travel a distance
of 240 km from Chennai to Virudhachalam. The speed of passenger train is less than that
of an express train by 20 km per hour. Find the average speed of both the trains.
Solution Let the average speed of passenger train be x km/hr.
Then the average speed of express train will be (x + 20) km/hr
240
Time taken by the passenger train to cover distance of 240 km = hr
x
240
Time taken by express train to cover distance of 240 km = hr
x + 20
240 240
Given, = +1
x x + 20
1 1   x + 20 − x 
240  − = 1 Þ 240   = 1 we get, 4800 = (x 2 + 20x )
 x x + 20   x (x + 20) 
   
x 2 + 20x − 4800 = 0 Þ (x + 80)(x − 60) = 0 we get, x = –80 or 60.
Therefore x = 60 (Rejecting -80 as speed cannot be negative)
Average speed of the passenger train is 60 km/hr
Average speed of the express train is 80 km/hr.
Exercise 3.12
24
1. If the difference between a number and its reciprocal is, find the number.
5
2. A garden measuring 12m by 16m is to have a pedestrian pathway that is ‘w’ meters
wide installed all the way around so that it increases the total area to 285 m2. What
is the width of the pathway?
bus covers a distance of 90 km at a uniform speed. Had the speed been 15 km/hour
3. A
more it would have taken 30 minutes less for the journey. Find the original speed of
the bus.
4. A
girl is twice as old as her sister. Five years hence, the product of their ages (in
years) will be 375. Find their present ages.
5. A pole has to be erected at a point on the boundary of a circular ground of diameter
20 m in such a way that the difference of its distances from two diametrically opposite
fixed gates P and Q on the boundary is 4 m. Is it possible to do so? If answer is yes at
what distance from the two gates should the pole be erected?
6. From a group of 2x 2 black bees , square root of half of the group went to a tree. Again
eight-ninth of the bees went to the same tree. The remaining two got caught up in a
fragrant lotus. How many bees were there in total?
3 Algebra.indd 116 16-12-2020 01:06:01 PM

7. M
usic is been played in two opposite galleries with certain group of people. In the
first gallery a group of 4 singers were singing and in the second gallery 9 singers
were singing. The two galleries are separated by the distance of 70 m. Where should
a person stand for hearing the same intensity of the singers voice? (Hint: The ratio
of the sound intensity is equal to the square of the ratio of their corresponding
distances).
here is a square field whose side is 10 m. A square flower bed is prepared in its
8. T
centre leaving a gravel path all round the flower bed. The total cost of laying the
flower bed and gravelling the path at ₹3 and ₹4 per square metre respectively is ₹364.
Find the width of the gravel path.
9. The hypotenuse of a right angled triangle is 25 cm and its perimeter 56 cm. Find
the length of the smallest side.
3.6.6 Nature of Roots of a Quadratic Equation

The roots of the quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 , a ¹ 0 are found using the
b b 2 4ac
formula x . Here, b 2 - 4ac called as the discriminant (which is denoted
2a
by D ) of the quadratic equation, decides the nature of roots as follows
Values of Discriminant Nature of Roots
2
∆ = b − 4ac
D >0 Real and Unequal roots
D =0 Real and Equal roots
D< 0 No Real root
Example 3.40 Determine the nature of roots for the following quadratic equations
(i) x 2 − x − 20 = 0 (ii) 9x 2 − 24x + 16 = 0 (iii) 2x 2 − 2x + 9 = 0
Solution (i) x 2 − x − 20 = 0
Here, a = 1 , b = −1 , c = −20
Now, ∆ = b 2 − 4ac
∆ = (−1)2 − 4(1)(−20) = 81
Here, ∆ = 81 > 0 . So, the equation will have real and unequal roots
(ii) 9x 2 − 24x + 16 = 0
Here, a = 9 , b = −24 , c = 16
∆ = b 2 − 4ac = (−24) − 4 (9)(16) =0

2
Now,
Here, ∆ = 0 . So, the equation will have real and equal roots.
Algebra 117
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(iii) 2x 2 − 2x + 9 = 0
Here, a = 2 , b = −2 , c = 9
∆ = b 2 − 4ac = (−2) − 4 (2)(9) = −68

2
Now,
Here, ∆ = −68 < 0 . So, the equation will have no real roots.
Example 3.41 (i) Find the values of ‘k’, for which the quadratic equation
kx 2 − (8k + 4)x + 81 = 0 has real and equal roots?
(ii) Find the values of ‘k’ such that quadratic equation

(k + 9)x 2 + (k + 1)x + 1 = 0 has no real roots?
Solution (i) kx 2 − (8k + 4)x + 81 = 0

Since the equation has real and equal roots, ∆ = 0 .
That is, b 2 − 4ac = 0
Here, a = k , b = −(8k + 4) , c = 81
2
That is,  
−(8k + 4) − 4(k )(81) = 0
64k 2 + 64k + 16 − 324k = 0
64k 2 − 260k + 16 = 0
Dividing by 4 we get 16k 2 − 65k + 4 = 0

1
(16k − 1)(k − 4) = 0 then, k = or k = 4
16
(ii) (k + 9)x 2 + (k + 1)x + 1 = 0
Since the equation has no real roots, ∆ < 0
That is, b 2 − 4ac < 0
Here, a = k + 9 , b = k + 1 , c = 1
That is, (k + 1)2 − 4(k + 9)(1) < 0
k 2 + 2k + 1 − 4k − 36 < 0
k 2 − 2k − 35 < 0
(k + 5)(k − 7) < 0
Therefore, −5 < k < 7 . {If α < β and if (x − α)(x − β ) < 0 then, α < x < β }.
Example 3.42 Prove that the equation x 2 (p 2 + q 2 ) + 2x (pr + qs ) + r 2 + s 2 = 0 has no real

roots. If ps = qr , then show that the roots are real and equal.
3 Algebra.indd 118 16-12-2020 01:06:06 PM

Solution The given quadratic equation is, x 2 (p 2 + q 2 ) + 2x (pr + qs ) + r 2 + s 2 = 0
Here, a = p 2 + q 2 , b = 2(pr + qs ) , c = r 2 + s 2
2
Now, ∆ = b 2 − 4ac = 2(pr + qs ) − 4(p 2 + q 2 )(r 2 + s 2 )
= 4  p 2r 2 + 2pqrs + q 2s 2 − p 2r 2 − p 2s 2 − q 2r 2 − q 2s 2 
 
= 4 −p s + 2pqrs − q r  = −4 (ps − qr )  <0
2 2 2 2 2
...(1)
   
since, D = b − 4ac < 0 , the roots are not real.
2
2 2
If ps = qr then D = −4  ps − qr  = −4 qr − qr  = 0 (using (1))
Thus, D = 0 if ps = qr and so the roots will be real and equal.
Exercise 3.13
1. D
etermine the nature of the roots for the following quadratic equations
(i) 15x 2 + 11x + 2 = 0 (ii) x 2 − x − 1 = 0 (iii) 2t 2 − 3t + 3 2 = 0
(iv) 9y 2 − 6 2y + 2 = 0 (v) 9a 2b 2x 2 − 24abcdx + 16c 2d 2 = 0 , a ¹ 0 , b ¹ 0
2. F
ind the value(s) of ‘k’ for which the roots of the following equations are real and
equal. (i) (5k − 6)x 2 + 2kx + 1 = 0 (ii) kx 2 + (6k + 2)x + 16 = 0
3. I f the roots of (a − b)x 2 + (b − c)x + (c − a ) = 0 are real and equal, then prove that b,
a, c are in arithmetic progression.
4. If a, b are real then show that the roots of the equation
(a − b)x 2 − 6(a + b)x − 9(a − b) = 0 are real and unequal.
5. If the roots of the equation (c 2 − ab)x 2 − 2(a 2 − bc)x + b 2 − ac = 0 are real and equal
prove that either a=0 (or) a 3 + b 3 + c 3 = 3abc
Thinking Corner
Fill in the empty box in each of the given expression so that the resulting quadratic
polynomial becomes a perfect square.
(i) x 2 + 14x + (ii) x 2 − 24x + (iii) p 2 + 2qp +
3.6.7 The Relation between Roots and Coefficients of a Quadratic Equation

Let a and b are the roots of the equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 then,
−b + b 2 − 4ac −b − b 2 − 4ac
a = , b =
2a 2a
From 3.6.3, we get
−b −Co-efficient of x
α+β = =
a Co -efficient of x 2
c Constant term
αβ = =
a Co-efficient of x 2
Algebra 119
3 Algebra.indd 119 16-12-2020 01:06:10 PM

Progress Check
Roots of co-efficients Sum Product
Quadratic quadratic of x 2 , x and of of
constants b c Conclusion
equation equation Roots roots -
α and β α+β αβ a a
4x2–9x+2=0
2
 
x − 4  = 0
 5 
2x2–15x–27=0
Example 3.43 If the difference between the roots of the equation x 2 − 13x + k = 0 is 17
find k.
Solution x 2 − 13x + k =0 here, a = 1 , b = −13 , c = k Thinking Corner
If the constant term
Let ,  be the roots of the equation. Then of ax2+bx+c=0 is
−b −(−13) zero, then the sum
α + β = = = 13 ...(1) Also α − β = 17 ...(2) and product of roots
a 1
are and
(1)+(2) we get, 2a = 30 Þ a = 15
.
Therefore, 15 + b = 13 (from (1)) Þ b = −2
c k
But, αβ = = Þ 15 × (−2) = k we get, k = −30
a 1
Example 3.44 If  and  are the roots of x 2 + 7x + 10 = 0 find the values of
α β α2 β 2
(i) (α - β ) (ii) α + β (iii) α - β (iv) α + β
2 2 3 3 4 4
(v) + (vi) +
β α β α
Solution x 2 + 7x + 10 = 0 here, a = 1 , b = 7 , c = 10
If  and  are roots of the equation then,

−b −7 c 10
α + β = = = −7 ; αβ = = = 10
a 1 a 1
(i) α - β = (α + β )2 − 4αβ = (−7)2 − 4 × 10 = 9 =3
(ii) α2 + β 2 = (α + β )2 − 2αβ = (−7)2 − 2 × 10 = 29
(iii) α 3 - β 3 = (α − β )3 + 3αβ(α − β ) = (3)3 + 3(10)(3) =117
(iv) α 4 + β 4 = (α2 + β 2 )2 − 2α2 β 2 = 292 − 2 × (10)2 = 641 (from (ii), α2 + β 2 = 29 )
α β α2 + β 2 (α + β )2 − 2αβ 49 − 20 29
(v) + = = = =
β α αβ αβ 10 10
3 Algebra.indd 120 16-12-2020 01:06:14 PM

α2 β 2 α 3 + β 3 (α + β )3 − 3αβ(α + β )
(vi) + = =
β α αβ αβ
=
(
(−343) − 3 10 × (−7)) = −343 + 210 = −133
10 1010
Example 3.45 If ,  are the roots of the equation 3x + 7x − 2 = 0 , find the values of
2
α β α2 β 2
(i) + (ii) +
β α β α
Solution 3x + 7x − 2 = 0 here, a = 3 , b = 7 , c = −2
2
since, ,  are the roots of the equation

−b −7 c −2
(i) α+β = = ; αβ = =
a 3 a 3 2
 −7   
  − 2  −2 
α β α2 + β 2 (α + β )2 − 2αβ  3   3  −61
+ = = = =
β α αβ αβ −2 6
3
3
 7    
−  − 3 − 2  − 7 
  3   3  469
α2 β 2 α3 + β 3 (α + β )3 − 3αβ(α + β )  3 
(ii) + = = = =
β α αβ αβ 2 18
−
3
Example 3.46 If ,  are the roots of the equation 2x 2 − x − 1 = 0 , then form the equation
1 1
whose roots are (i) , (ii) α2 β , β 2α (iii) 2α + β , 2β + α
a b
Solution 2x 2 − x − 1 = 0 here, a = 2 , b = −1 , c = −1
−b −(−1) 1 c 1
α + β = = = ; αβ = = −
a 2 2 a 2
1 1
(i) Given roots are ,
a b
1
1 1 α+β
Sum of the roots = + = = 2 = −1
α β αβ 1
−
2
1 1 1 1
Product of the roots = × = = = −2
α β αβ 1
−
2
The required equation is x2 –(Sum of the roots)x + (Product of the roots)=0
x 2 − (−1)x − 2 = 0 Þ x 2 + x − 2 = 0
(ii) G
iven roots are α2 β , β 2α
1 1   1
Sum of the roots α2 β + β 2α = αβ(α + β ) = −   = −
2  2  4
Algebra 121
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3
 1 1
Product of the roots (α β ) × (β α) = α β = (αβ ) = −  = −
2 2 3 3 3
 2  8
The required equation is x 2 - (Sum of the roots)x + (Product of the roots)=0

 1 1
x 2 − −  x − = 0 Þ 8x 2 + 2x − 1 = 0
 4  8
(iii) 2α + β , 2β + α
1 3
Sum of the roots 2α + β + 2β + α = 3(α + β ) = 3   =
 2  2
Product of the roots = (2α + β )(2β + α) = 4αβ + 2α2 + 2β 2 + αβ
 
= 5αβ + 2(α2 + β 2 ) = 5αβ + 2 (α + β ) − 2αβ 
2

 
 1 1 1
= 5 −  + 2  − 2 ×−  =0
 2  4 2 

The required equation is x 2 - (Sum of the roots)x + (Product of the roots)=0
3
x 2 − x + 0 = 0 Þ 2x 2 − 3x = 0
2
Exercise 3.14
1. Write each of the following expression in terms of α + β and αβ .

α β 1 1 α+3 β +3
(i) + (ii) + 2 (iii) (3α - 1)(3β - 1) (iv) +
3β 3α 2
αβ βα β α
2. The roots of the equation 2x 2 − 7x + 5 = 0 are α and β. Without solving for the roots,
find
1 1 α β α +2 β +2
(i) + (ii) + (iii) +
α β β α β +2 α +2
3. The roots of the equation x 2 + 6x − 4 = 0 are α, β. Find the quadratic equation whose
roots are
2 2
(i) a2 and b 2 (ii) and (iii) α2 β and β 2α
a b
−13
4. If α, β are the roots of 7x 2 + ax + 2 = 0 and if β − α = . Find the values of a.
7
5. If one root of the equation 2y 2 − ay + 64 = 0 is twice the other then find the values
of a.
6. If one root of the equation 3x 2 + kx + 81 = 0 (having real roots) is the square of the
other then find k.
3 Algebra.indd 122 16-12-2020 01:06:22 PM

3.7 Graph of Variations
Variables:
Every day, Harini travels from her home, cycling at a uniform speed,
to reach her school. You can state this mathematically by an equation
d = rt, where d stands for distance travelled at any time t and r is the
uniform rate of speed.
Suppose you want to find the distance covered by her at a speed of
20 km per hour when she has cycled for fifteen minutes.
1 1
r = 20 and t = (how?) and we find d to be rt = 20 × = 5 km.
4 4
Here, we say that d is a dependent variable and r and t are independent variables. As the
distance d travelled upon the rate r and time used t.
Thus, an independent variable represents a quantity that is manipulated in a given
situation where as a dependent variable represents a quantity whose value depends on how
the independent variable is manipulated.
Equations that describe the relationship between two variables in
a sentence express the variation between those variables.
Consider the monthly income of Server Suresh who works in a hotel
where he is paid ` 50 per hour.
There are two variables here. One is the monthly income and the
other is the number of hours he works. Which among the two is the
independent variable?
Constants:
You know how to calculate the area of a circle when the length of its radius is given.
If the area required is A and the length of radius is r, then the formula
A = pr2
gives the required result. Here, the area A depends upon the length r of radius; thus A
is a dependent variable and r is the independent variable. But what can we say about p? It is
a number that remains the same in all the situations. It is constant.
A constant is a quantity that assumes a fixed value throughout in a specific mathematical context.
Two types of variation:
When two things are in proportion, there is a relation
between them, due to which, if the value of one of them 1000 (5,1000)
900 Scale
changes, the value of the other also changes. We look into x axis 1 cm = 1 kg
y axis 1 cm = `100
800 (4,800)
two types of variations here:
0x
700
(i) Direct variation
20
Cost (`)
600 (3,600)
y=
(ii) Indirect variation. 500
(i) Direct variation: 400 (2,400)
When you go to the market, to buy more apples, you’ll 300

200 (1,200)
have to spend more amount of m oney. If the cost of one kg 100
of apples is ` 200, you pay as follows:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Weight (Kg) 1 2 3 4 5
Weight (Kg)
Fig. 3.8
Cost (`) 200 400 600 800 1000
Algebra 123
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1 2 3 4 5
You find that = = = = = ...
200 400 600 800 1000
This kind of proportionate variation is known as Direct variation. Here to find the cost,
the weight is multiplied by the constant 200.
If we denote the variable weight as x and the variable cost as y we can express this
algebraically as y = 200x. The multiplying constant here is 200.
y
If = k where k is a positive number (a constant), then x and y are said to vary directly.
x
Here, k is known as the constant of proportionality.
Mathematics in real life: This figure shows that doubling

the force doubles the displacement. This is a consequence of what
is known as Hooke’s law. It states F = kx where F is the force needed
to produce a displacement of x in the position of a spring. To double
the displacement, you double the force on the spring; the constant of
proportionality k depends on the stiffness of the spring. So this is an
example of a direct proportionality.
Visualising Direct variation:

Thinking Corner
To identify direct variation is to look
at the equation and determine if it is of What can you say if the variables x and y
the form y = kx, where k is the constant of are related by the equation 3y – 7x = 0?
proportionality. Thus, an equation like y = 5x It also indicates direct variation. How?
will always indicate direct proportion among Think about it. In that case, what is the
variables. constant of proportionality?
Observe this graph:

The distance travelled and the time taken are proportional, but how do we know that?
Note that Scale
x axis 1 cm = 4 units
i) The graph is a straight line. 40
y axis 1 cm = 4 units
ii) The line passes through the origin. When both of these 36
32 (16,32)
features are present we know that the two quantities on
28
Distance (km)
the graph must be directly proportional. 24 (12,24)

2x
Do you see this in the graph? 20

y=
16 (8,16)
Time (in minutes) 4 8 12 16 12
Distance (in km) 8 16 24 32 8 (4,8)

4
If one variable doubles, the other also doubles. From 4 8 12 16 18 20 24 28

this you can see the relation d = rt and it is easy to guess the Time (minutes)
constant of proportionality. Fig. 3.9
3 Algebra.indd 124 16-12-2020 01:06:23 PM

Example 3.47 Varshika drew 6 circles with different
Scale
sizes. Draw a graph for the relationship between the x axis 1 cm = 1 unit
y axis 1 cm = 1 unit
diameter and circumference (approximately related)
of each circle as shown in the table and use it to find
the circumference of a circle when its diameter is 6 cm.
Diameter (x) cm 1 2 3 4 5
Circumference (y) cm 3.1 6.2 9.3 12.4 15.5
Solution:
)x
(3.1
From the table, we found that as x increses,
y=
y also increases. Thus, the variation is a direct
variation.
Let y = kx, where k is a constant of proportionality.
From the given values, we have,
3.1 6.2 9.3 12.4
3.1x
k= = = = = ... = 3.1
1 2 3 4
y=
When you plot the points (1, 3.1) (2, 6.2)
(3, 9.3), (4, 12.4), (5, 15.5), you find the relation
y = (3.1)x forms a straight-line graph.
Clearly, from the graph, when diameter is 6 cm, Fig. 3.10
its circumference is 18.6 cm.
Example 3.48 A bus is travelling at a uniform speed of 50 km/hr. Draw the distance-time
graph and hence find
(i) the constant of variation
(ii) how far will it travel in 1 21 hr
(iii) the time required to cover a distance of 300 km from the graph.
Solution
Let x be the time taken in minutes and y be the distance travelled in km.
Time taken x (in minutes) 60 120 180 240

Distance y (in km) 50 100 150 200
(i) Observe that as time increases, the distance travelled also increases. Therefore, the
variation is a direct variation. It is of the form y = kx .
Constant of variation
y 50 100 150 200 5
k = = = = = =
x 60 120 180 240 6
Algebra 125
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Hence, the relation may be given as
5
y = kx Þ y= x
6
5x
(ii) From the graph, y = , if x = 90 ,
5 6 Scale
then y = ´ 90 = 75 km x axis 1 cm = 30 mins
y axis 1 cm = 30 kms
6
The distance travelled for 1 12 hours
(i.e.,) 90 minutes is 75 km. 300
5x
(iii) From the graph, y = , if y = 300 y=
5x
6 6
6y 6
then x = = ´ 300 = 360 minutes
5 5
(or) 6 hours.
The time taken to cover 300 km is 360

minutes, that is 6 hours.
Fig. 3.11
(ii) Indirect variation:
The distance between Chennai and Madurai is (nearly) 480 km. Think of a train that
starts from Chennai and travels towards Madurai. As it increases speed more and more, the
time taken for travel will decrease. In the following table speed v is given in km and time t is
given in hours:
Speed (v) (km/hr) 30 40 60 80

Time (t) (hours) 16 12 8 6
From the table it is clear that if you travel at a slower speed, the time increases and if the
train is faster, the time decreases. You find, 30×16 = 40×12 = 60×8 = 80×6, which tells that vt is
a constant. Here vt = 480. In such a case, we say the variables v and t are inversely proportional.
Observe that the graph of equation like
vt = 480 will not be a straight line. Inverse Scale
x axis 1 cm = 1 unit
variation implies that as one variable increases, y axis 1 cm = 1 unit
the other variable decreases. 13
12
Visualising Indirect variation: 11
10
Look at the adjacent graph. It is a graph 9
of the equation xy = 8. We have taken only the 8 (1,8)
[positive values of x, y.
7
The table of values is: 5

(2,4)
4
x 1 2 4 8 3
(4,2)
2
(8,1) xy = 8
8 1
y= 8 4 2 1
x 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Fig. 3.12
3 Algebra.indd 126 16-12-2020 01:06:27 PM

This is an illustration of inverse variation or indirect variation. The graph is a part of a
curve called Rectangular Hyperbola.
Example 3.49 A company initially started with 40 workers to complete the work by 150
days. Later, it decided to fasten up the work increasing the number of workers as shown
below.
Number of workers (x) 40 50 60 75

Number of days (y) 150 120 100 80
(i) Graph the above data and identify the type of variation.
(ii) From the graph, find the number of days required to complete the work if the company
decides to opt for 120 workers?
(iii) If the work has to be completed by 200 days, how many workers are required?
(i)
Scale
x axis 1 cm = 10 workers
y axis 1 cm = 20 days
xy
=6
00
0

Fig. 3.13
From the given table, we observe that as x increases, y decreases. Thus, the variation is an
inverse variation.
k
Let y =
x
⇒ xy = k, k > 0 is called the constant of variation.

From the table, k = 40 ´ 150 = 50 ´ 120 = ... = 75 ´ 80 = 6000
Therefore, xy = 6000
Plot the points (40,150), (50,120), (60,100) of (75,80) and join to get a free hand smooth
curve (Rectangular Hyperbola).
Algebra 127
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(ii) From the graph, the required number of days to complete the work when the
company decides to work with 120 workers is 50 days.
6000
Also, from xy = 6000 if x = 120 , then y = = 50
120
(iii) From the graph, if the work has to be completed by 200 days, the number of
workers required is 30.
6000
Also, from xy = 6000 if y = 200, then x = = 30
200
Example 3.50
Nishanth is the winner in a Marathon race of 12 km distance. He ran at the uniform
speed of 12 km/hr and reached the destination in 1 hour. He was followed by Aradhana,
Jeyanth, Sathya and Swetha with their respective speed of 6 km/hr, 4 km/hr, 3 km/hr and
2 km/hr. And, they covered the distance in 2 hrs, 3 hrs, 4 hrs and 6 hours respectively.
Draw the speed-time graph and use it to find the time taken to Kaushik with his speed of
2.4 km/hr.
Solution: Let us form the table with the given details.
Speed x (km/hr) 12 6 4 3 2
Time y (hours) 1 2 3 4 6
Scale
From the table, we observe that as x axis 1 cm = 1 km
y axis 1 cm = 1 hr
x decreases, y increases. Hence, the type is

inverse variation.
k
Let y =
x
⇒ xy = k, k > 0 is called the constant

of variation.
From the table k = 12 × 1 = 6 × 2 = …
= 2 × 6 = 12
Therefore, xy = 12.
Plot the points (12,1), (6,2), (4,3), Fig. 3.14
(3,4), (2,6) and join these points by a smooth curve (Rectangular Hyperbola).
From the graph, we observe that Kaushik takes 5 hrs with a speed of 2.4 km/hr.
Note
Already we learned that, the linear equation of straight line is y = mx+c, where m is the slope
of the straight line and c is the y – intercept. Also, the equation reduces to y = mx when
the straight line passes through origin. As the graph of direct variation refer to straight
line and its general form is y = kx, we can conclude that ‘constant of proportionality’ is
nothing but ‘slope’ of its straight line.
3 Algebra.indd 128 16-12-2020 01:06:30 PM

Exercise 3.15
1. A garment shop announces a flat 50% discount on every purchase of items for their
customers. Draw the graph for the relation between the Marked Price and the Discount.
Hence find
(i) the marked price when a customer gets a discount of ₹3250 (from graph)
(ii) the discount when the marked price is ₹2500
2. Draw the graph of xy = 24, x,y > 0. Using the graph find,
(i) y when x =3 and (ii) x when y = 6.
3. Graph the following linear function y = 1 x . Identify the constant of variation and
2
verify it with the graph. Also (i) find y when x = 9 (ii) find x when y = 7.5.
4. The following table shows the data about the number of pipes and the time taken to till
the same tank.
No. of pipes (x) 2 3 6 9
Time Taken (in min) (y) 45 30 15 10
Draw the graph for the above data and hence

(i) find the time taken to fill the tank when five pipes are used
(ii) Find the number of pipes when the time is 9 minutes.
5. A school announces that for a certain competitions, the cash price will be distributed
for all the participants equally as show below
No. of participants (x) 2 4 6 8 10
Amount for each participant in ₹ (y) 180 90 60 45 36
(i) Find the constant of variation.

(ii) Graph the above data and hence, find how much will each participant get if the
number of participants are 12.
6. A two wheeler parking zone near bus stand charges as below.
Time (in hours) (x) 4 8 12 24
Amount ₹ (y) 60 120 180 360
Check if the amount charged are in direct variation or in inverse variation to the
parking time. Graph the data. Also (i) find the amount to be paid when parking time
is 6 hr; (ii) find the parking duration when the amount paid is ₹150.
Algebra 129
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3.8 Quadratic Graphs
Introduction
The trajectory followed by an object (say, a ball) thrown
upward at an angle gives a curve known as a parabola. Trajectory of
water jets in a fountain or of a bouncing ball results in a parabolic
path. A parabola represents a Quadratic function.
A quadratic function has the form f (x ) = ax 2 + bx + c ,
where a, b, c are constants, and a ≠ 0.
Fig. 3.15
Many quadratic functions can be graphed easily by Y
hand using the techniques of stretching/shrinking and 10
shifting the parabola y = x 2 (We can easily sketch the (–3, 9) (3, 9)
curve y = x2 by preparing a table of values and plotting 8
the ordered pairs).
6
The “basic” parabola, y = x2, looks like this Fig.3.16.
The coefficient a in the general equation is (–2, 4) 4 (2, 4)
responsible for parabolas to open upward or downward
2
and vary in “width” (“wider” or “skinnier”), but they all
(–1, 1) (1, 1)
have the same basic “ È ” shape.
X′ –4 –2 0 2 4 X
The greater the quadratic coefficient of x2, the Y′
narrower is the parabola. Fig. 3.16
The lesser the quadratic coefficient of x2, the wider is the parabola.
Y Y
5 5
x2
y = x2
y=4
4 4
4 x2
y= 1
y = x2
3 3
2 2
1 1
X′ –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 X X′ –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 X
Y′ Y′
Fig. 3.17 Fig. 3.18
Graph y = x 2 is broader than Graph y = x 2 is narrower than graph

graph y = 4x 2 1 2
y= x
4
3 Algebra.indd 130 16-12-2020 01:06:32 PM

A parabola is symmetric with respect to a line called the axis of symmetry. The
point of intersection of the parabola and the axis of symmetry is called the vertex
of the parabola. The graph of any second degree polynomial gives a curve called
“parabola”.
−b
Hint : For a quadratic equation , the axis is given by x = and the vertex is given by
 −b −∆  2a
 ,  where ∆ = b 2 − 4ac is the discriminant of the quadratic equation
 2a 4a 
ax 2 + bx + c = 0 . Where a ≠ 0.
We have already studied how to find the roots of any quadratic equation
ax + bx + c = 0 where a,b,c Î ℝ and a ≠ 0 theoretically. In this section, we will learn how
2
to solve a quadratic equation and obtain its roots graphically.
3.8.1 Finding the Nature of Solution of Quadratic Equations Graphically

To obtain the roots of the quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 graphically, we first
draw the graph of y = ax 2 + bx + c .
The solutions of the quadratic equation are the x coordinates of the points of
intersection of the curve with X axis.
To determine the nature of solutions of a quadratic equation, we can use the following
procedure.
(i) If the graph of the given quadratic equation intersect the X axis at two distinct
points, then the given equation has two real and unequal roots.
(ii) I f the graph of the given quadratic equation touch the X axis at only one point, then
the given equation has only one root which is same as saying two real and equal
roots.
(iii) I f the graph of the given equation does not intersect the X axis at any point then the
given equation has no real root.
Example 3.51 Discuss the nature of solutions of the following quadratic equations.
(i) x 2 + x − 12 = 0 (ii) x 2 − 8x + 16 = 0 (iii) x 2 + 2x + 5 = 0
Solution
(i) x 2 + x − 12 = 0
Step 1: Prepare the table of values for the equation y = x 2 + x − 12 .
x −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
y 8 0 −6 −10 −12 −12 −10 −6 0 8
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Step 2: Plot the points for the above ordered Y
Scale
10
pairs (x, y) on the graph using x axis 1 cm = 1 unit
(−5, 8) 8
suitable scale.
)
(4, 8
6
Step 3: Draw the parabola and mark the
12
+x −
4
co-ordinates of the parabola which
y= 2
x
2
intersect the X axis. (−4, 0) (3, 0
)
X′ –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 X
Step 4: The roots of the equation are the x –2
coordinates of the intersecting points –4
(–4, 0) and (3,0)of the parabola –6

(−3, –6) (2, –6)
with the X axis which are −4 and 3 –8
respectively. –10
(−2, –10) (1, –10)
Since there are two points of intersection (−1, –12)

–12
(0, –12)
with the X axis, the quadratic equation –14
Y′
x 2 + x − 12 = 0 has real and unequal roots.
Fig. 3.19
(ii) x − 8x + 16 = 0
2
Step 1: Prepare the table of values for the equation y = x 2 − 8x + 16

x −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
y 25 16 9 4 1 0 1 4 9 16
Step 2: Plot the points for the above ordered Y
pairs (x, y) on the graph using 26

Scale
(–1, 25) y axis 1 cm = 2 units
suitable scale. 24
22
Step 3: Draw the parabola and mark the 20
coordinates of the parabola which 18
intersect with the X axis. 16 (0, 16) (8, 16)
Step 4: The roots of the equation are the x 14

16
8x +
coordinates of the intersecting points 12

x −
y= 2
of the parabola with the X axis (4,0)

10
(1, 9)
(7, 9)
8
which is 4. 6
Since there is only one point of intersection 4 (2, 4) (6, 4)
with X axis, the quadratic equation 2

)
(5, 1)
(3, 1) ,0
(4
x 2 − 8x + 16 = 0 has real and equal roots. X′ –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 X
–2
(iii) x 2 + 2x + 5 = 0 Y′
Fig. 3.20
Let y = x 2 + 2x + 5
Step 1: Prepare a table of values for the equation y = x 2 + 2x + 5
x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
y 8 5 4 5 8 13 20
3 Algebra.indd 132 16-12-2020 01:06:36 PM

Y
Step 2: Plot the above ordered pairs Scale
x axis 1 cm = 1 unit 20 (3, 20)
(x, y) on the graph using suitable y axis 1 cm = 2 units
18
+5
scale.
+ 2x
16
y= 2
x
Step 3: Join the points by a free-hand 14
(2, 13)
smooth curve this smooth curve 12
is the graph of y = x 2 + 2x + 5 10
(−3, 8)
8 (1, 8)
Step 4: The solutions of the given 6
quadratic equation are the x (−2, 5)
4
(0, 5)
coordinates of the intersecting (−1, 4)

2
points of the parabola the X axis.
X –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X
Here the parabola doesn’t intersect Y
or touch the X axis. Fig. 3.21
So, we conclude that there is no real root for the given quadratic equation.
Progress Check
Connect the graphs to its respective number of points of intersection with X axis and
to its corresponding nature of solutions which is given in the following table.
S. No. Graphs Number of points of Nature of solutions

Intersection with X axis
Y
1.
2 Real and equal roots
X O X
Y
2.
X O X 1 No real roots
Y
Y
O
X X
2
3. No real roots
Y
0
4. Real and equal roots
X O X
Y
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Y
5.
X O X 0 Real and unequal roots
Y
Y
O
X X
6. 1 Real and unequal roots
Y
3.8.2 Solving quadratic equations through intersection of lines

We can determine roots of a quadratic equation graphically by choosing appropriate
parabola and intersecting it with a desired straight line.
(i) If the straight line intersects the parabola at two distinct points, then the
x coordinates of those points will be the roots of the given quadratic equation.
(ii) If the straight line just touch the parabola at only one point, then the x coordinate
of the common point will be the single root of the quadratic equation.
(iii) I f the straight line doesn’t intersect or touch the parabola then the quadratic
equation will have no real roots.
Example 3.52 Draw the graph of y = 2x 2 and Y
hence solve 2x 2 − x − 6 = 0
9
Solution Step 1: Draw the graph of y = 2x2 by
8 (2, 8) Scale
6
preparing the table of values as below

+
8)
x
2,
7
(–
x −2 −1 0 1 2 (1,7)
y 8 2 0 2 8 6 (0, 6)
)
Step 2: To solve 2x − x − 6 = 0 , subtract
2
1 ,5
(– 5
2x 2 − x − 6 = 0 from y = 2x 2
y= 2
2x
4)
y = 2x 2 4
2,
(–
(−)
0 = 2x 2 − x − 6
3
y =x +6
(–1, 2) 2 (1, 2)
The equation y = x + 6 represents a
straight line. Draw the graph of y = x+6 by 1
forming table of values as below (0, 0)
x −2 −1 0 1 2 Y –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 X
y 4 5 6 7 8 Y
Fig. 3.22
3 Algebra.indd 134 16-12-2020 01:06:39 PM

Step 3: Mark the points of intersection of the curve y = 2x 2 and the line
y = x + 6 . That is, (–1.5, 4.5) and (2,8)
Step 4: The x coordinates of the respective points forms the solution set {–1.5,2} for
2x 2 − x − 6 = 0
Example 3.53 Draw the graph of Y
y = x 2 + 4x + 3 and hence find the roots of Scale
16
2 x axis 1 cm = 1 unit (2, 15)
x +x +1 = 0 y axis 1 cm = 2 units
14
+3
Solution
+ 4x
Step 1: Draw the graph of y = x 2 + 4x + 3 by 12
y= 2
preparing the table of values as below
x
10
x −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 (1, 8)
8
8)
y
(2,
3 0 –1 0 3 8 15
6
Step 2: To solvex + x + 1 = 0 , subtract
5)
2
(1,
x + x + 1 = 0 from y = x 2 + 4x + 3
2 4
, 3)
(−4 (0, 3) y=
3x +
y = x + 4x + 3
2
2 2
(–)
0)
2)
0 = x2 + x + 1
3, (−1, 0
)
(0,
(−
y= 3x+2 X –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 X
(−2, –1)
–1
) –2
The equation represent a straight line.
1,
(−
)
Draw the graph of y = 3x+2 forming the table –4

–4
2,
of values as below.
(−
Y
x −2 −1 0 1 2 Fig. 3.23
y –4 –1 2 5 8
Step 3: Observe that the graph of y = 3x+2 does not intersect or touch the graph of the
parabola y = x 2 + 4x + 3 .
Thus x 2 + x + 1 = 0 has no real roots.
Example 3.54 Draw the graph of y = x 2 + x − 2 and hence solve x 2 + x − 2 = 0 .

Solution
Step 1: Draw the graph of y = x 2 + x − 2 by preparing the table of values as below
x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2
y 4 0 –2 –2 0 4
Step 2: To solve x 2 + x − 2 = 0 subtract x 2 + x − 2 = 0 from y = x 2 + x − 2
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Y
that is y = x2 + x − 2
(–) (–3, 4) 4 (2, 4)
0 = x2 + x − 2
Scale
y= 0 3
2
x−
The equation y = 0 represents the X axis. 2
x +
y= 2
Step 3: Mark the point of intersection of 1
the curve y = x 2 + x − 2 with the
(–2, 0) (1, 0)
X axis. That is (–2,0) and (1,0)
X –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 X
Step 4: The x coordinates of the respective –1
points form the solution set {−2,1}
for x 2 + x − 2 =0 (–1, –2) –2 (0, –2)
Y
Example 3.55 Draw the graph of
Fig. 3.24
y = x 2 − 4x + 3 and use it to solve x 2 − 6x + 9 = 0
Solution
Step 1: Draw the graph of y = x 2 − 4x + 3 by preparing the table of values as below
x −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
y 15 8 3 0 –1 0 3
Step 2: To solve x 2 − 6x + 9 = 0 , subtract x 2 − 6x + 9 = 0 from y = x 2 − 4x + 3
that is y = x 2 − 4x + 3 Y
(−) (–2, 15) Scale
0 = x − 6x + 9 2
14 x axis 1 cm = 1 unit
3
− 4x +
y= 2x − 6
12
The equation y = 2x − 6 represent
2
y =x
10
a straight line. Draw the graph of
y = 2x − 6 forming the table of values as 8
below. (–1, 8) y=
2x
x 6 −
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
y –6 –4 –2 0 2 4 4 4)
(0, 3) (4, 3) (5,
The line intersect
y = 2x − 6 2 (4, 2)
(3,
y = x − 4x + 3 only at one point.
2
(1, 0) 0)
(3, 0)
Step 3: Mark the point of intersection of X –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 X
1)
the curve y = x 2 − 4x + 3 and y = 2x − 6 –2 (2, –
(2, –2)
that is (3,0).
–4
(1, –4)
Therefore, the x coordinate 3 is the
only solution for the equation –6
(0, –6)
x 2 − 6x + 9 = 0 . Y
Fig. 3.25
3 Algebra.indd 136 16-12-2020 01:06:44 PM

Exercise 3.16
1. Graph the following quadratic equations and state their nature of solutions.
(i) x 2 − 9x + 20 = 0 (ii) x 2 − 4x + 4 = 0 (iii) x 2 + x + 7 = 0
(iv) x 2 − 9 = 0 (v) x 2 − 6x + 9 = 0 (vi) (2x − 3)(x + 2) = 0
2
2. Draw the graph of y = x − 4 and hence solve x 2 −x −12 = 0
3. Draw the graph of y = x 2 + x and hence solve x 2 + 1 = 0
4. Draw the graph of y = x 2 + 3x + 2 and use it to solve x 2 + 2x + 1 = 0
5. Draw the graph of y = x 2 + 3x − 4 and hence use it to solve x 2 + 3x − 4 = 0
6. Draw the graph of y = x 2 − 5x − 6 and hence solve x 2 − 5x − 14 = 0
7. Draw the graph of y = 2x 2 − 3x − 5 and hence solve 2x 2 − 4x − 6 = 0
8. Draw the graph of y = (x − 1)(x + 3) and hence solve x 2 − x − 6 = 0
3.9 Matrices
Introduction
Let us consider the following information. Vanitha has 12 story books, 20 notebooks
and 4 pencils. Radha has 27 story books, 17 notebooks and 6 pencils. Gokul has 7 story
books, 11 notebooks and 4 pencils. Geetha has 10 story books, 12 notebooks and 5 pencils.
Details Story Books Note Books Pencils
Vanitha 12 20 4
Radha 27 17 6
Gokul 7 11 4
Geetha 10 12 5
Now we arrange this information in the tabular form as follows.
First row 12

 20 4

Second row 27 17 6
 
Third row  7 11 4
 
Fourth row 10 12 5
First Second Third
Column Column Column
Here the items possessed by four people are aligned or positioned in a rectangular array
containing four horizontal and three vertical arrangements. The horizontal arrangements
are called “rows” and the vertical arrangements are called “columns”. The whole rectangular
arrangement is called a “Matrix”. Generally, if we arrange things in a rectangular array, we
call it as “ Matrix”.
Applications of matrices are found in several scientific fields. In Physics, matrices
are applied in the calculations of battery power outputs, resistor conversion of electrical
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energy into other forms of energy. In computer based applications, matrices play a vital
role in the projection of three dimensional image into a two dimensional screen, creating
a realistic seeming motions. In graphic software, Matrix Algebra is used to process
linear transformations to render images. One of the most important usage of matrices
are encryption of message codes. The encryption and decryption process are carried out
using matrix multiplication and inverse operations. The concept of matrices is used in
transmission of codes when the messages are lengthy. In Geology, matrices are used for
taking seismic surveys. In Robotics, matrices are used to identify the robot movements.
Definition
A matrix is a rectangular array of elements. The horizontal arrangements are called
rows and vertical arrangements are called columns.
4 8
0 
For example,   is a matrix.
1 9 −2
Usually capital letters such as A, B, C, X, Y, … etc., are used to represent the
matrices and small letters such as a, b, c, l, m, n, a12 , a13 , ... to indicate the entries or
elements of the matrices.
The following are some examples of matrices
 8 4 −1  

  3 + 1 2 −1 
 1  1 + x   
 5 4  x3 sin x  
 (iii)  1.5 8 9 
(i)  2  (ii)   
 9 0 1   cos x 2 tan x   1 −7 

   13
3 9 
3.9.1 Order of a Matrix
Progress Check
If a matrix A has m number of rows and n
number of columns, then the order of the matrix A 1. Find is the element in the second
is (Number of rows)´ (Number of columns) that is, row and third column of the
m ń .We read m ń as m cross n or m by n. It may 1 −2 3
matrix  

be noted that m ń is not a product of m and n. 2 1 5
General form of a matrix A with m rows 2. Find is the order of the matrix
and n columns (order m ń ) can be written in  sin q 
 
the form  cos q 
 
a ... a1n  tan q 
 11 a12 ... a1 j   
 a a22 ... a2 j ... a2n 
A =  21  3. Determine the entries denoted
        by a11, a22 , a 33 , a 44 from the matrix
 
am 1 am 2 ... amj ... amn 
2 1 3 4 
 

where, a11, a12 ,... denote entries of the 5 9 −4 7 
 
matrix. a11 is the element in first row, first 5 
3 8 9 
column, a12 is the element in the first row, second  2 
7 4 
column, and so on.  0 1
3 Algebra.indd 138 16-12-2020 01:06:49 PM

In general, aij is the element in the ith row and jth column and is referred as (i,j)th element.
With this notation, we can express the matrix A as A = (aij )m×n where i = 1, 2,....m and
j = 1, 2,...n .
The total number of entries in the matrix A = (aij )m×n is mn.
Note
When giving the order of a matrix, you should always mention the number of rows first,
followed by the number of columns.
For example,
S.No. Matrices Elements of the matrix Order of the matrix
1.  sin q − cos q  a11 = sin q , a12 = −cos q ,
 
cos q 2×2
 sin q  a21 = cos q , a22 = sin q

2. 1 3  a11 = 1 , a12 = 3 ,
 
 
 2 5  a21 = 2 , a22 = 5 , 3×2
 1 
 2 −4
a 31 = 21 , a 32 = −4
Activity 4
(i) Take calendar sheets of a particular month in a particular year.
(ii) C onstruct matrices from the dates of the calendar sheet.
(iii) Write down the number of possible matrices of orders
2 ´ 2, 3 ´ 2, 2 ´ 3, 3 ´ 3, 4 ´ 3, etc.
(iv) Find the maximum possible order of a matrix that you can
create from the given calendar sheet.
(v) Mention the use of matrices to organize information from
daily life situations.
3.9.2 Types of Matrices
In this section, we shall define certain types of matrices.
1. Row Matrix
A matrix is said to be a row matrix if it has only one row and any number of columns.
A row matrix is also called as a row vector.
 3 

For example, A = (8 9 4 3) , B = − 1 3  are row matrices of order 1´ 4
 2 
and 1×3 respectively.
In general A = (a11 a12 a13 ... a1n ) is a row matrix of order 1ń .
2. Column Matrix
A matrix is said to be a column matrix if it has only one column and any number of
rows. It is also called as a column vector.
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 8 
 sin x   
   5  −3
  
For example, A = cos x  , B =   and C =   are column matrices of order 3 ´ 1 ,
  
 7   23 
 1   
 17 
2 ´ 1 and 4 ´ 1 respectively.
 a 
 11 
 a 
 21 
In general, A = a 31  is a column matrix of order m ´1 .
 
  
a 
 m1 
3. Square Matrix
A matrix in which the number of rows is equal to the number of columns is called a
square matrix. Thus a matrix A = (aij )m×n will be a square matrix if m = n
−1 0 2
1 3  
For example,   ,  3 6 8 are square matrices.
 
4 5  2 3 5
2×2
 3×3
b 
a  11 b12 b13 
a12  
In general,  11  , b
 b22 b23  are square matrices of orders 2 ´ 2 and
a21 a22   21

2×2 b31 b32 b33 
3 ´ 3 respectively.
A = (aij )m×m is a square matrix of order m.
Definition : In a square matrix, the elements of the form a11, a22, a33, . . . (i.e) aii are
1 3
 
called leading diagonal elements. For example in the matrix 4 5 , 1 and 5 are leading
 
diagonal elements.
4. Diagonal Matrix

A square matrix, all of whose elements, except those in the leading diagonal are zero
is called a diagonal matrix.
(ie) A square matrix A = (aij ) is said to be diagonal matrix if aij = 0 for i ¹ j . Note
that some elements of the leading diagonal may be zero but not all.
8 0 0  1 0 0
   
For example, 0 −3 0 , 0 1 0 are diagonal matrices.
 
  0 0 0
0 0 11  
5. Scalar Matrix
A diagonal matrix in which all the leading diagonal elements are equal is called a
scalar matrix.
3 Algebra.indd 140 16-12-2020 01:06:55 PM

  5 0 0
4 0 k 0 0  
For example,   , 0 k 0 , 0 5 0

0 4   
0 0 5
0 0 k   
In general, A = (aij )m×m is said to be a scalar matrix if
0 when i ≠ j
aij =  where k is constant.
k when i = j

6. Identity (or) Unit Matrix

A square matrix in which elements in the leading diagonal are all “1” and rest are all
zero is called an identity matrix or unit matrix.
1 if i = j
Thus, the square matrix A = (aij ) is an identity matrix if aij = 
0 if i ≠ j
A unit matrix of order n is written as I n . 
1 0 0
1 0  
 
I 2 =   , I 3 = 0 1 0 are identity matrices of order 2 and 3 respectively.
 
0 1  
0 0 1
7. Zero matrix (or) null matrix
A matrix is said to be a zero matrix or null matrix if all its elements are zero.
0 0 0
0 0  
For example, (0),  0 0 0 are all zero matrices of order 1 ´ 1 , 2 ´ 2 and
 ,
 
0 0 0 0 0
 
3 ´ 3 but of different orders. We denote zero matrix of order n ´ n by On .
0 0 0
  is a zero matrix of the order 2 ´ 3 .
0 0 0
8. Transpose of a matrix

The matrix which is obtained by interchanging the elements in rows and columns of
the given matrix A is called transpose of A and is denoted by AT .
For example,
 5 3 −1  5 2 −4
   
(a) If A =  2 8 9  then AT =  3 8 7 
   
−4 7 5  −1 9 5 
3×3 3×3
1 5
  1 8 4
(b) If B = 8 9 then BT =  
  5 9 3
4 3 2×3
3×2
If order of A is m ´ n then order of AT is n ´ m .

We note that (AT )T = A .
Algebra 141
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9. Triangular Matrix
A square matrix in which all the entries above the leading diagonal are zero is called
a lower triangular matrix.
If all the entries below the leading diagonal are zero, then it is called an upper
triangular matrix.
Definition : A square matrix A = (aij )n×n is called upper triangular matrix if aij = 0 for
i > j and is called lower triangular matrix if aij = 0 , i < j .
1 7 −3  8 0 0
  

For example, A = 0 2 4  is an upper triangular matrix and B =  4 5 0 is a
   
0 0 7  −11 3 1
lower triangular matrix.
Equal Matrices
Two matrices A and B are said to be equal if and Progress Check
only if they have the same order and each element of
matrix A is equal to the corresponding element of 1. The number of column(s)
in a column matrix are
matrix B. That is, aij = bij for all i, j.
_______.
5 1 2. T
he number of row(s) in a
For example, if A =   ,
0 3 row matrix are _______.
 12 + 22  3. T
he non-diagonal elements
 sin2 q + cos2 q  then we in any unit matrix are
B =  
1 + 3 − 5 2 + sec2 q − tan2 q  ______.
 2 2
note that A and B have same order and aij = bij for 4. D
oes there exist a square
every i, j. Hence A and B are equal matrices. matrix with 32 elements?
The negative of a matrix

The negative of a matrix Amń denoted by −Am×n is the matrix formed by replacing
each element in the matrix Amń with its additive inverse.
Additive inverse of an element k is -k . That is, every element of –A is the negative
of the corresponding element of A.
2 −4 9  −2 4 −9
For example, if A =  

then 
−A =  
5 − 3 − 1  −5 3 1 
2×3 2×3
Example 3.56 Consider the following information regarding the number of men and
women workers in three factories I, II and III.
Factory Men Women
I 23 18
II 47 36
III 15 16
Represent the above information in the form of a matrix. What does the entry in the
second row and first column represent?
3 Algebra.indd 142 16-12-2020 01:07:00 PM

Solution The information is represented in the form of a 3 ´ 2 matrix as follows
23 18
 
47 36

A = 
 
15 16
The entry in the second row and first column represent that there are 47 men workers
in factory II.
Example 3.57 If a matrix has 16 elements, what are the possible orders it can have?
Solution We know that a matrix of order m ´ n , has mn elements. Thus to find all possible orders
of a matrix with 16 elements, we will find all ordered pairs of natural numbers whose product is 16.
Such ordered pairs are (1,16), (16,1), (4,4), (8,2), (2,8)
Hence possible orders are 1 ´ 16, 16 ´ 1 , 4 ´ 4 , 2 ´ 8 , 8 ´ 2
Activity 5
No. Elements Possible orders Number of possible orders
1. 4 3
2. 1×9, 9×1, 3×3
3. 20
4. 8 4
5. 1
6. 100
7. 1×10, 10×1, 2×5, 5×2
Do you find any relationship between number of elements (second column) and
number of possible orders (fourth column)? If so, what is it?
Example 3.58 Construct a 3 ´ 3 matrix whose elements are aij = i 2 j 2

a 
 11 a12 a13 

Solution The general 3×3 matrix is given by A = a21 a22 a23  aij = i 2 j 2
 
a 31 a 32 a 33 
a11 = 12 × 12 = 1 × 1 = 1 ; a12 = 12 × 22 = 1 × 4 = 4 ; a13 = 12 × 32 = 1 × 9 = 9 ;
a21 = 22 × 12 = 4 × 1 = 4 ; a22 = 22 × 22 = 4 × 4 = 16 ; a23 = 22 × 32 = 4 × 9 = 36
a 31 = 32 × 12 = 9 × 1 = 9 ; a 32 = 32 × 22 = 9 × 4 = 36 ; a 33 = 32 × 32 = 9 × 9 = 81
1 4 9 
 
Hence the required matrix is A = 4 16 36
 
9 36 81
a −b  2a + c  1 5
Example 3.59 Find the value of a, b, c, d from the equation   =  
2a − b 3c + d  0 2
Solution The given matrices are equal. Thus all corresponding elements are equal.
Algebra 143
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Therefore, a − b = 1 …(1)
2a + c = 5 …(2)
2a − b = 0 …(3)
3c + d = 2 …(4)
(3) Þ 2a − b = 0
2a = b …(5)
Put 2a = b in equation (1), a − 2a = 1 Þ a = −1
Put a = −1 in equation (5), 2(−1) = b Þ b = −2
Put a = −1 in equation (2), 2 (−1) + c = 5 Þ c = 7
Put c = 7 in equation (4), 3 (7) + d = 2 Þ d = −19
Therefore, a = −1, b = −2, c = 7, d = −19
Exercise 3.17
8
 9 3
4

 
 3
5
1. In the matrix A = −1 7
2  , write (i) The number of elements

 1 4 3 0
 6 
 8 −11 1
(ii) The order of the matrix (iii) Write the elements a22, a23, a24 , a 34 , a 43, a 44 .
2. If a matrix has 18 elements, what are the possible orders it can have? What if it has 6 elements?
3. Construct a 3 ´ 3 matrix whose elements are given by
(i + j )3
(i) aij = i − 2 j (ii) aij =
3
5 4 3
 
4. If A = 1 −7 9 then find the transpose of A.
 
3 8 2
 7 −3
 
 
5. If A = − 5 2  then find the transpose of -A .
 
 3 −5
 
 5
 2 2 

 5 
6. If A = − 17 0. 7  then verify (AT )T = A
 2 
 8
 3 1 

7. Find the values of x, y and z from the following equations
x + y + z  9
12 3 y z  x + y 2  6 2    
(i)   = 

 (ii)   = 

 (iii) x + z

 = 5
  
 x 5 3 5 
 5 + z xy  5 8   7
y + z   
3 Algebra.indd 144 16-12-2020 01:07:07 PM

3.9.3 Operations on Matrices
In this section, we shall discuss the addition and subtraction of matrices, multiplication
of a matrix by a scalar and multiplication of matrices.
Addition and subtraction of matrices

Two matrices can be added or subtracted if they have the same order. To add or
subtract two matrices, simply add or subtract the corresponding elements.
a b c  g h i  a + g b + h c + i 
For example,   +   =  
d e f   j k l  d + j e + k f + l 
    a − e b − f 
a b  e f   
c d  − g h  = c − g d − h 
     
If A = (aij ) , B = (bij ) , i = 1, 2, ... m , j = 1, 2, ... n then C = A + B is such that
C = (cij ) where cij = aij + bij for all i = 1, 2, ... m and j = 1, 2, ... n
1
 2 3 1 7 0
 

Example 3.60 If A = 4 5 6 , B = 1 3 1 , find A+B.
   
7 8 9 2 4 0
1 2
 3 1 7 0  1 + 1 2 + 7 3 + 0 2 9 3
      
Solution A + B = 4 5 6 + 1 3 1 =  4 + 1 5 + 3 6 + 1 = 5 8 7
       
7 8 9 2 4 0 7 + 2 8 + 4 9 + 0 9 12 9
Example 3.61 Two examinations were conducted for three groups of students namely
group 1, group 2, group 3 and their data on average of marks for the subjects Tamil,
English, Science and Mathematics are given below in the form of matrices A and B. Find
the total marks of both the examinations for all the three groups.
Tamil English Science Mathematics
Group1 22 15 14 23
 
A = Group2 50 62 21 30
 
Group3 53 80 32 40
Tamil English Science Mathematics

Group1 20 38 15 40
 
B = Group2 18 12 17 80
 
Group3 81 47 52 18
Solution The total marks in both the examinations for all the three groups is the sum of
the given matrices.
22 + 20 15 + 38 14 + 15 23 + 40 42 53 29 63 
   
A + B = 50 + 18 62 + 12 21 + 17 30 + 80 = 68
 74 38 110
   
53 + 81 80 + 47 32 + 522 40 + 18 134 127 84 58 
Algebra 145
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1 3 −2 1 8
  

Example 3.62 If A =  5 −4 6  , B = 3 4 , find A+B.


   
−3 2 9  9 6
Solution It is not possible to add A and B because they have different orders.
Multiplication of Matrix by a Scalar
We can multiply the elements of the given matrix A by a non-zero number k to
obtain a new matrix kA whose elements are multiplied by k. The matrix kA is called scalar
multiplication of A.
Thus if A = (aij )m×n then , kA = (kaij )m×n for all i = 1,2,…,m and ∀ j = 1,2,…,n.
 7 8 6   4 11 −3
   
Example 3.63 If A =  1 3 9  , B = −1 2 4  then Find 2A+B.
 
   
−4 3 −1  7 5 0 
Solution Since A and B have same order 3 ´ 3 , 2A + B is defined.
7
8 6   4 11 −3  14 16 12   4 11 −3

      
We have 2A+B = 2  1
3 9  + −1 2 4  =  2 6 18  + −1 2 4 
       
3 −1  7 5 0  −8 6 −2  7 5 0 
−4
 18
27 9 


=  1
8 22 
 
11 −2
−1
 5 4 −2 −7 4 −3
   
 1 3   1 7 
Example 3.64 If A =  2  , B =  3  , find 4A - 3B .
 2 4   4 2 
 1 9 4   5 −6 9 
   
Solution Since A, B are of the same order 3 ´ 3 , subtraction of 4A and 3B is defined.
5 4 −2 −7 4 −3
   
 1 3   1 7 
4A - 3B = 4  2  − 3  3 
 2 4   4 2 
 1 9 4   5 −6 9 
   
20 16 −8   21 −12 9 

  
  3 21 


=  2 3 4 2  +  − − −9 
   4 2 
 4 36 16  −15 18 −27
   
 41 4 1 
 
 5 15 
=  − 4 2 − 9
 4 2 
−11 54
 −11 

3 Algebra.indd 146 16-12-2020 01:07:16 PM

Properties of Matrix Addition and Scalar Multiplication
Let A, B, C be m ´ n matrices and p and q be two non-zero scalars (numbers). Then
we have the following properties.
(i) A + B = B + A [Commutative property of matrix addition]
(ii) A + (B + C ) = (A + B ) + C [Associative property of matrix addition]
(iii) (pq )A = p(qA) [Associative property of scalar multiplication]
(iv) IA=A [Scalar Identity property where I is the unit
matrix]
(v) p(A + B ) = pA + pB [Distributive property of scalar and two matrices]
(vi) (p + q )A = pA + qA [Distributive property of two scalars with a matrix]
Additive Identity
The null matrix or zero matrix is the identity for matrix addition.
Let A be any matrix.
Then, A + O = O + A = A where O is the null matrix or zero matrix of same order as
that of A.
Additive Inverse
If A be any given matrix then –A is the additive inverse of A.
In fact we have A + (−A) = (−A) + A = O
Example 3.65 Find the value of a, b, c, d from the following matrix equation.
 d 8  3 a  2 2a   0 1
  +    
3b a  −2 −4 = b 4c  + −5 0
       
Solution
First, we add the two matrices on both left, right hand sides to get
 d + 3 8 + a   2 2a + 1
  =  
3b − 2 a − 4  b − 5 4c 
Equating the corresponding elements of the two matrices, we have
d + 3 = 2 Þ d = –1
8 + a = 2a + 1 Þ a = 7
−3
3b − 2 = b − 5 Þ b=
2
3
Substituting a = 7 in a − 4 = 4c Þ c =
4
3 3
Therefore, a = 7, b = − , c = , d = –1.
2 4
Algebra 147
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1 8 3 8 −6 −4 5 3 0
    

Example 3.66 If A = 3 5 0 , B = 2 11 −3 , C = −1

  
  −7 2
     
8 7 6 0 1 5   1 4 3
1 3
compute the following : (i) 3A + 2B − C (ii) A - B
2 2
1 8 3 8 −6 −4  5 3 0
     
Solution (i) 3A + 2B − C = 3 3 5 0 + 2 2 11 −3 − −1
   −7 2
     
8 7 6 0 1 5   1 4 3
3 24 9  16 −12 −8 −5 −3 0 

    
=  9 15 0  +  4 22 −6 +  1 7 −2
     
24 21 18  0 2 10  −1 −4 −3
14
 9 1 

= 14 44 −8
 
23 19 25 
1 3 1
(ii)
A - B = (A − 3B )
2 2 2
1 8 3 8 −6 −4
   
1   
= 3 5 0 − 3 2 11 −3
2    
8 7 6 0 1 5 
1 8 3 −24 18 12  −23 26 15 
    
1   1 
= 3 5 0 +  −6 −33 9  =  −3 −28 9 

2     2 
8 7 6  0 −3 −15  8 4 −9
 23 15 
− 13 
 2 2 
 3 9 
=  − −14 
 2 2 
 9
 4 2 − 
 2 
Exercise 3.18
1 9  5 7
   
1. If A = 3 4 , B = 3 3 then verify that
 
   
8 −3 1 0
(i) A + B = B + A (ii) A + (−A) = (−A) + A = O.
4 3 1   2 3 4  8 3 4 
    

2. I f A = 2 3 −8, B =  1 9 2  and C = 1 −2 3  then verify that
     
1 0 −4 −7 1 −1 2 4 −1
A + (B + C ) = (A + B ) + C .
3 Algebra.indd 148 16-12-2020 01:07:24 PM

7 0 3 0
3. Find X and Y if X+Y =   and X −Y =  
0 4
3 5  
0 4 9 7 3 8
4. If A =  , B =  
1 4 9 find the value of (i) B - 5A (ii) 3A - 9B
8 3 7  
 x −3 3x − z  1 0
ind the values of x, y, z if (i) 
5. F  = 


x + y + 7 x + y + z  1 6
(ii) (x y − z z + 3) +(y 4 3) = (4 8 16)

 4  −2 4
6. Find x and y if x   +y   =  
−3  3  6
7. Find the non-zero values of x satisfying the matrix equation

2x 2 8 5x  x 2 + 8 24

x   + 
2 
 = 2  
 3 x  4 4x   10 6x 
x 2  −2x  5
   
8. S olve for x, y :  2  + 2   =
8
y   −y   
Multiplication of Matrices 3×3 3×2

To multiply two matrices, the number of columns in
the first matrix must be equal to the number of rows in the These numbers must be equal
second matrix. Consider the multiplications of 3×3 and These numbers determine the
3×2 matrices. order of the Product Matrix.
(Order of left hand matrix) ´ (order of right hand matrix) ® (order of product matrix).
(3 × 3 ) (3 × 2 ) ® (3 × 2 )
Matrices are multiplied by multiplying the elements in a row of the first matrix by
the elements in a column of the second matrix, and adding the results.
a b  ag + bk ah + bl ai + bm 
  g h i   
   
For example, product of matrices c d  × 
  = cg + dk ch + dl ci + dm 

  k l m   
e f  eg + fk eh + fl ei + fm 
The product AB can be found if the number of columns of matrix A is equal to the
number of rows of matrix B. If the order of matrix A is m ´ n and B is n ´ p then the order
of AB is m ´ p .
Properties of Multiplication of Matrix
(a) Matrix multiplication is not commutative in general
If A is of order m ´ n and B of the order n ´ p then AB is defined but BA is not
defined. Even if AB and BA are both defined, it is not necessary that they are equal.
In general AB ¹ BA.
Algebra 149
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(b) Matrix multiplication is distributive over matrix addition
(i) If A, B, C are m ´ n , n ´ p and n ´ p matrices respectively then
A(B + C ) = AB + AC (Right Distributive Property)
(ii) If A, B, C are m ´ n , m ´ n and n ´ p matrices respectively then
(A + B )C = AC + BC (Left Distributive Property)
(c) Matrix multiplication is always associative

If A, B, C are m ´ n , n ´ p and p ´ q matrices respectively then (AB )C = A(BC )
(d) Multiplication of a matrix by a unit matrix

If A is a square matrix of order n ´ n and I is the unit matrix of same order then
AI = IA = A .
Note
¾¾ If x and y are two real numbers such that xy = 0 then either x = 0 or y = 0 . But this
condition may not be true with respect to two matrices.
¾¾ AB = 0 does not necessarily imply that A = 0 or B = 0 or both A, B = 0
Illustration
 1 −1 1 1
  ≠ 0 and B =  
A =  1 1 ≠ 0
−1 1   
1 −1 1 1  1−1 1 − 1  0 0
But AB =   ×   = 
1 1
 
−1 + 1 −1 + 1 = 0 0 = 0
−1 1       
Thus A ¹ 0, B ¹ 0 but AB = 0 .
8 3 1
1 2 0  

Example 3.67 If A =   , B = 2 4 1 , find AB.
  
3 1 5 5 3 1
 
Solution We observe that A is a 2 ´ 3 matrix and B is a 3×3 matrix, hence AB is defined
and it will be of the order 2 × 3.
8 3 1
1 2 0  

Given A =   , B = 2 4 1
3 1 5  
2×3 5 3 1
 3×3
8 3 1
1 2 0  
AB =  ×2 4 1
3 1 5  

 5 3 1 
 8+4+0 3+8+0 1 + 2 + 0 12 11 3
=   =  
24 + 2 + 25 9 + 4 + 15 3 + 1 + 5 51 28 9
3 Algebra.indd 150 16-12-2020 01:07:33 PM

2 1 2 0
Example 3.68 If A =   , B =  
1 3 find AB and BA. Verify AB = BA ?
1 3  
Solution We observe that A is a 2 ´ 2 matrix and B is a 2 ´ 2 matrix, hence AB is defined
and it will be of the order 2 ´ 2 .
2 1 2 0  4 + 1 0 + 3 5 3
  ×   =   =  
AB =    
1 3 1 3 2 + 3 0 + 9 5 9
 
2 0 2 1 4 + 0 2 + 0 4 2 

BA =   ×   =   =  
1 3 1 3 2 + 3 1 + 9  5 10
   
Therefore, AB ¹ BA .
 2 −2 2   2 2 2 
  
Example 3.69 If A =   and B = 
− 2

 2 2   2 

Show that A and B satisfy commutative property with respect to matrix multiplication.
Solution We have to show that AB = BA
 2 −2 2   2 2 2   2 2 2   2 −2 2 
   
LHS = AB =   ×   RHS = BA =   ×  
 2 2  − 2 2  − 2 2   2 2 
 4+4
 4 2 − 4 2  
 4+4 −4 2 + 4 2 
=   =  
2 2 − 2 2 4 + 4  −2 2 + 2 2 4 + 4 
   
8 0 8 0
  
=   = 
0 8 0 8
Hence LHS = RHS (ie) AB = BA

Note
2 1 x  4 ¾¾ If A and B are any two
Example 3.70 Solve     =  
1 2 y  5 non zero matrices, then
2 1 x   4 (A + B )2 ≠ A2 + 2AB + B 2 .
Solution   ×   =  
1 2   5 ¾¾ However if AB = BA then
 2×2 y 2×1  
(A + B )2 = A2 + 2AB + B 2
2x + y  4
By matrix multiplication   =  
x + 2y  5
Rewriting 2x + y = 4 ...(1)
x + 2y = 5 ...(2)
(1) −2 × (2) Þ 2x + y = 4
(−)
2x + 4y = 10
−3y = − 6 Þ y = 2
Algebra 151
3 Algebra.indd 151 16-12-2020 01:07:39 PM

Substituting y = 2 in (1), 2x + 2 = 4 Þ x = 1
Therefore, x = 1 , y = 2 .
1 −1
  1 2 
Example 3.71 If A = (1 −1 2) , B = 2 1  and C =  
  2 −1
1 3 
show that (AB )C = A(BC ) .
Solution LHS = (AB )C

1 −1
 
AB = (1 −1 2)1×3 × 2 1  = (1 − 2 + 2 −1 − 1 + 6) = (1 4)
 
1 3 
3×2
1 2 
  = (1 + 8 2 − 4) = (9 –2)
(AB )C = (1 4)1×2 ×  …(1)
2 −1
2×2
RHS = A(BC )
1 −1 1 − 2 2 + 1 −1 3 
  1 2     
    
BC = 2 1  ×   = 2 + 2 4 − 1 =  4
 3 
  2 −1    
1 3  2×2 1 + 6 2 − 3  7 −1
3×2
−1 3 
 
A(BC) = (1 −1 2)1×3 ×  4 3 
 
 7 −1
3×2
A(BC) = (−1 − 4 + 14 3 − 3 − 2) = (9 −2) …(2)
From (1) and (2), (AB )C = A(BC ) .

 1 1  1 2 −7 6
Example 3.72 If A =   , B =   , C = 
−4 2  3 2 verify that A (B + C ) = AB + AC .

−1 3    
Solution LHS = A(B + C )

 1 2 −7 6 −6 8
  +   =  
B + C = 
−4 2  3 2 −1 4
 
 1 1 −6 8 −6 − 1 8 + 4  −7 12

  ×  =   =   …(1)
A(B + C ) =    
−1 3 −1 4  6 − 3 −8 + 12  3
  4 
RHS = AB + AC
 1 1  1 2  1 − 4 2 + 2   −3 4
  ×  =   =  
AB = 
−1 3 −4 2 −1 − 12 −2 + 6 −13 4
 1 1 −7 6 −7 + 3 6 + 2  −4 8

  ×  =   =  
AC =   
−1 3  3 2  7 + 9 −6 + 6  16 0
3 Algebra.indd 152 16-12-2020 01:07:46 PM

 −3 4 −4 8 −7 12
Therefore, AB + AC =   +   =   …(2)
−13 4  16 0  3 4 
From (1) and (2), A(B + C ) = AB + AC . Hence proved.

 2 −1
1 2 1  

Example 3.73 If A =   and B = −1 4  show that (AB )T = BT AT
  
2 −1 1  0 
 2 
Solution
LHS = (AB )T RHS = ( BT AT )
1 2 
 2 −1  2 −1 0  
1 2 1    
 × −1 4   , A = 2 −1

T T
 B =
AB =    −1 4 2  
2 −1 1  0  1 1 
2×3
 2 3×2
1 2 
2 − 2 + 0 −1 + 8 + 2 0 9   2 −1 0  
  =   T T 
B A =  × 2 −1
=    
4 + 1 + 0 −2 − 4 + 2 5 −4 −1 4 2 1 1 
2×3
 3×2
T
0 9  0 5   2−2 + 0 4 + 1 + 0 
  =   
(AB )T =  9 −4 …(1) = 
5 −4   −1 + 8 + 2 −2 − 4 + 2
0 5 
 
BT AT =  …(2)
9 −4
From (1) and (2), (AB )T = BT AT .

Hence proved.
Exercise 3.19
1. F
ind the order of the product matrix AB if
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v)

Orders of A 3×3 4×3 4×2 4×5 1×1
Orders of B 3×3 3×2 2×2 5×1 1×3
2. If A is of order p ´ q and B is of order q ´ r what is the order of AB and BA?

has ‘a’ rows and ‘ a + 3 ’ columns. B has ‘b’ rows and ‘17–b’ columns, and if both
3. A
products AB and BA exist, find a, b?
2 5 1 −3
4. If A =   , B =  
2 5  find AB, BA and verify AB = BA?
4 3  
1 3  1 −1 2  1 3 2
    , C =  
5. Given that A =   , B =  −4 1 3
5 −1 3 5 2  
verify that A(B + C ) = AB + AC .
Algebra 153
3 Algebra.indd 153 16-12-2020 01:07:51 PM

1 2  1 −2
6. Show that the matrices A =   , B =  
−3 1  satisfy commutative propertyAB=BA
3 1  
1 2 4 0 2 0

7. Let A = 
 , B =   , C = 
1 5

1 2 Show that (i) A(BC ) = (AB )C
1 3    
(ii) (A − B )C = AC − BC (iii) (A − B )T = AT − BT
cos q 0  sin q 0 
8. If A =   , B = 
 0
 then show that A2 + B 2 = I .
 0 cos q   sin q 

 cos q sin q 
9. If A =   prove that AAT = I .
− sin q cos q 
5 −4
10. Verify that A2 = I when A =  
6 −5
a b  1 0
11. If A =   and I =  
0 1 show that A − (a + d )A = (bc − ad )I 2
2
c d   
1 7 
5 2 9  
12. If A =   , B = 1 2  verify that (AB )T = BT AT
1 2 8  
5 −1
 
 3 1
13. If A =   show that A2 − 5A + 7I = 0
−1 2 2
Exercise 3.20

1. A system of three linear equations in three variables is inconsistent if their planes
(A) intersect only at a point (B) intersect in a line
(C) coincides with each other (D) do not intersect
2. The solution of the system x + y − 3z = −6 , − 7y + 7z = 7 , 3z = 9 is

(A) x = 1, y = 2, z = 3 (B) x = −1, y = 2, z = 3
(C) x = −1, y = −2, z = 3 (D) x = 1, y = −2, z = 3
3. If (x - 6) is the HCF of x 2 - 2x - 24 and x 2 - kx - 6 then the value of k is

(A) 3 (B) 5 (C) 6 (D) 8
3y − 3 7y − 7
4. ÷ is
y 3y 2
9y 9y 3 21y 2 − 42y + 21 7(y 2 − 2y + 1)
(A) (B) (C) ( D )
7 (21y - 21) 3y 3 y2
3 Algebra.indd 154 16-12-2020 01:07:57 PM

1
5. y 2 + is not equal to
y2
2 2 2
y4 + 1      
(A) ( B ) y + 1  (C) y − 1  + 2 (D) y + 1  − 2
y2  y   y   y 
x 8
6. 2 − 2 gives
x − 25 x + 6x + 5
x 2 − 7x + 40 x 2 + 7x + 40
(A) (B)
(x − 5)(x + 5) (x − 5)(x + 5)(x + 1)
x 2 − 7x + 40 x 2 + 10
(C) (D)
(x 2 − 25)(x + 1) (x 2 − 25)(x + 1)
256x 8y 4z 10
7. T
he square root of is equal to
25x 6y 6z 6
16 x 2z 4 y2 16 y 16 xz 2
(A) (B) 16 2 4 (C) (D)
5 y2 x z 5 xz 2 5 y
8. W
hich of the following should be added to make x 4 + 64 a perfect square
(A) 4x 2 (B) 16x 2 (C) 8x 2 (D) -8x 2
he solution of (2x − 1) = 9 is equal to

2
9. T
(A) -1 (B) 2 (C) –1, 2 (D) None of these
10. The values of a and b if 4x 4 − 24x 3 + 76x 2 + ax + b is a perfect square are
(A) 100,120 (B) 10,12 (C) -120 ,100 (D) 12,10
11. If the roots of the equation q 2x 2 + p 2x + r 2 = 0 are the squares of the roots of the
equation qx 2 + px + r = 0 , then q, p, r are in _______
(A) A.P (B) G.P (C) Both A.P and G.P (D) none of these
12. Graph of a linear equation is a _______
(A) straight line (B) circle (C) parabola (D) hyperbola
13. The number of points of intersection of the quadratic polynomial x 2 + 4x + 4 with
the X axis is
(A) 0 (B) 1 (C) 0 or 1 (D) 2
1 3 5 7 


14. For the given matrix A =  2 4 6 8  the order of the matrix AT is
 
 9 11 13 15
(A) 2 ´ 3 (B) 3 ´ 2 (C) 3 ´ 4 (D) 4 ´ 3
15. If A is a 2 ´ 3 matrix and B is a 3 ´ 4 matrix, how many columns does AB have
(A) 3 (B) 4 (C) 2 (D) 5
Algebra 155
3 Algebra.indd 155 16-12-2020 01:08:01 PM

16. If number of columns and rows are not equal in a matrix then it is said to be a
(A) diagonal matrix (B) rectangular matrix
(C) square matrix (D) identity matrix
17. Transpose of a column matrix is
(A) unit matrix (B) diagonal matrix
(C) column matrix (D) row matrix
1 3 5 7
   
18. Find the matrix X if 2X + 5 7 = 9 5
   
−2 −2 2 2  1 2 2 1
(A)  

( 
B)   (C)  
2 2 (D)  
 2 −1 2 −1  

2 2
19. Which of the following can be calculated from the given matrices
1
 2  1 2 3
 
3 
A =  4, B = 4 5 6 , (i) A2 (ii) B2 (iii) AB (iv) BA
5   
 6 7 8 9
(A) (i) and (ii) only (B) (ii) and (iii) only
(C) (ii) and (iv) only (D) all of these
1 2 3
1
 0  0 1

20. If A =  , B = 2 −1 and C =  
  −2 5 . Which of the following statements
3 2 1  0  
 2
5 5
 0
 1

are correct? (i) AB + C =   (ii) BC =  2 −3
5 5  
−4 10
2 5 −8 20

  (AB )C =  
(iii) BA + C = 3 0 (iv) −8 13
 
(A) (i) and (ii) only (B) (ii) and (iii) only
(C) (iii) and (iv) only (D) all of these
Unit Exercise - 3
1
1. Solve (x + y − 5) = y − z = 2x − 11 = 9 − (x + 2z )
3
2. One hundred and fifty students are admitted to a school. They are distrbuted over
three sections A, B and C. If 6 students are shifted from section A to section C,
the sections will have equal number of students. If 4 times of students of section C
exceeds the number of students of section A by the number of students in section B,
find the number of students in the three sections.
3 Algebra.indd 156 16-12-2020 01:08:04 PM

3. I n a three-digit number, when the tens and the hundreds digit are interchanged the
new number is 54 more than three times the original number. If 198 is added to the
number, the digits are reversed. The tens digit exceeds the hundreds digit by twice as
that of the tens digit exceeds the unit digit. Find the original number.
4. Find the least common multiple of xy(k 2 + 1) + k (x 2 + y 2 ) and xy(k 2 − 1) + k (x 2 − y 2 )
5. F
ind the GCD of the following by division algorithm
2x 4 + 13x 3 + 27x 2 + 23x + 7 , x 3 + 3x 2 + 3x + 1 , x 2 + 2x + 1
6. R
educe the given Rational expressions to its lowest form
x 3a − 8 10x 3 − 25x 2 + 4x − 10
(i) (ii)
x 2a + 2x a + 4 −4 − 10x 2
1 1
+
p q + r  q 2 + r 2 − p 2 
7. Simplify × 1 + 
1 1  2qr 
−
p q +r
8. Arul, Madan and Ram working together can clean a store in 6 hours. Working alone,
Madan takes twice as long to clean the store as Arul does. Ram needs three times as
long as Arul does. How long would it take each if they are working alone?
9. Find the square root of 289x 4 − 612x 3 + 970x 2 − 684x + 361 .
10. Solve y + 1 + 2y − 5 = 3
11. A boat takes 1.6 hours longer to go 36 kms up a river than down the river. If the speed
of the water current is 4 km per hr, what is the speed of the boat in still water?
12. Is it possible to design a rectangular park of perimeter 320 m and area 4800 m 2 ? If so
find its length and breadth.
t2
13. At t minutes past 2 pm, the time needed to 3 pm is 3 minutes less than . Find t.
4
14. The number of seats in a row is equal to the total number of rows in a hall. The total
number of seats in the hall will increase by 375 if the number of rows is doubled and
the number of seats in each row is reduced by 5. Find the number of rows in the hall
at the beginning.
15. If a and b are the roots of the polynomial f (x ) = x 2 − 2x + 3, find the polynomial
a −1 b −1
whose roots are (i) a + 2, b + 2 (ii) , .
a +1 b +1
16. If –4 is a root of the equation x 2 + px − 4 = 0 and if the equation x 2 + px + q = 0 has
equal roots, find the values of p and q.
17. Two farmers Thilagan and Kausigan cultivates three varieties of grains namely rice,
wheat and ragi. If the sale (in `) of three varieties of grains by both the farmers in
the month of April is given by the matrix.
Algebra 157
3 Algebra.indd 157 16-12-2020 01:08:07 PM

April sale in `
rice wheat ragi
500 1000 1500 Thilagan
A =  
2500 1500 500  Kausigan
and the May month sale (in `) is exactly twice as that of the April month sale for each
variety.
(i) What is the average sales of the months April and May.
(ii) If the sales continues to increase in the same way in the successive months, what
will be sales in the month of August?
 cos q sin q 
  x − cos q 
18. If cos q  
 + sin q   = I , find x.
− sin q cos q  cos q x  2
p 0 0 −q  2 −2
 , B =   , C =   2
19. Given A =  1 0  2 2  and if BA = C , find p and q.
 0 2    
3 0 6 3 3 6
      find the matrix D, such that CD–AB = 0
20. A = 4 5 , B =  , C = 

  
 8 5 
 
1 1 
Points to Remember
zz A system of linear equations in three variables will be according to one of the

following cases.
(i) Unique solution (ii) Infinitely many solutions (iii) No solution
zz The least common multiple of two or more algebraic expressions is the expression
of lowest degree (or power) such that the expressions exactly divides it.
zz A polynomial of degree two in variable x is called a quadratic polynomial in x. Every
quadratic polynomial can have atmost two zeroes. Also the zeroes of a quadratic
polynomial intersects the x-axis.
zz The roots of the quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 , (a ¹ 0) are given by
−b ± b 2 − 4ac
.
2a
zz For a quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 , a ¹ 0
−b −Co-efficient of x
Sum of the roots α + β = =
a Co -efficient of x 2
c Constant term
Product of the roots αβ = =
a Co-efficient of x 2
zz If the roots of a quadratic equation are a and b , then the equation is given by
x 2 − (α + β )x + αβ = 0 .
3 Algebra.indd 158 16-12-2020 01:08:09 PM

zz The value of the discriminant (∆ = b 2 − 4ac) decides the nature of roots as follows
(i) When ∆ > 0 , the roots are real and unequal.

(ii) When ∆ = 0 , the roots are real and equal.
(iii) When ∆ < 0 , there are no real roots.
zz Solving quadratic equation graphically.
zz A matrix is a rectangular array of elements arranged in rows and columns.
zz Order of a matrix
If a matrix A has m number of rows and n number of columns, then the order of the
matrix A is (Number of rows)´ (Number of columns) that is, m ń .We read m ń
as m cross n or m by n. It may be noted that m ń is not a product of m and n.
zz Types of matrices
(i) A matrix is said to be a row matrix if it has only one row and any number of
columns. A row matrix is also called as a row vector.
(ii) A
matrix is said to be a column matrix if it has only one column and any
number of rows. It is also called as a column vector.
(iii) A
matrix in which the number of rows is equal to the number of columns is
called a square matrix.
(iv) A
matrix is said to be a zero matrix or null matrix if all its elements are zero.
(v) If A is a matrix, the matrix obtained by interchanging the rows and columns of
A is called its transpose and is denoted by AT .
(vi) A square matrix, all of whose elements, except those in the leading diagonal
are zero is called a diagonal matrix.
(vii) A diagonal matrix in which all the leading diagonal elements are same is called
a scalar matrix.
(viii) A square matrix in which elements in the leading diagonal are all “1” and rest
are all zero is called an identity matrix (or) unit matrix.
(ix) A
square matrix in which all the entries above the leading diagonal are zero is
called a lower triangular matrix.
If all the entries below the leading diagonal are zero, then it is called an upper
triangular matrix.
(x) Two matrices A and B are said to be equal if and only if they have the same
order and each element of matrix A is equal to the corresponding element of
matrix B. That is, aij = bij for all i, j.
Algebra 159
3 Algebra.indd 159 16-12-2020 01:08:10 PM

zz The negative of a matrix Amń denoted by −Am×n is the matrix formed by replacing
each element in the matrix Amń with its additive inverse.
zz Addition and subtraction of matrices
Two matrices can be added or subtracted if they have the same order. To add or
subtract two matrices, simply add or subtract the corresponding elements.
zz Multiplication of matrix by a scalar

We can multiply the elements of the given matrix A by a non-zero number k to
obtain a new matrix kA whose elements are multiplied by k. The matrix kA is called
scalar multiplication of A.
Thus if A = (aij )m×n then , kA = (kaij )m×n for all i = 1,2,…,m and for all
j = 1,2,…,n.
ICT CORNER
ICT 3.1
Step 1: Open the Browser type the URL Link given below (or) Scan the QR Code. Chapter named
“Algebra” will open. Select the work sheet “Simultaneous equations”
Step 2: In the given worksheet you can see three linear equations and you can change the equations by typing
new values for a, b and c for each equation. You can move the 3-D graph to observe. Observe the nature of
solutions by changing the equations.
ICT 3.2
Step – 1: Open the Browser type the URL Link given below (or) Scan the QR Code. GeoGebra work book
named “ALGEBRA” will open. Click on the worksheet named “Nature of Quadratic Equation”.
Step - 2: In the given worksheet you can change the co-efficient by moving the sliders given. Click on “New
position” and move the sliders to fix the boundary for throwing the shell. Then click on “Get Ball” and click
“fire” to hit the target. Here you can learn what happen to the curve when each co-efficient is changed.

3 Algebra.indd 160 16-12-2020 01:08:11 PM

4
GEOMETRY
“The knowledge of which geometry aims is the knowledge of eternal”
– Plato
Omar Khayyam was a Persian mathematician, astronomer

and poet. As a poet, his classic work Rubaiyat attained world fame.
Khayyam’s work is an effort to unify Algebra and Geometry.
Khayyam’s work can be considered the first systematic study and
the first exact method of solving cubic equations. He accomplished
this task using Geometry. His efforts in trying to generalize the
principles of Geometry provided by Euclid, inspired many European
mathematicians to the eventual discovery of non-Euclidean Geometry.tam(18.5.1048
reFOmar
ed eKhayyam
rreiP
)5661-106–1(4.12.1131)
Khayyam was a perfect example of being a notable scientist and a great
poet, an achievement which many do not possess.
Learning Outcomes
zz o recall congruent triangles and understand the
T
definition of similar triangles.
zz To understand the properties and construction of similar triangles and
apply them to solve problems.
zz To prove basic proportionality theorem, angle bisector theorem and
study their applications and study the construction of triangles under
given conditions.
zz To prove Pythagoras theorem and study its applications.
zz To understand the concept of tangent to a circle and study construction
of tangent to circle.
zz To understand and apply concurrency theorems.
4.1 Introduction
The study of Geometry is concerned with knowing properties of various shapes and
structures. Arithmetic and Geometry were considered to be the two oldest branches of
mathematics. Greeks held Geometry in high esteem and used its properties to discuss
various scientific principles which otherwise would have been impossible. Eratosthenes
used the similarity of circle to determine the circumference of the Earth, distances
of the moon and the sun from the Earth, to a remarkable accuracy. Apart from these
achievements, similarity is used to find width of rivers, height of trees and much more.
161
4 Geometry.indd 161 16-12-2020 01:54:36 PM

In this chapter, we will be discussing the concepts mainly as continuation of previous
classes and discuss most important concepts like Similar Triangles, Basic Proportionality
Theorem, Angle Bisector Theorem, the most prominent and widely acclaimed Pythagoras
Theorem and much more. Ceva’s Theorem and Menelaus Theorem is introduced for the first
time. These two new theorems generalize all concurrent theorems that we know. Overall, the
study of Geometry will create interest in the deep understanding of objects around us.
Geometry plays vital role in the field of Science, Engineering and Architecture. We
see many Geometrical patterns in nature. We are familiar with triangles and many of their
properties from earlier classes.
4.2 Similarity
Two figures are said to be similar if every
aspect of one figure is proportional to other
figure. For example:
The above houses look the same but
different in size. Both the mobile phones are the same but they vary
in their sizes. Therefore, mathematically we say that two objects are
similar if they are of same shape but not necessarily they need to have
the same size. The ratio of the corresponding measurements of two
similar objects must be proportional.
Here is a box of geometrical shapes. Collect the similar objects and Fig. 4.1
list out.
In this chapter, we will be discussing specifically the
use of similar triangles which is of utmost importance
where if it is beyond our reach to physically measure the
distance and height with simple measuring instruments.
The concept of similarity is widely used in the fields of
engineering, architecture and construction.
Here are few applications of similarity
(i) By analyzing the shadows that make triangles,
Fig. 4.2
we can determine the actual height of the objects.
(ii) U
sed in aerial photography to determine the distance from sky to a particular
location on the ground.
(iii) U
sed in Architecture to aid in design of their work.
4.2.1 Similar triangles
In class IX, we have studied congruent triangles. We can say that two geometrical figures
are congruent, if they have same size and shape. But, here we shall study about geometrical
figures which have same shape but proportional sizes. These figures are called “similar”.
Fig. 4.3
4 Geometry.indd 162 16-12-2020 01:54:37 PM

Congruency and similarity of triangles
Note
Congruency is a particular case of similarity. In The traingles ABC and PQR
both the cases, three angles of one triangle are equal are similar can be written as
to the three corresponding angles of the other triangle. DABC  DPQR
But in congruent triangles, the corresponding sides are
equal. While in similar triangles, the corresponding sides are proportional.
Congruent triangles Similar triangles
A P A
P
1 1 1
1
2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3
B C Q R B C Q R
Fig. 4.4 Fig. 4.5
∆ABC ≅ ∆PQR DABC  DPQR
∠A = ∠P, ∠B = ∠Q, ∠C = ∠R . ∠A = ∠P, ∠B = ∠Q, ∠C = ∠R
AB = PQ, BC = QR,CA = RP AB ¹ PQ, BC ¹ QR,CA ¹ RP
AB BC CA AB BC CA
= = =1 but = = > 1 or < 1
PQ QR RP PQ QR RP
Same shape and same size. Same shape but not same size.
Thinking Corner
1. Are square and a rhombus similar or congruent. Discuss.
2. Are a rectangle and a parallelogram similar. Discuss.
4.2.2 Criteria of Similarity
The following criteria are sufficient to prove that two triangles are similar.
AA Criterion of similarity
P
If two angles of one triangle are respectively A R
1
equal to two angles of another triangle, then the two 1 C
triangles are similar, because the third angle in both 2
2
triangles must be equal. Therefore, AA similarity B
criterion is same as the AAA similarity criterion. Q
Fig. 4.6
So if ∠A = ∠P = 1 and ∠B = ∠Q = 2 then DABC  DPQR .
SAS Criterion of similarity A
If one angle of a triangle is equal to one angle of another 1 R
triangle and if the sides including them are proportional then C
the two triangles are similar.
Thus if ∠A = ∠P = 1 and B 1
AB AC Q P
Fig. 4.7
= then DABC  DPQR
PQ PR
Geometry 163
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SSS Criterion of similarity P
A
If three sides of a triangle are proportional to the
three corresponding sides of another triangle, then the
two triangles are similar.
AB AC BC C
So if, = = then DABC  DPQR R
PQ PR QR B
Q Fig. 4.8
Thinking Corner
Are any two right angled triangles similar? If so why?
Some useful results on similar triangles B
1. A perpendicular line drawn from the vertex of a right angled

triangle divides the triangle into two triangles similar to
each other and also to original triangle.
DADB  DBDC , DABC  DADB, DABC  DBDC A Fig. 4.9 D C
A
E
2. If two triangles are similar, then the ratio of F
P
the corresponding sides are equal to the ratio
T
of their corresponding altitudes. U
i.e. if DABC  DPQR then B D C
AB BC CA AD BE CF
= = = = =
PQ QR RP PS QT RU Fig. 4.10 Q S R
C
3. If two triangles are similar, then the ratio of 3 D
A
the corresponding sides are equal to the ratio 1 1
of the corresponding perimeters.
2 2 3
DABC  DDEF then F
E Fig. 4.11
AB BC CA AB + BC + CA B
= = = P
DE EF FD DE + EF + FD A Q
1 2
1
4. The ratio of the area of two similar triangles are equal
to the ratio of the squares of their corresponding sides. 2
B
area(∆ABC ) AB 2 BC 2 AC 2 3 3
= = =
area(∆PQR) PQ 2 QR 2 PR 2 C
Fig. 4.12 R
5. If two triangles have common vertex and their bases are A
on the same straight line, the ratio between their areas is B
equal to the ratio between the length of their bases.

area(∆ABD ) AD
Here, = . D
area(∆BDC ) DC
C Fig. 4.13
4 Geometry.indd 164 16-12-2020 01:54:39 PM

Definition 1
Two triangles are said to be similar if their corresponding sides are proportional.
Definition 2
The triangles are equiangular if the corresponding angles are equal.
Illustration Two triangles, DXYZ and DLMN are similar because the corresponding angles
are equal. X L
1 Note
1
2
(i) A pair of equiangular
Y 3
N
triangles are similar.
2
3 (ii) If two triangles are similar,
Z M then they are equiangular.
Fig. 4.14
XY YZ XZ
(i) ∠X = ∠L, ∠Y = ∠M , ∠Z = ∠N (by angles) (ii) = = (by sides)
LM MN LN
Here the vertices X, Y, Z correspond to the vertices L, M, N respectively. Thus in
symbol DXYZ  DLMN
P
Example 4.1 Show that D PST  D PQR
P 2 2
(i) (ii)
4 T
S
2
T 3
2 3
S
1
R R
Q Fig. 4.15
Q Fig. 4.16
Solution
(i) In D PST and D PQR , (ii) In D PST and D PQR ,
PS 2 2 PT 4 2 PS 2 2 PT 2 2
= = , = = = = , = =
PQ 2 + 1 3 PR 4+2 3 PQ 2 + 3 5 PR 2+3 5
PS PT PS PT
Thus, = and ÐP is common Thus, = and ÐP is common
PQ PR PQ PR
Therefore, by SAS similarity, Therefore, by SAS similarity,
D PST  D PQR D PST  D PQR
Example 4.2 Is DABC  DPQR ?

P
Solution In D ABC and D PQR ,
A 3
PQ 3 1 QR 4 2
= = ; = = Q
AB 6 2 BC 10 5 4 R
6
1 2 PQ QR
since ¹ , ¹ .
2 5 AB BC
B 10 C
The corresponding sides are not proportional.
Fig. 4.17
Therefore DABC is not similar to DPQR .
Geometry 165
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Note
If we change exactly one of the four given lengths, then we can make these triangles similar.
A
Example 4.3 Observe Fig.4.18 and find ÐP . 3
3c
m
3cm
AB 3 1
Solution In D BAC and D PRQ , = = ; 60o
RQ 6 2 B C R
6cm
BC 6 1 CA 3 3 1
= = ; = = m
QP 12 2 PR 6 3 2 3c
6c
6
m
AB BC CA
Therefore, = =
RQ QP PR P 12cm Q
By SSS similarity, we have D BAC  DQRP Fig. 4.18

∠P =∠C (since the corresponding parts of similar triangle)
∠P =∠C = 180°− (∠A +∠B ) = 180°− (90° + 60°)
ÐP = 180°− 150° = 30°
Example 4.4 A boy of height 90cm is walking away from the base of a lamp post at a
speed of 1.2m/sec. If the lamppost is 3.6m A
above the ground, find the length of his
shadow cast after 4 seconds.
Solution Given, speed = 1.2 m/s,
3.6 m
time = 4 seconds
C
distance
= speed ´ time
90 cm

= 1.2 × 4 = 4.8 m
B D x E
Let x be the length of the shadow Fig. 4.19
after 4 seconds
BE AB 4.8 + x 3.6
Since, D ABE  DCDE , = gives = = 4 (since 90 cm = 0.9 m)
DE CD x 0. 9
4.8 + x = 4x gives 3x = 4.8 so, x =1.6 m
The length of his shadow DE = 1.6 m
C
Example 4.5 In Fig.4.20 ∠A =∠CED prove that DCAB  DCED .
Also find the value of x.
m
Solution In DCAB and DCED , ÐC is common, ∠A =∠CED

8c
10cm
Therefore, DCAB  DCED (By AA similarity) D

x
CA AB CB
m
Hence, = =
7c
CE DE CD E
2cm
AB CB 9 10 + 2 8×9
= gives = so, x = = 6 cm. A 9cm B
DE CD x 8 12 Fig. 4.20
4 Geometry.indd 166 16-12-2020 01:54:44 PM

Example 4.6 In Fig.4.21, QA and PB are perpendiculars to AB. If AO = 10 cm,
BO = 6 cm and PB = 9 cm. Find AQ.
Solution In D AOQ and DBOP , ∠OAQ =∠OBP = 90°
∠AOQ =∠BOP (Vertically opposite angles) A
Therefore, by AA Criterion of similarity,
10
D AOQ  DBOP
O P
AO OQ AQ
= = Q
BO OP BP Fig. 4.21 6 9
10 AQ 10 × 9
= ⇒ AQ = = 15 cm B
6 9 6
Example 4.7 The perimeters of two similar triangles ABC and PQR are
respectively 36 cm and 24 cm. If PQ = 10 cm, find AB.
Solution The ratio of the corresponding sides B P
of similar triangles is same as the ratio of their
perimeters.
m
Since DABC  DPQR ,
10c
?
R
AB BC AC 36
= = =
PQ QR PR 24
AB 36 AB 36 A Q
= ⇒ =
PQ 24 10 24 C
36 × 10 Fig. 4.22
AB = = 15 cm
24
Example 4.8 If D ABC is similar to D DEF such that BC = 3 cm, EF = 4 cm and area of
D ABC = 54 cm2. Find the area of D DEF .
Solution Since the ratio of area of two similar triangles is equal to the ratio of the squares
of any two corresponding sides, we have
Area (∆ABC )
BC 2 54 32
= ⇒ = 2
Area (∆DEF ) EF 2 Area (∆DEF ) 4
16 × 54
Area (∆DEF ) = = 96 cm2
9 D
Example 4.9 Two poles of height ‘a’ metres
and ‘b’ metres are ‘p’ metres apart. Prove that
the height of the point of intersection of the lines B
b
joining the top of each pole to the foot of the O
ab
opposite pole is given by metres. a
a +b h
Solution Let AB and CD be two poles of height C A
x L y
‘a’ metres and ‘b’ metres respectively such that p
Fig. 4.23
the poles are ‘p’ metres apart. That is AC = p
metres. Suppose the lines AD and BC meet at O, such that OL = h metres
Geometry 167
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Let CL = x and LA = y. Progress Check
Then, x + y = p
In DABC and DLOC , we have 1. All circles are ________ (congruent/
similar).
∠CAB = ∠CLO [each equal to 90° ]
2. All squares are ________ (similar/
∠C = ∠C [C is common] congruent).
DCAB  DCLO [By AA similarity] 3. Two triangles are similar, if their
CA AB p a
corresponding angles are _______
= ⇒ = and their corresponding sides are
CL LO x h
ph ________.
so,
…(1) x= 4. (a) All similar triangles are congruent
a
In D ALO and D ACD , we have – True/False
(b) All congruent triangles are similar –
∠ALO =∠ACD [each equal to 90° ]
True/False.
∠A = ∠A [A is common] 5. Give two different examples of pair of
D ALO  DACD [by AA similarity] non-similar figures?
AL OL y h ph
= ⇒ = we get, y = …(2)
AC DC p b b
ph ph
(1)+(2) ⇒ x +y = +
a b
 1 1 
p = ph  +  (Since x + y = p )
a b 
a + b 
1= h  
 ab 
ab
Therefore, h =
a +b
Hence, the height of the intersection of the lines joining the top of each pole to the
ab
foot of the opposite pole is metres.
a +b
Activity 1
P
Let us try to construct a line segment of length 2 .
For this, we consider the following steps. h
Step1: Take a line segment of length 3 units. Call it as AB.

2 C
Step2: Take a point C on AB such that AC = 2, CB = 1. A Fig. 4.24
1 B
Step3: Draw a semi-circle with AB as diameter as shown in the diagram

Step4: Take a point ‘P’ on the semi-circle such that CP is perpendicular to AB.
Step5: Join P to A and B. We will get two right triangles ACP and BCP.
Step6: Verify that the triangles ACP and BCP are similar.
Step7: Let CP = h be the common altitude. Using similarity, find h.
Step8: What do you get upon finding h?
Repeating the same process, can you construct a line segment of lengths 3, 5, 8 .
4 Geometry.indd 168 16-12-2020 01:54:48 PM

4.2.3 Construction of similar triangles
So far we have discussed the theoretical approach of similar triangles and their properties.
Now we shall discuss the geometrical construction of a triangle similar to a given triangle
whose sides are in a given ratio with the corresponding sides of the given triangle.
This construction includes two different cases. In one, the triangle to be constructed
is smaller and in the other it is larger than the given triangle. So, we use the following term
called “scale factor” which measures the ratio of the sides of the triangle to be constructed
with the corresponding sides of the given triangle. Let us take the following examples
involving the two cases:
Example 4.10 Construct a triangle similar to a given triangle PQR with its sides equal to
3 3
of the corresponding sides of the triangle PQR (scale factor < 1) P
5 5
P¢
Solution Given a triangle PQR we are required to construct
3
another triangle whose sides are of the corresponding sides
5
of the triangle PQR. Q R¢ R
Rough diagram
Steps of construction
P
1. Construct a DPQR with any measurement.
2. Draw a ray QX making an acute angle with QR on the
P¢
side opposite to vertex P.
3
3. Locate 5 (the greater of 3 and 5 in ) points.
5
Q1,Q2 ,Q3 ,Q4 and Q5 on QX so that
QQ1 = Q1Q2 = Q2Q3 = Q3Q4 = Q4Q5 Q R¢ R
Q1
4. Join Q5R and draw a line through Q3 (the third
Q2
3
point, 3 being smaller of 3 and 5 in ) parallel to Q3
5
Q5R to intersect QR at R ¢ . Q4
Q5 X
5. Draw line through R ¢ parallel to the line RP to
Fig. 4.25
intersect QP at P ¢ .
Then, ∆P ′QR ′ is the required triangle each of whose sides is three-
fifths of the corresponding sides of DPQR .
Example 4.11 Construct a triangle similar to a given triangle PQR with

7
its sides equal to of the corresponding sides of the triangle PQR
4 P¢
7
(scale factor > 1)
4
P
Solution Given a triangle PQR, we are required to construct
7
another triangle whose sides are of the corresponding sides of the
4
triangle PQR. Q R R¢
Rough diagram
Geometry 169
4 Geometry.indd 169 16-12-2020 01:54:49 PM

Steps of construction P¢
1. Construct a DPQR with any measurement.

2. Draw a ray QX making an acute angle with QR on the side
opposite to vertex P. P
7
3. Locate 7 points (the greater of 7 and 4 in )
4
Q1,Q2 ,Q3 ,Q4 ,Q5 ,Q6 and Q7 on QX so that
QQ1 = Q1Q2 = Q2Q3 = Q3Q4 = Q4Q5 = Q5Q6 = Q6Q7
7
4. Join Q4 (the 4th point, 4 being smaller of 4 and 7 in ) Q R R¢
4 Q1
to R and draw a line through Q7 parallel to Q4R,
Q2
intersecting the extended line segment QR at R ¢ . Q3
5. Draw a line through R ¢ parallel to RP intersecting the Q4
extended line segment QP at P ¢ Q5
Then ∆P ′QR ′ is the required triangle each of whose sides Q6
Fig. 4.26 X
is seven-fourths of the corresponding sides of DPQR . Q7
Exercise 4.1
1. Check whether the which triangles are similar and find the value of x.
C A
(i) (ii)
1
3 2
5 P
E
2
x
A 5 B 70o o
110
3 D
B 3 Q 3 C
2. A girl looks the reflection of the top of the lamp post on the mirror which is 6.6 m away
from the foot of the lamppost. The girl whose height is 1.25 m is standing 2.5 m away
from the mirror. Assuming the mirror is placed on the ground facing the sky and the girl,
mirror and the lamppost are in a same line, find the height of the lamp post.
3. A vertical stick of length 6 m casts a shadow 400 cm long on the ground and at the same
time a tower casts a shadow 28 m long. Using similarity, find the height of the tower.
4. Two triangles QPR and QSR, right angled at P and S respectively are drawn
on the same base QR and on the same side of QR. If PR A
E
and SQ intersect at T, prove that PT × TR = ST × TQ. 3
5. In the adjacent figure, DABC is right angled at C and D
DE ^ AB . Prove that DABC  DADE and hence find 2
the lengths of AE and DE. B 12 C
B
6. In the adjacent figure, DACB  DAPQ . If BC = 8 cm, P
PQ = 4 cm, BA = 6.5 cm and AP = 2.8 cm, find CA and AQ. A
Q
C
4 Geometry.indd 170 16-12-2020 01:54:50 PM

7. If figure OPRQ is a square and ∠MLN = 90° . Prove that L
(i) DLOP  DQMO (ii) DLOP  DRPN (iii) O 90o P
DQMO  DRPN (iv) QR 2 = MQ × RN

M N
8. If DABC  DDEF such that area of DABC is 9cm2 and the Q R
P
area of DDEF is 16cm2 and BC = 2.1 cm. Find the length of EF.
6m
9. Two vertical poles of heights 6 m and 3 m are erected above a Q R
horizontal ground AC. Find the value of y.
3m
y
10. Construct a triangle similar to a given triangle PQR with its A B C
2 2
of the corresponding sides of the triangle PQR (scale factor < 1).
sides equal to
3 3
4
11. Construct a triangle similar to a given triangle LMN with its sides equal to of the
5
4
corresponding sides of the triangle LMN (scale factor < 1).
5
6
12. Construct a triangle similar to a given triangle ABC with its sides equal to of the
5
6
corresponding sides of the triangle ABC (scale factor > 1).
5
7
13. Construct a triangle similar to a given triangle PQR with its sides equal to of the
3
7
corresponding sides of the triangle PQR (scale factor > 1).
3
4.3 Thales Theorem and Angle Bisector Theorem
4.3.1 Introduction
Thales, (640 - 540 BC (BCE)) the most famous Greek mathematician
and philosopher lived around seventh century BC (BCE). He possessed
knowledge to the extent that he became the first of seven sages of
Greece. Thales was the first man to announce that any idea that emerged
should be tested scientifically and only then it can be accepted. In this
aspect, he did great investigations in mathematics and astronomy and Thales
discovered many concepts. He was credited for providing first proof in (640 - 540 BC (BCE))
mathematics, which today is called by the name “Basic Proportionality Theorem”. It is also
called “Thales Theorem” named after its discoverer.
The discovery of the Thales
theorem itself is a very interesting story.
When Thales travelled to Egypt, he was
ht H1
challenged by Egyptians to determine of sig
Line H0
the height of one of several magnificent X0
H1 H
pyramids that they had constructed. X1 = 0
X1 X0
Thales accepted the challenge and used
similarity of triangles to determine the Fig. 4.27
same successfully, another triumphant application of Geometry. Since X0, X1 and H0 are
known, we can determine the height H1 of the pyramid.
Geometry 171
4 Geometry.indd 171 16-12-2020 01:54:51 PM

To understand the basic proportionality theorem or Thales theorem, let us do the
following activity.
Activity 2
Take any ruled paper and draw a triangle ABC with its base on one of the lines.
Several parallel lines will cut the triangle ABC. A
Select any one line among them and name the points
M N
where it meets the sides AB and AC as P and Q.
AP AQ P Q
Can we find the ratio of and . By measuring AP,
PB QC
R S
PB, AQ and QC through a scale, verify whether the ratios are
equal or not? Try for different parallel lines, say MN and RS.
B C
AM AN AR AS
Now find the ratios , and , . Fig. 4.28
MB NC RB SC
Check if they are equal? The conclusion will lead us to one of the most important
theorem in Geometry, which we will discuss below.
A
Theorem 1: Basic Proportionality Theorem (BPT) or Thales theorem
Statement 3
D 1 2 E
A straight line drawn parallel to a side of triangle intersecting
the other two sides, divides the sides in the same ratio. 1 2
B C
Proof Fig. 4.29
Given: In D ABC , D is a point on AB and E is a point on AC.
AD AE
To prove: =
DB EC
Construction: Draw a line DE  BC
No. Statement Reason
1. ∠ABC = ∠ADE = ∠1 Corresponding angles are equal because DE  BC
2. ∠ACB = ∠AED = ∠2 Corresponding angles are equal because DE  BC
3. ∠DAE = ∠BAC = ∠3 Both triangles have a common angle
D ABC  DADE By AAA similarity
AB AC
= Corresponding sides are proportional
AD AE
AD + DB AE + EC
= Split AB and AC using the points D and E.
AD AE
4. 1+
DB
= 1+
EC
AD AE On simplification
DB EC
= Cancelling 1 on both sides
AD AE
AD AE
=
DB EC Taking reciprocals
Hence proved
4 Geometry.indd 172 16-12-2020 01:54:52 PM

Corollary
If in D ABC , a straight line DE parallel to BC, intersects AB at D and AC at E, then
AB AC AB AC A
(i) = (ii) = .
AD AE DB EC
Proof
D E
In DABC, DE  BC ,
AD AE
Therefore, = (by Basic Proportionality Theorem)
DB EC B C
Fig. 4.30
DB EC
(i) Taking reciprocals, we get = (ii) Add 1 to both the sides
AD AE
DB EC AD AE
Add 1 to both in the sides +1 = +1 +1 = +1
AD AE DB EC
DB + AD EC + AE AB AC AB AC
= so, = Therefore, =
AD AE AD AE DB EC
Is the converse of Basic Proportionality Theorem also true? To examine let us do the
following illustration.
Illustration
Draw an angle XAY on your notebook as shown in Fig.4.31 and on ray AX, mark
points B1, B2 , B3 , B4 and B such that AB1 = B1B2 = B2B3 = B3B4 = B4B = 1 cm.
Similarly on ray AY, mark points C 1,C 2 ,C 3 ,C 4 and C, such that
AC1=C1C2 = C2C3 = C3C4 = C4C = 2 cm, Join B1 C 1 and BC.
A
AB1 1 AC 1
Observe that = = and B1C 1  BC B1
B1B C 1C 4 B2 C1
B3
Similarly joining B2C2, B3C3 and B4C4 you see that B4 C2
AB2 AC 2 2 B
= = and B2C 2  BC C3
B2B C 2C 3
AB3 AC 3 3 C4
= = and B 3C 3  BC
B 3B C 3C 2
C
AB4
4 AC 4
= = and B 4C 4  BC
B4 B C 4C 1 Fig. 4.31
X Y
From this we observe that if a line divides two sides of a triangle in the same ratio,
then the line is parallel to the third side.
Therefore, we obtain the following theorem called converse of the Thales theorem.
Theorem 2: Converse of Basic Proportionality Theorem
Statement
If a straight line divides any two sides of a triangle in the same ratio, then the line
must be parallel to the third side.
Geometry 173
4 Geometry.indd 173 16-12-2020 01:54:54 PM

A
Proof
AD AE
Given : In ∆ABC , = F
DB EC D
E
To prove : DE  BC
Construction : If DE is not parallel to BC, draw DF  BC .

B Fig. 4.32 C

AD AE
1. = …(1) Given
DB EC
2. DF DE
D ABC , BF BC Construction
AD AF
3. = … (2) Thales theorem
DB FC
4. AE AF From (1) and (2)
=
EC FC
AE AF Adding 1 to both sides
+1 = +1
EC FC
AE + EC AF + FC
=
EC FC
AC AC
=
EC FC
EC = FC Cancelling AC on both sides
Therefore, E = F Our assumption that DE is not parallel to BC is wrong.
Thus DE  BC Hence proved
Theorem 3: Angle Bisector Theorem

Statement
The internal bisector of an angle of a triangle divides the opposite side internally in
the ratio of the corresponding sides containing the angle.
Proof
C E
Given : In D ABC, AD is the internal bisector 2 1
AB BD
To prove : = D
AC CD
1
1 2
Construction : Draw a line through C parallel to AB. A B
Extend AD to meet line through C at E Fig. 4.33
4 Geometry.indd 174 16-12-2020 01:54:55 PM

No Statement Reason
∠AEC = ∠BAE = ∠1 Two parallel lines cut by a transversal make alternate
1.
angles equal.
D ACE is isosceles
2. In ∆ ACE ,∠CAE = ∠CEA
AC = CE … (1)
DABD  DECD
3. AB BD By AA Similarity
=
CE CD
AB BD From (1) AC = CE .
4. =
AC CD Hence proved.
Activity 3
Step 1: Take a chart and cut it like a triangle as shown in Fig.4.34(a).
Step 2: Then fold it along the symmetric line AD. Then C and B will be one upon the other.
A A
Step 3: Similarly fold it along CE, then B and A will
be one upon the other.
Step 4: Similarly fold it along BF, then A and C will E F

OO
be one upon the other.
Find AB, AC, BD, DC using a scale.
AB BD B D CB D
Find , check if they are equal? Fig. 4.34(a) Fig. 4.34(b)
AC DC
In the three cases, the internal bisector of an angle of a triangle divides the opposite
side internally in the ratio of the corresponding sides containing the angle.
What do you conclude from this activity?
Theorem 4: Converse of Angle Bisector Theorem

Statement
If a straight line through one vertex of a triangle divides the opposite E
side internally in the ratio of the other two sides, then the line bisects the
1
angle internally at the vertex.
Proof
Given : ABC is a triangle. AD divides BC in the ratio of the A
sides containing the angles ÐA to meet BC at D.

1 2
AB BD
That is = … (1) 2
AC DC
To prove : AD bisects ÐA i.e. ∠1 = ∠2
B D C
Construction : Draw CE  DA . Extend BA to meet at E. Fig. 4.35
Geometry 175
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1. Let ∠BAD = ∠1 and ∠DAC = ∠2 Assumption
Since DA  CE and AC is transversal,
2. ∠BAD = ∠AEC = ∠1
corresponding angles are equal
Since DA  CE and AC is transversal, Alternate
3. ∠DAC = ∠ACE = ∠2
angles are equal
BA BD
4. = … (2) In DBCE by Thales theorem
AE DC
5. AB BD From (1)
=
AC DC
AB BA
6. = From (1) and (2)
AC AE
7. AC = AE … (3) Cancelling AB
8. ∠1 = ∠2 DACE is isosceles by (3)
9. AD bisects ÐA Since, ∠1 = ∠BAD = ∠2 = ∠DAC . Hence proved
Example 4.12 In DABC , if DE  BC , AD = x , DB = x − 2, AE = x + 2 and EC = x − 1
then find the lengths of the sides AB and AC.
A
Solution In DABC we have DE  BC .
x
x+
AD AE
By Thales theorem, we have = D
2
DB EC E
2
x +2
x–
x
= gives x (x − 1) = (x − 2)(x + 2)
x–
x -2 x −1
B
1
Hence, x 2 − x = x 2 − 4 so, x = 4 Fig. 4.36
C
When x = 4 , AD = 4 , DB = x − 2 = 2 , AE = x + 2 = 6 , EC = x − 1 = 3 .
Hence, AB = AD + DB = 4 + 2 = 6 , AC = AE + EC = 6 + 3 = 9 .
Therefore, AB = 6, AC = 9 .
Example 4.13 D and E are respectively the points on the sides AB and AC of a D ABC such
that AB = 5.6 cm, AD = 1.4 cm, AC = 7.2 cm and AE = 1.8 cm, show that DE  BC .
Solution We have AB = 5.6 cm, AD = 1.4 cm, AC = 7.2 cm and AE = 1.8 cm.
A
BD = AB − AD = 5.6 – 1.4 = 4.2 cm 1.8
and EC = AC –AE = 7.2 – 1.8 = 5.4 cm. E 5
1.4
.4
AD 1.4 1 AE 1.8 1
= = and = = D C
DB 4.2 3 EC 5.4 3
4.2
AD AE
= Fig. 4.37
DB EC B
Therefore, by converse of Basic Proportionality Theorem, we have DE is parallel to BC.
Hence proved.
4 Geometry.indd 176 16-12-2020 01:54:59 PM

BE BC
Example 4.14 In the Fig.4.38, DE  AC and DC  AP . Prove that = .
EC CP
Solution In DBPA, we have DC  AP . By Basic Proportionality Theorem,
BC BD A
we have = …(1)
CP DA
D
In DBCA, we have DE  AC . By Basic Proportionality Theorem,
we have,
BE BD
= …(2)
EC DA B E C P
BE BC Fig. 4.38
From (1) and (2) we get, = . Hence proved.
EC CP
A
Example 4.15 In the Fig.4.39, AD is the bisector of ÐA . If BD = 4 cm,
DC = 3 cm and AB = 6 cm, find AC.
m
6c
Solution In DABC , AD is the bisector of ÐA
By Angle Bisector Theorem C
B 4 cm D 3 cm
BD AB Fig. 4.39
=
DC AC
4 6 9
= gives 4AC = 18 . Hence, AC = = 4.5 cm
3 AC 2
Example 4.16 In the Fig. 4.40, AD is the bisector of ÐBAC , if AB = 10 cm, AC = 14

cm and BC = 6 cm. Find BD and DC. A
Solution Let BD = x cm, then DC = (6–x)cm 12
AD is the bisector of ÐA 14
cm
m
By Angle Bisector Theorem

10 c
AB BD
=
AC DC
B x D 6–x C
10 x 5 x 6 cm
= gives =
14 6 − x 7 6−x Fig. 4.40
30
12x = 30 we get, x = = 2.5 cm
12
Therefore, BD = 2.5 cm, DC = 6 − x = 6 − 2.5 = 3.5 cm
Progress Check
1. A straight line drawn _______ to a side of a triangle divides the other two sides
proportionally.
2. Basic Proportionality Theorem is also known as _______.
Geometry 177
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3. Let D ABC be equilateral. If D is a point on BC and AD is the internal bisector
BD
of ÐA . Using Angle Bisector Theorem, is _______.
DC
4. The _______ of an angle of a triangle divides the opposite side internally in the
ratio of the corresponding sides containing the angle.
5. If the median AD to the side BC of a D ABC is also an angle bisector of ÐA then
AB
is _______.
AC
4.3.2 Construction of triangle

We have already learnt in previous class how to construct triangles when sides and
angles are given.
In this section, let us construct a triangle when the following are given :
(i) the base, vertical angle and the median on the base
(ii) the base, vertical angle and the altitude on the base
(iii) the base, vertical angle and the point on the base H
where the bisector of the vertical angle meets the
base. C
q F
First, we consider the following construction,
O
Construction of a segment of a circle on a given line
segment containing an angle q
Construction 90o– q
A q G B
Step 1: Draw a line segment AB .
Step 2: At A, take ∠BAE = q Draw AE.
Step 3: Draw, AF ^ AE . E
Step 4: Draw the perpendicular bisector of

AB meeting AF at O. Fig. 4.41
Step 5: With O as centre and OA as radius draw a circle ABH.
Step 6: Take any point C on the circle, By the alternate segments theorem, the major arc
ACB is the required segment of the circle containing the angle q .
Note
If C 1,C 2 ,... are points on the circle, then all the triangles DBAC 1, DBAC 2 ,... are with
same base and the same vertical angle.
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Construction of a triangle when its base, the vertical angle and the median from the
vertex of the base are given.
Example 4.17 Construct a DPQR in which PQ = 8 cm, ∠R = 60° and the median RG
from R to PQ is 5.8 cm. Find the length of the altitude from R to PQ. R
Solution H
60 o
5.8cm
R F S G
P 8cm Q
60 o
Rough diagram
5. O
8c
m
3.8cm
L M P 60o G 8cm Q
N
E Fig. 4.42
Construction
Step 1: Draw a line segment PQ = 8cm.
Step 2: At P, draw PE such that ∠QPE = 60  .
Step3: At P, draw PF such that ∠EPF = 90 .
Step 4: Draw the perpendicular bisector to PQ, which intersects PF at O and PQ at G.
Step 5: With O as centre and OP as radius draw a circle.
Step 6: From G mark arcs of radius 5.8 cm on the circle. Mark them as R and S .
Step 7 : Join PR and RQ. Then PQR is the required triangle .
Step 8 : From R draw a line RN perpendicular to LQ. Note

LQ meets RN at M We can get another
D PQS for the given
Step 9: The length of the altitude is RM = 3.8 cm.
measurements.
Geometry 179
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Construct a triangle when its base, the vertical angle and the altitude from the vertex
to the base are given. P
Example 4.18 Construct a triangle DPQR such that QR = 5 cm,
o
30
∠P = 30° and the altitude from P to QR is of length 4.2 cm.
4.2cm
Solution
G
H Q 5cm R
Rough diagram
F
X
O
A B
P M S
30 o
4.2cm
G
Q 30o 5cm R
Construction
Step 1 : Draw a line segment QR = 5 cm. Y
Step 2 : At Q draw QE such that ∠RQE = 30°. Fig. 4.43
Step 3 : At Q draw QF such that ∠EQF = 90°.
Step 4 : Draw the perpendicular bisector XY to QR which intersects QF at O and QR at G.
Step 5 : With O as centre and OQ as radius draw a circle.
Step 6: From G mark an arc in the line XY at M, such that GM = 4.2 cm.
Step 7 : Draw AB through M which is parallel to QR. Note

Step 8 : AB meets the circle at P and S. DSQR is another
required triangle for the
Step 9 : Join QP and RP. Then PQR is the required triangle. given measurements.
4 Geometry.indd 180 16-12-2020 01:55:03 PM

Construct of a triangle when its base, the vertical angle and the point A
on the base where the bisector of the vertical angle meets the base
60 o
Example 4.19 Draw a triangle ABC of base BC = 8 cm, ∠A = 60 and
the bisector of ÐA meets BC at D such that BD = 6 cm. 6cm D
B 8cm C
Solution
H Rough diagram
J
A
O 30
o
30 o
6cm
B 60o 8cm G D C
Construction I
Step 1 : Draw a line segment BC = 8 cm.
Step 2 : At B, draw BE such that ∠CBE = 60° . E

Fig. 4.44
Step 3 : At B, draw BF such that ∠EBF = 90° .
Step 4 : Draw the perpendicular bisector to BC, which intersects BF at O and BC at G.

Step 5 : With O as centre and OB as radius draw a circle.
Step 6 : From B, mark an arc of 6cm on BC at D.
Step 7 : The perpendicular bisector intersects the circle at I. Joint ID.
Step 8 : ID produced meets the circle at A. Now join AB and AC.
Then  ABC is the required triangle.
Exercise 4.2
1. In D ABC , D and E are points on the sides AB and AC respectively such that
AD 3
DE  BC (i) If = and AC = 15 cm find AE.
DB 4
(ii) If AD = 8x − 7 , DB = 5x − 3 , AE = 4x − 3 and EC = 3x − 1 , find the value of x.
Geometry 181
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2. ABCD is a trapezium in which AB || DC and P,Q are points on AD and BC
respectively, such that PQ || DC if PD = 18 cm, BQ = 35 cm and QC = 15 cm,
find AD.
3. In D ABC, D and E are points on the sides AB and AC respectively. Show that
DE  BC if AB = 12 cm, AD = 8 cm, AE = 12 cm and AC = 18 cm.
B
4. In fig. if PQ  BC and PR  CD prove that Q
P
A C
AR AQ QB DR
(i) = (ii) = . R
AD AB AQ AR
D
5. Rhombus PQRB is inscribed in D ABC such that ÐB is one of its angle. P, Q and R
lie on AB, AC and BC respectively. If AB = 12 cm and BC = 6 cm, find the sides
PQ, RB of the rhombus.
6. In trapezium ABCD, AB  DC , E and F are points on non-parallel sides AD and

AE BF A
BC respectively, such that EF  AB . Show that = . F
ED FC
D E
7. In figure DE  BC and CD  EF . Prove that AD = AB × AF .
2
B C
8. Check whether AD is bisector of ÐA of D ABC in each of the following
(i) AB = 5 cm, AC = 10 cm, BD = 1.5 cm and CD = 3.5 cm.
(ii) AB = 4 cm, AC = 6 cm, BD = 1.6 cm and CD = 2.4 cm. P
9. In figure ∠QPR = 90° , PS is its bisector. T
If ST ^ PR , prove that ST×(PQ+PR)=PQ×PR. Q

S R
10. ABCD is a quadrilateral in which AB = AD, the bisector of ÐBAC and ÐCAD intersect
the sides BC and CD at the points E and F respectively. Prove that EF  BD .
11. Construct a D PQR which the base PQ = 4.5 cm, ∠R = 35 and the median RG
from R to PG is 6 cm.
12. Construct a D PQR in which QR = 5 cm, ∠P = 40° and the median PG from P to
QR is 4.4 cm. Find the length of the altitude from P to QR.
13. Construct a D PQR such that QR = 6.5 cm, ∠P = 60° and the altitude from P to
QR is of length 4.5 cm.
14. Construct a D ABC such that AB = 5.5 cm, ∠C = 25° and the altitude from C to
AB is 4 cm.
4 Geometry.indd 182 16-12-2020 01:55:07 PM

15. Draw a triangle ABC of base BC = 5.6 cm, ∠A = 40° and the bisector of ÐA meets
BC at D such that CD = 4 cm.
16. Draw D PQR such that PQ = 6.8 cm, vertical angle is 50° and the bisector of the
vertical angle meets the base at D where PD = 5.2 cm.
4.4 Pythagoras Theorem

Among all existing theorems in mathematics, Pythagoras theorem is considered
to be the most important because it has maximum number of proofs. There are more
than 350 ways of proving Pythagoras theorem through different methods. Each of
these proofs was discovered by eminent mathematicians, scholars, engineers and math
enthusiasts, including one by the 20 th American president James Garfield. The book
titled “The Pythagorean Proposition” written by Elisha Scott Loomis, published by
the National Council of Teaching of Mathematics (NCTM) in America contains 367
proofs of Pythagoras Theorem.
Three numbers (a, b, c) are said to form Pythagorean Triplet, if they form sides of a
right triangle. Thus (a, b, c) is a Pythagorean Triplet if and only if c 2 = a 2 + b 2 .
Now we are in a position to study this most famous and important theorem not only
in Geometry but in whole of mathematics.
Activity 4
25
20
12
15
5 9 12 15
20
4 12 16
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
Fig. 4.45
Step 1: Take a chart paper, cut out a right angled triangle of measurement as given in
triangle (i) .
Step 2: Take three more different colour chart papers and cut out three triangles
such that the sides of triangle (ii) is three times of the triangle (i), the sides
of triangle (iii) is four times of the triangle (i), the sides of triangle (iv) is five
times of triangle (i).
Geometry 183
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Step 3: Now keeping the common side length 12 place the triangle (ii) and (iii) over
the triangle (iv) such that the sides of these two triangles [(ii) and (iii)] coincide
with the triangle (iv).
Observe the hypotenuse side and write down the equation. What do you conclude?

Note
¾¾ In a right angled triangle, the side opposite to 90° (the right angle) is called the
hypotenuse.
¾¾ The other two sides are called legs of the right angled triangle.
¾¾ The hypotenuse will be the longest side of the triangle.
Theorem 5 : Pythagoras Theorem

Statement
A
In a right angle triangle, the square on the hypotenuse
is equal to the sum of the squares on the other two sides.
Proof
Given : In DABC , ∠A = 90°
B D C
To prove : AB + AC = BC
2 2 2 Fig. 4.46
Construction : Draw AD ^ BC

1. Compare D ABC and D DBA Given ∠BAC = 90° and by
ÐB is common construction ∠BDA = 90°
∠BAC = ∠BDA = 90°
Therefore, DABC  DDBA By AA similarity
AB BC
=
BD AB
AB = BC × BD … (1)
2
2. Compare DABC and DDAC Given ∠BAC = 90° and by

construction ∠ADC = 90°
ÐC is common
∠BAC = ∠ADC = 90
Therefore, DABC  DDAC By AA similarity

BC AC
=
AC DC
AC = BC × DC …(2)
2
4 Geometry.indd 184 16-12-2020 01:55:09 PM

Adding (1) and (2) we get
AB 2 + AC 2 = BC × BD + BC × DC In India, Pythagoras
= BC (BD + DC ) = BC × BC Theorem is also referred
as “Baudhayana Theorem”.
AB + AC = BC 2 .
2 2
Hence the theorem is proved.

Thinking Corner
1. Write down any five Pythagorean triplets?
2. In a right angle triangle the sum of other two angles is _____.
Converse of Pythagoras Theorem
Statement
If the square of the longest side of a triangle is equal to sums of squares of other
two sides, then the triangle is a right angle triangle.
Activity 5 Thinking Corner

(i) Take two consecutive odd numbers. Can all the three sides of a
(ii) Write the reciprocals of the above numbers and right angled triangle be odd
p numbers? Why?
add them. You will get a number of the form .
q
p
(iii) Add 2 to the denominator of to get q + 2 .
q
(iv) Now consider the numbers p, q, q + 2 . What
relation you get between these three numbers?
Try for three pairs of consecutive odd numbers
and conclude your answer.
Example 4.20 An insect 8 m away initially from the foot of a lamp post which is 6 m tall,
crawls towards it moving through a distance. If its distance from the top of the lamp post is
equal to the distance it has moved, how far is the insect away from the foot of the lamp post?
Solution Distance between the insect and the foot of the lamp post BD = 8 m
The height of the lamp post, AB = 6 m A
After moving a distance of x m, let the insect be at C

Let, AC = CD = x . Then BC = BD − CD = 8 − x
In D ABC , ∠B = 90
AC 2 = AB 2 + BC 2 gives x 2 = 62 + (8 − x )2
6m
x
x 2 = 36 + 64 − 16x + x 2
16x = 100 then x = 6.25
Then, BC = 8 − x = 8 − 6.25 = 1.75 m
Therefore the insect is 1.75 m away from the foot B 8–x C x D
8m
of the lamp post. Fig. 4.47
Geometry 185
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Example 4.21 P and Q are the mid-points of the sides CA and CB respectively of a
D ABC , right angled at C. Prove that 4(AQ 2 + BP 2 ) = 5AB 2 . A
Solution DAQC is a right triangle at C, AQ 2 = AC 2 + QC 2 … (1)
DBPC is a right triangle at C, BP 2 = BC 2 + CP 2 … (2)
DAQC ABC is a rignt triangle at C, AB2 = AC2 + BC2 … (3) P
From (1) and (2), AQ 2 + BP 2 = AC 2 + QC 2 + BC 2 + CP 2

4(AQ 2 + BP 2 ) = 4AC 2 + 4QC 2 + 4BC 2 + 4CP 2 B Q C
Fig. 4.48
= 4AC 2 + (2QC )2 + 4BC 2 + (2CP )2
= 4AC 2 + BC 2 + 4BC 2 + AC 2 (Since P and Q are mid points)
= 5(AC 2 + BC 2 ) (From equation (3))

4(AQ 2 + BP 2 ) = 5AB 2
Example 4.22 What length of ladder is needed to reach a height of 7 ft along the wall
when the base of the ladder is 4 ft from the wall? Round off your answer to the next tenth
place. A
Solution Let x be the length of the ladder. BC = 4 ft, AC = 7 ft.

By Pythagoras theorem we have, AB 2 = AC 2 + BC 2
x
x 2 = 72 + 42 ⇒ x 2 = 49 + 16
wall
7 feet
x 2 = 65 . Hence, x = 65
The number 65 is between 8 and 8.1. Ground
82 = 64 < 65 < 65.61 = 8.12 B 4 feet C
Therefore, the length of the ladder is approximately 8.1 ft. Fig. 4.49
Example 4.23 An Aeroplane after take off from an (1500 km) A

N
airport and flies due north at a speed of 1000 km/hr. At
the same time, another aeroplane take off from the same W E
1000 km/hr.
airport and flies due west at a speed of 1200 km/hr. How S

far apart will be the two planes after 1½ hours?
Solution Let the first aeroplane starts from O and
goes upto A towards north, (Distance = Speed × time)
 B (1800 km) 1200 km/hr. O
3
where OA = 1000 ×  km = 1500 km Fig. 4.50
 2 
Let the second aeroplane starts from O at the same time and goes upto B towards west,
 3 
where OB = 1200 ×  = 1800 km
 2 
The required distance to be found is BA.
In right angled tirangle AOB, AB 2 = OA2 + OB 2
4 Geometry.indd 186 16-12-2020 01:55:13 PM

AB 2 = (1500)2 + (1800)2 = 1002 (152+182)
= 1002 × 549 = 1002 × 9 × 61
AB = 100 × 3 × 61 = 300 61 kms.
Progress Check
1. _________ is the longest side of the right angled triangle.
2. The first theorem in mathematics is _________.
3. If the square of the longest side of a triangle is equal to sums of squares of other
two sides, then the triangle is _________.
4. State True or False. Justify them.

(i) Pythagoras Theorem is applicable to all triangles.
(ii) One side of a right angled triangle must always be a multiple of 4.
Exercise 4.3
1. A man goes 18 m due east and then 24 m due north. Find the distance of his current
position from the starting point? Sarah’s
house
2. There are two paths that one can choose to
go from Sarah’s house to James house. One
1.5 miles
way is to take C street, and the other way
B Street
t
ree
requires to take B street and then A street. St
James’s C
house
How much shorter is the direct path along C A Street
street? (Using figure).
2 miles
3. To get from point A to point B you must avoid walking through a pond. You must
walk 34 m south and 41 m east. To the nearest meter, how many meters would be
saved if it were possible to make a way through the pond? Z Y
4. In the rectangle WXYZ, XY+YZ=17 cm, and XZ+YW=26 cm.

Calculate the length and breadth of the rectangle? W X
5. The hypotenuse of a right triangle is 6 m more than twice of the

shortest side. If the third side is 2 m less than the hypotenuse, find the sides of the
triangle.
6. 5 m long ladder is placed leaning towards a vertical wall such that it reaches the
wall at a point 4 m high. If the foot of the ladder is moved 1.6 m towards the wall,
then find the distance by which the top of the ladder would slide upwards on the
wall.
Geometry 187
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7. The perpendicular PS on the base QR of a DPQR intersects QR at S, such that
QS = 3 SR. Prove that 2PQ 2 = 2PR 2 + QR 2 A
8. In the adjacent figure, ABC is a right angled triangle with right

angle at B and points D, E trisect BC. Prove that 8AE 2 = 3AC 2 + 5AD 2
4.5 Circles and Tangents B D E C

In our day-to-day real life situations, we have seen two
lines intersect at a point or do not intersect in a plane. For
example, two parallel lines in a railway track, do not intersect.
Whereas, grills in a window intersect.
Similarly what happens when a curve and a line is given
in a plane? The curve may be parabola, circle or any general
curve. Fig. 4.51
Similarly, what happens when we consider intersection of a line and a circle?
We may get three situations as given in the following diagram
Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3
Q Q Q
O O O
B
A
A
Fig. 4.52(a) Fig. 4.52(b) P Fig. 4.52(c)
P P
(i) Straight line PQ touches (i) Straight line PQ

(i) Straight line PQ does
the circle at a common intersects the circle at
not touch the circle.
point A. two points A and B.
(ii) There is no common

(ii) PQ is called the tangent (ii) The line PQ is called a
point between the
to the circle at A. secant of the circle.
straight line and circle.
Thus the number of ( iii)

(iii)
Thus the number of (iii) Thus the number of
points of intersection of points of intersection of points of intersection of
a line and circle is zero. a line and circle is one. a line and circle is two.
Note
The word “tangent” comes
The line segment AB inscribed in the from the latin word “tangere” which
circle in Fig.4.52(c) is called chord of the means “to touch” and was introduced
circle. Thus a chord is a sub-section of a by Danish mathematician, ‘Thomas
secant. Fineko’ in 1583.
4 Geometry.indd 188 16-12-2020 01:55:14 PM

Definition
If a line touches the given circle at only one point, then it is called tangent to the circle.
Real life examples of tangents to circles

(i) When a cycle moves along a road, then the road becomes
the tangent at each point when the wheels rolls on it.
Fig. 4.53(a)
(ii) When a stone is tied at one end of a
m
string and is rotated from the other r F
V
end, then the stone will describe a
M
circle. If we suddenly stop the motion,
the stone will go in a direction
tangential to the circular motion. Fig. 4.53(b)
A
Some results on circles and tangents O
1. A tangent at any point on a circle and the radius through the point
P
are perpendicular to each other.
Q
Fig. 4.54
B
2. ( a) No tangent can be (b) Only one tangent can be (c) Two tangents can be
drawn from an interior drawn at any point on a drawn from any exterior
point of the circle. circle. point of a circle.
A A
A P
O P O
P O
B B
B
Fig. 4.55(a) Fig. 4.55(b) Fig. 4.55(c)
A
3. The lengths of the two tangents drawn from an exterior
point to a circle are equal, O P
Proof : By 1. OA ^ PA, OB ^ PB . Also OA=OB= radius,

OP is common side. ∠AOP = ∠BOP B
Fig. 4.56
Therefore, by SAS Rule ∆OAP ≅ ∆OBP . Hence PA = PB
4. If two circles touch externally the distance between their Q

centers is equal to the sum of their radii, that is OP = r1 + r2 O P
r1 r2
Proof : Let two circles with centers at O and P touch other at Q.
Let OQ = r1 and PQ = r2 and let r1 > r2 . Fig. 4.57
Geometry 189
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The distance between their centers OP = d . It is clear from the Fig. 4.57 that when
the circles touch externally OP = d = OQ + PQ = r1 + r2 .
5. If two circles touch internally, the distance between their centers
P
is equal to the difference of their radii, that is OP = r1 − r2 . O r
1 r2 Q
Proof : Let two circles with centers at O and P touch each other at Q.
Let OQ = r1 and PQ = r2 and let r1 > r2 . Fig. 4.58
The distance between their centers OP = d . It is clear from the Fig. 4.58 that when
the circles touch internally, OP = d = OQ − PQ P
OP = r1 − r2 .
B D
6. The two direct common tangents drawn to the circles are equal in
length, that is AB = CD.
Proof :
The lengths of tangents drawn from P to the two circles are equal. A C
O
Therefore, PA = PC and PB = PD .
⇒ PA − PB = PC − PD
Fig. 4.59
AB = CD
Thinking Corner
1. Can we draw two tangents parallel to each other on a circle?
2. Can we draw two tangents perpendicular to each other on a circle?
R
Alternate segment
In the Fig. 4.60, the chord PQ divides the circle
into two segments. The tangent AB is drawn such that it S Q
1
touches the circle at P.
2
The angle in the alternate segment for ÐQPB (Ð1) T
is ÐQSP (Ð1) and that for ÐQPA (Ð2) is ÐPTQ (Ð2) . 2 1
Theorem 6 : Alternate Segment theorem A P B
Fig. 4.60
Statement R
If a line touches a circle and from the point of
contact a chord is drawn, the angles between the tangent S Q
and the chord are respectively equal to the angles in the
corresponding alternate segments. O
Proof
T
Given : A circle with centre at O, tangent AB
touches the circle at P and PQ is a chord. S and T are
two points on the circle in the opposite sides of chord A P B
PQ. Fig. 4.61
4 Geometry.indd 190 16-12-2020 01:55:16 PM

To prove : (i) ∠QPB = ∠PSQ and (ii) ∠QPA = ∠PTQ
Construction: Draw the diameter POR. Draw QR, QS and PS.
∠RPB = 90°
1. Diameter RP is perpendicular to tangent AB.
Now, ∠RPQ + ∠QPB = 90° ...(1)
2. In DRPQ, ∠PQR = 90° ...(2) Angle in a semicircle is 90°.
In a right angled triangle, sum of the two

3. ∠QRP + ∠RPQ = 90° ...(3)
acute angles is 90°.
∠RPQ + ∠QPB = ∠QRP + ∠RPQ

4. From (1) and (3).
∠QPB = ∠QRP ...(4)
5. ∠QRP = ∠PSQ ...(5) Angles in the same segment are equal.
6. ∠QPB = ∠PSQ ...(6) From (4) and (5); Hence (i) is proved.
7. ∠QPB + ∠QPA = 180° ...(7) Linear pair of angles.
Sum of opposite angles of a cyclic

8. ∠PSQ + ∠PTQ = 180° ...(8)
quadrilateral is 180° .
9. ∠QPB + ∠QPA = ∠PSQ + ∠PTQ From (7) and (8).
10. ∠QPB + ∠QPA = ∠QPB + ∠PTQ ∠QPB = ∠PSQ from (6)
Hence (ii) is proved.

11. ∠QPA = ∠PTQ
This completes the proof.
Example 4.24 Find the length of the tangent drawn from a point whose distance from the
centre of a circle is 5 cm and radius of the circle is 3 cm.
T
Solution Given OP = 5 cm, radius r = 3 cm
m
To find the length of tangent PT.

3c
In right angled DOTP, O 5cm P
OP 2 = OT 2 + PT 2 (by Pythagoras theorem)
52 = 32 + PT 2 gives PT 2 = 25 − 9 = 16
Fig. 4.62
Length of the tangent PT = 4 cm
Geometry 191
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Example 4.25 PQ is a chord of length 8 cm to a circle of radius 5 cm. The tangents at P
and Q intersect at a point T. Find the length of the tangent TP.
Solution Let TR = y . Since, OT is perpendicular bisector of PQ.

PR = QR = 4 cm
P
In DORP, OP 2 = OR 2 + PR 2
OR 2 = OP 2 − PR 2
4cm
m
5c
OR 2 = 52 − 42 = 25 − 16 = 9 ⇒ OR = 3 cm y
O R T
OT = OR+RT = 3+y ... (1)
4cm
In DPRT , TP 2 = TR 2 + PR 2 … (2)
Q
and D OPT we have, OT 2 = TP 2 + OP 2
Fig. 4.63
2 2
OT = (TR + PR ) + OP 2 2
(substitute for TP2 from (2))
(3 + y )2 = y 2 + 42 + 52 (substitute for OT from (1))
9 + 6y + y 2 = y 2 + 16 + 25
16
6y = 41 − 9 we get
⇒y =
3
From (2), TP 2 = TR 2 + PR 2
2
16  256 400 20
TP =   + 42 =
2
+ 16 = so, TP = cm
 3  9 9 3 P R
Example 4.26 In Fig.4.64, O is the centre of a circle. PQ is a 50
o
chord and the tangent PR at P makes an angle of 50ϒ ° with PQ.
Find ÐPOQ .
O Q
Solution ∠OPQ = 90° − 50° = 40° (angle between the radius and
tangent is 90° )
OP = OQ (Radii of a circle are equal) Fig. 4.64
∠OPQ = ∠OQP = 40° ( OPQ is isosceles)
∠POQ = 180° − ∠OPQ − ∠OQP
ÐPOQ = 180° − 40° − 40° = 100°
Example 4.27 In Fig.4.65, D ABC is circumscribing a A
circle. Find the length of BC.
3cm
Solution AN = AM = 3 cm (Tangents drawn from 9c

M m
same external point are equal) N
4cm
BN = BL = 4 cm
CL = CM = AC – AM = 9 – 3 = 6 cm L
Gives BC = BL + CL = 4 + 6 = 10 cm B C
Fig. 4.65
4 Geometry.indd 192 16-12-2020 01:55:21 PM

Example 4.28 If radii of two concentric circles are 4 cm and 5 cm then find the length of
the chord of one circle which is a tangent to the other circle.
Solution OA = 4 cm, OB = 5 cm; also OA ^ BC .
OB 2 = OA2 + AB 2
52 = 42 + AB 2 gives
⇒ AB 2 = 9
O
Therefore AB = 3 cm
BC = 2AB hence
⇒ BC = 2 × 3 = 6 cm
4cm
5c
4.5.1 Construction
B A C
Construction of tangents to a circle
Fig. 4.66
Now let us discuss how to draw
(i) a tangent to a circle using its centre
(ii) a tangent to a circle using alternate segment theorem
(iii) pair of tangents from an external point
Construction of a tangent to a circle (Using the centre)
Example 4.29 Draw a circle of radius 3 cm. Take a point P on this

circle and draw a tangent at P. O T
m
3c
Solution Given, radius r = 3 cm
P
T¢
Construction
Rough diagram
Step 1: Draw a circle with centre at
O of radius 3 cm.
Step 2: Take a point P on the circle.

Join OP.
O
Step 3: Draw perpendicular line TT ¢
to OP which passes M
T
through P. 3cm
Step 4: TT ¢ is the required tangent.

P N
Construct of a tangent to a circle
T¢
(Using alternate segment theorem) Fig. 4.67
Geometry 193
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Example 4.30 Draw a circle of radius 4 cm. At a point L on it draw a tangent to the circle
using the alternate segment. M
Solution
N O
Given, radius=4 cm
4cm
M
T
L
Construction Rough diagram
T¢
Step 1 : With O as the centre, draw a
circle of radius 4 cm.
Step 2 : Take a point L on the circle.
O
N Through L draw any chord LM.
Step 3 : Take a point N distinct from L
4c
m
and M on the circle, so that L,

M and N are in anti-clockwise
T
direction. Join LN and NM.
L Step 4 : Through L draw a tangent TT ¢
Fig. 4.68 such that ∠TLM = ∠MNL .
Step 5 : TT ¢ is the required tangent.
T¢
Construction of pair of tangents to a circle from an external point P.
Example 4.31 Draw a circle of diameter 6 cm from a point P, which is 8 cm away from its
centre. Draw the two tangents PA and PB to the circle and measure their lengths.
6
Solution Given, diameter (d) = 6 cm, we find radius (r) = = 3 cm
2
A
3cm
A
8cm
O P
7.4 B
cm
3cm
Rough diagram
8cm
O P
M
m
7.4c
Fig. 4.69
4 Geometry.indd 194 16-12-2020 01:55:22 PM

Construction
Step 1: With centre at O, draw a circle of radius 3 cm.
Step 2: Draw a line OP of length 8 cm.
Step 3: Draw a perpendicular bisector of OP, which cuts OP at M.
Step 4: With M as centre and MO as radius, draw a circle which cuts previous circle
at A and B.
Step5: Join AP and BP. AP and BP are the required tangents. Thus length of the
tangents are PA = PB = 7.4 cm.
Verification : In the right angle triangle OAP , PA2 = OP 2 − OA2 = 82 – 32 = 64 – 9 = 55
PA = 55 = 7.4 cm (approximately) .
4.6 Concurrency Theorems
Definition A
A cevian is a line segment that extends from one vertex of

a triangle to the opposite side. In the diagram, AD is a cevian,
from A. C
B D
Special cevians
(i) A median is a cevian that divides the opposite
side into two congruent(equal) lengths. The term cevian comes
(ii) An altitude is a cevian that is perpendicular to from the name of Italian
the opposite side. engineer Giovanni Ceva,
(iii) An angle bisector is a cevian that bisects the who proved a well known
corresponding angle. theorem about cevians.
Ceva’s Theorem (without proof ) A
Statement
Let ABC be a triangle and let D,E,F be points on lines BC, E
CA, AB respectively. Then the cevians AD, BE, CF are F
BD CE AF
concurrent if and only if × × = 1 where the lengths
DC EA FB
are directed. This also works for the reciprocal of each of the ratios B D C
Fig. 4.70
as the reciprocal of 1 is 1.
Giovanni Ceva (Dec 7, 1647 – June 15, 1734)

In 1686, Ceva was designated as the professor of Mathematics, University of Mantua and
worked there for the rest of the life. In 1678, he published an important theorem on synthetic
geometry for a triangle called Ceva’s theorem.
Ceva also rediscovered and published in the Journal Opuscula mathematica and Geometria
motus in 1692. He applied these ideas in mechanics and hydraulics.
Note
The cevians do not necessarily lie within the triangle, although they do in the diagram.
Geometry 195
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Q
Menelaus Theorem (without proof )
Statement
A
A necessary and sufficient condition for points P, Q, R on
the respective sides BC, CA, AB (or their extension) of a triangle R
BP CQ AR
ABC to be collinear is that × × = −1 where all
PC QA RB
B P C
segments in the formula are directed segments.
Fig. 4.71
Menelaus
Menelaus was a Greek mathematician who lived during the Roman empire in both
Alexandria and Rome during first century (CE). His work was largely on the geometry of spheres.
Menelaus theorem was first discussed in his book, sphaerica and later mentioned by
Ptolemy in his work Almagest.
Menelaus theorem proves that spheres are made up of spherical triangles.
Note
¾¾ Menelaus theorem can also be given as BP ×CQ × AR = −PC ×QA × RB .

¾¾ If BP is replaced by PB (or) CQ by QC (or) AR by RA, or if any one of the six directed
line segments BP, PC, CQ, QA, AR, RB is interchanged, then the product will be 1.
A
Example 4.32 Show that in a triangle, the medians are concurrent.
Solution Medians are line segments joining each vertex to the E
midpoint of the corresponding opposite sides.
F
Thus medians are the cevians where D, E, F are midpoints of
BC, CA and AB respectively. C
D
BD
Since D is a midpoint of BC, BD = DC so = 1 …(1) Fig. 4.72
DC B
CE
CE
Since, E is a midpoint of CA, CE EA so
=EA
CE = =11 … (2)
=
EA
EA
AF
Since, F is a midpoint of AB, AF = FB so = 1 … (3)
FB
Thus, multiplying (1), (2) and (3) we get,
BD CE AF
´ ´ =1×1×1=1 Centroid is the point
DC EA FB
of concurrence of the
And so, Ceva’s theorem is satisfied. median of a triangle.
Hence the Medians are concurrent.
4 Geometry.indd 196 16-12-2020 01:55:23 PM

Example 4.33 In DABC ,points
DPQR D,E,F lies on BC, CA, AB respectively. Suppose AB, AC
AF 2 CE 5
and BC have lengths 13, 14 and 15 respectively. If = and = . Find BD and DC.
FB 5 EA 8
Solution Given that AB = 13 , AC = 14 and BC = 15 .
Let BD = x and DC = y A
BD CE AF
Using Ceva’s theorem, we have, × × = 1 …(1) F
DC EA FB
AF CE E
Substitute the values of and in (1),
FB EA
BD 5 2
we have × × =1 B x D y C
DC 8 5 Fig. 4.73
x 10 x 1
× = 1 we get, × = 1 . Hence, x = 4y …(2)
y 40 y 4
BC = BD + DC = 15 so, x + y = 15 … (3)
From (2), using x = 4y in (3) we get, 4y + y = 15 gives 5y = 15 then y = 3
Substitute y = 3 in (3) we get, x = 12 . Hence BD = 12 , DC = 3.
Example 4.34 In a garden containing several trees, three A

particular trees P, Q, R are located in the following way,
BP = 2 m, CQ = 3 m, RA = 10 m, PC = 6 m, QA = 5 m,
RB = 2 m, where A, B, C are points such that P lies on BC, Q
Q lies on AC and R lies on AB. Check whether the trees P, Q,
R lie on a same straight line. B
Solution By Meanlau’s theorem, the trees P, Q, R will be P C
collinear (lie on same straight line) R

Fig. 4.74
BP CQ RA
if × × = 1 …(1)
PC QA RB
Given BP =2 m, CQ =3 m, RA =10 m, PC =6 m, QA = 5 m and RB = 2 m
BP CQ RA 2 3 10 60
Substituting these values in (1) we get, × × = × × = =1
PC QA RB 6 5 2 60
Hence the trees P, Q, R lie on a same straight line.
Progress Check
1. A straight line that touches a circle at a common point is called a _______.

2. A chord is a subsection of _______.
3. The lengths of the two tangents drawn from _______ point to a circle are equal.
4. No tangent can be drawn from _______ of the circle.
5. _______ is a cevian that divides the angle, into two equal halves.
Geometry 197
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Exercise 4.4
1. The length of the tangent to a circle from a point P, which is 25 cm away from the
centre is 24 cm. What is the radius of the circle?
2. LMN is a right angled triangle with ∠L = 90° . A circle is inscribed in it. The
lengths of the sides containing the right angle are 6 cm and 8 cm. Find the radius of
the circle. C
z z
3. A circle is inscribed in D ABC having sides 8 cm, cm F
8cm
10 E
10 cm and 12 cm as shown in figure,
x
Find AD, BE and CF. y
x D y
A 12cm B
4. PQ is a tangent drawn from a point P to a circle with centre O and QOR is a diameter
of the circle such that ∠POR = 120° . Find ÐOPQ .
5. A tangent ST to a circle touches it at B. AB is a chord such that ∠ABT = 65° . Find
ÐAOB , where “O” is the centre of the circle. P
A
5
6. In figure, O is the centre of the circle with radius 5 cm. T is a E
point such that OT = 13 cm and OT intersects the circle E, O 13 T
if AB is the tangent to the circle at E, find the lenght of AB. B

Q
7. In two concentric circles, a chord of length 16 cm of larger circle becomes a tangent
to the smaller circle whose radius is 6 cm. Find the radius of the larger circle.
8. Two circles with centres O and O ¢ of radii 3 cm and 4 cm, respectively intersect at
two points P and Q, such that OP and O ¢P are tangents to the two circles. Find the
length of the common chord PQ. B
3cm
9. Show that the angle bisectors of a triangle are concurrent. ?
10. An artist has created a triangular stained glass window and has one F
D
strip of small length left before completing the window. She needs
to figure out the length of left out portion based on the lengths of
10cm
5cm
the other sides as shown in the figure.

11. Draw a tangent at any point R on the circle of radius 3.4 cm and
centre at P ? A 3cm E 4cm C
12. Draw a circle of radius 4.5 cm. Take a point on the circle. Draw the tangent at that
point using the alternate segment theorem.
13. Draw the two tangents from a point which is 10 cm away from the centre of a circle
of radius 5 cm. Also, measure the lengths of the tangents.
14. Take a point which is 11 cm away from the centre of a circle of radius 4 cm and draw
the two tangents to the circle from that point.
15. Draw the two tangents from a point which is 5 cm away from the centre of a circle of
diameter 6 cm. Also, measure the lengths of the tangents.
4 Geometry.indd 198 16-12-2020 01:55:27 PM

16. Draw a tangent to the circle from the point P having radius 3.6 cm, and centre at O.
Point P is at a distance 7.2 cm from the centre.
Exercise 4.5
AB BC
1. If in triangles ABC and EDF, = then they will be similar,
DE FD
when
(A) ∠B = ∠E (B) ∠A = ∠D (C) ∠B = ∠D (D) ∠A = ∠F
2. In DLMN, ∠L = 60°, ∠M = 50° . If DLMN  DPQR then the value of ÐR is
(A) 40° (B) 70° (C) 30° (D) 110°
3. If DABC is an isosceles triangle with ∠C = 90° and AC = 5 cm, then AB is
(A) 2.5 cm (B) 5 cm (C) 10 cm (D) 5 2 cm
Q
4. In a given figure ST  QR, PS = 2 cm and SQ = 3 cm.
Then the ratio of the area of DPQR to the area of DPST is S
(A) 25 : 4 (B) 25 : 7
(C) 25 : 11 (D) 25 : 13 P T R
5. The perimeters of two similar triangles DABC and DPQR are 36 cm and 24 cm
respectively. If PQ = 10 cm, then the length of AB is
2 10 6 2
(A) 6 cm (B) cm (C) 66 cm (D) 15 cm
3 3 3
6. If in D ABC , DE  BC . AB = 3.6 cm, AC = 2.4 cm and AD = 2.1 cm then the
length of AE is
(A) 1.4 cm (B) 1.8 cm (C) 1.2 cm (D) 1.05 cm
7. In a D ABC , AD is the bisector of ÐBAC . If AB = 8 cm, BD = 6 cm and DC = 3 cm.
The length of the side AC is
(A) 6 cm (B) 4 cm (C) 3 cm (D) 8 cm
A
8. In the adjacent figure ∠BAC = 90° and AD ^ BC then
(A) BD ⋅ CD = BC 2 (B) AB.AC = BC 2
(C) BD ⋅ CD = AD 2 (D) AB ⋅ AC = AD 2
B D C
9. Two poles of heights 6 m and 11 m stand vertically on a plane ground. If the distance
between their feet is 12 m, what is the distance between their tops?
(A) 13 m (B) 14 m (C) 15 m (D) 12.8 m P
10. In the given figure, PR = 26 cm, QR = 24 cm, A 90o
∠PAQ = 90° , PA=6 cm and QA = 8 cm. Find ÐPQR
(A) 80° (B) 85° (C) 75° (D) 90° R Q
Geometry 199
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11. A tangent is perpendicular to the radius at the
(A) centre (B) point of contact (C) infinity (D) chord
12. How many tangents can be drawn to the circle from an exterior point?
(A) one (B) two (C) infinite (D) zero
13. The two tangents from an external points P to a circle with centre at O are PA and
PB. If ∠APB = 70° then the value of ÐAOB is
(A) 100° (B) 110° (C) 120° (D) 130°
P
14. In figure CP and CQ are tangents to a circle with centre at O. A
ARB is another tangent touching the circle at R. If CP = 11 cm
R
and BC = 7 cm, then the length of BR is O C
(A) 6 cm (B) 5 cm Q
B
(C) 8 cm (D) 4 cm P R
60
15. In figure if PR is tangent to the circle at P and O is the
o
centre of the circle, then ÐPOQ is
O
(A) 120° (B) 100°
Q
(C) 110° (D) 90°
Unit Exercise - 4
C
1. In the figure, if BD ^ AC and CE ^ AB , prove that
D
CA CE F
(i) DAEC  DADB (ii) =
AB DB
2. In the given figure AB  CD  EF . A B E B

5c
m
If AB = 6 cm, CD = x cm, EF = 4 cm, BD = 5 cm F
6cm
and DE = y cm. Find x and y. D

4cm
y
x
3. O is any point inside a triangle ABC. The bisector of ÐAOB ,
A C E
ÐBOC and ÐCOA meet the sides AB, BC and CA in point D,
A
E and F respectively. Show that AD × BE ×CF = DB × EC × FA
E
4. In the figure, ABC is a triangle in which AB = AC . Points D and E D
are points on the side AB and AC respectively such that AD = AE .

Show that the points B, C, E and D lie on a same circle. C
B
5. Two trains leave a railway station at the same time. The first train travels due west
and the second train due north. The first train travels at a speed of 20 km/hr and the
second train travels at 30 km/hr. After 2 hours, what is the distance between them?
4 Geometry.indd 200 16-12-2020 01:55:32 PM

6. D is the mid point of side BC and AE ^ BC . If BC = a , AC = b , AB = c , ED = x ,
AD = p and AE = h , prove that
a2 a2 a2
(i) b = p + ax +
2 2
(ii) c 2 = p 2 − ax + (iii) b 2 + c 2 = 2p 2 +
4 4 2
7. A man whose eye-level is 2 m above the ground wishes to find the height of a tree.
He places a mirror horizontally on the ground 20 m from the tree and finds that if he
stands at a point C which is 4 m from the mirror B, he can see the reflection of the
top of the tree. How height is the tree?
8. An Emu which is 8 feet tall is standing at the foot of a pillar which is 30 feet high. It walks
away from the pillar. The shadow of the Emu falls beyond Emu. What is the relation
between the length of the shadow and the distance from the Emu to the pillar?
9. Two circles intersect at A and B. From a point P on one of the circles lines PAC and
PBD are drawn intersecting the second circle at C and D. Prove that CD is parallel
to the tangent at P.
10. Let ABC be a triangle and D,E,F are points on the respective sides AB, BC, AC (or
their extensions). Let AD : DB = 5 : 3 , BE : EC = 3 : 2 and AC = 21 . Find the
length of the line segment CF.
Points to Remember
zz Two triangles are similar if
(i) their corresponding angles are equal
(ii) their corresponding sides are in the same ratio or prvoportional.
zz Any congruent triangles are similar but the converse is not true
zz AA similarity criterion is same as the AAA similarity criterion.
zz If one angle of a triangle is equal to one angle of another triangle and the sides
including these angles are in the same ratio then the triangles are similar. (SAS)
zz If three sides of a triangle are proportional to the corresponding sides of another
triangle, then the two triangles are similar (SSS)
zz If two triangles are similar then the ratio of the corresponding sides is equal to the
ratio of the corresponding perimeters.
zz The ratio of the area of two similar triangles are equal to the ratio of the squares of
their corresponding sides.
zz A tangent to a circle will be perpendicular to the radius at the point of contact.
zz Two tangents can be drawn from any exterior point of a circle.
zz The lengths of the two tangents drawn from an exterior point to a circle are equal.
zz Two direct common tangents drawn to two circles are equal in length.
Geometry 201
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ICT CORNER
ICT 4.1 Expected results
Step 1: O
pen the Browser type the URL Link given below (or) Scan the QR
Code. 10th Standard Mathematics Chapter named “Geometry” will
open. Select the work sheet “Angular Bisector theorem”
Step 2: In the given worksheet you can see Triangle ABC and its Angular Bisector
CD. and you can change the triangle by dragging the Vertices. Observe the
ratios given on Left hand side and learn the theorem.
Step 1 Step 2
ICT 4.2 Expected results
Step 1: O
pen the Browser type the URL Link given below (or) Scan the QR
Code. 10th Standard Mathematics Chapter named “Geometry” will
open. Select the work sheet “Pair of Tangents”.
Step 2: In the given worksheet you can change the radius and Distance by moving
the sliders given on Left hand side. Move the Slider in the middle to see the
steps for construction.
Step 1 Step 2
4 Geometry.indd 202 16-12-2020 01:55:34 PM

5
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
“A line is breadthless length” - Euclid
Apollonius was born at Perga, in modern day Turkey. His greatest

work was called “conics” which introduced curves like circle, parabola
geometrically. He wrote six other books all related to the basics of modern
day coordinate geometry.
His ideas were applied to study planetary theory and solve Apollonius
262 - 190 BC (BCE)
practical problems. He developed the sundial and contributed to other
branches of science using his exceptional geometric skills. For this reason, Apollonius is
Pierre de Fermat
hailed as(1601-1665)
“The Great Geometer”.
Learning Outcomes
zz To find area of a triangle formed by three given points.

zz To find area of a quadrilateral formed by four given points.
zz To find the slope of a straight line.
zz To determine equation of a straight line in various forms.
zz To find the equation of a line parallel to the line ax + by + c = 0 .
zz To find the equation of a line perpendicular to the line ax + by + c = 0 .
5.1 Introduction
Coordinate geometry, also called Analytical geometry is a branch of mathematics,
in which curves in a plane are represented by algebraic equations. For example, the
equation x 2 + y 2 = 1 , describes a circle of unit radius in the plane. Thus coordinate
geometry can be seen as a branch of mathematics which interlinks algebra and
geometry, where algebraic equations are represented by geometric curves. This
connection makes it possible to reformulate problems in geometry to problems in
algebra and vice versa. Thus, in coordinate geometry, the algebraic equations have
visual representations thereby making our understanding much deeper. For instance,
the first degree equation in two variables ax + by + c = 0 represents a straight line in
a plane. Overall, coordinate geometry is a tool to understand concepts visually and
created new branches of mathematics in modern times.
203
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In the earlier classes, we initiated the study of coordinate geometry where we studied
about coordinate axes, coordinate plane, plotting of points in a plane, distance between two
points, section formulae, etc. All these concepts form the basics of coordinate geometry.
Let us now recall some of the basic formulae.
Recall
Distance between two points
B(x2, y2)
Distance between two points A(x 1, y1 ) and B(x 2 , y2 ) is d
AB = d = (x 2 − x 1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 . A(x1, y1) Fig. 5.1
Mid-point of line segment

B(x2, y2)
M
The mid-point M, of the line segment joining
 x + x y + y  A(x1, y1) Fig. 5.2
A(x 1, y1 ) and B(x 2 , y2 ) is  1 2
, 1 2
.

 2 2 
Section Formula
B(x2, y2)
Internal Division
n
Let A (x 1, y1 ) and B (x 2 , y2 ) be two distinct points such that point P
P (x , y ) divides AB internally in the ratio m:n. m

 mx + nx my + ny 
Then the coordinates of P are given by  2 1
, 2 1
. A(x1, y1) Fig. 5.3
 m + n m + n 
External Division P(x,y)
Let A (x 1, y1 ) and B (x 2 , y2 ) be two distinct points such that the

m n
point P (x , y ) divides AB externally in the ratio m:n.
 mx − nx my − ny  B(x2, y2)
Then the coordinates of P are given by  2 1
, 2 1
.
 m − n m − n 
A(x1, y1) Fig. 5.4
C(x3, y3)
Centroid of a triangle
2
1 G
The coordinates of the centroidG of a triangle with vertices 2 1
1 2
A(x ,
 x + x + x y + y + y  1 y )
A (x 1, y1 ) , B (x 2 , y2 ) and C (x 3 , y 3 ) are given by  1

1
3
, 1  .
2 3 2
 3 3 Fig. 5.5 B(x2, y2)


Progress Check
1. Complete the following table.
Mid Internal External
S.No. Points Distance
Point Point Ratio Point Ratio
(i) (3, 4), (5, 5) 2:3 2:3
 13 
(ii) (–7,13),(–3,1) − , 5 (–13, 15)
 3 
2. A(0, 5), B(5, 0) and C(-4, -7) are vertices of a triangle then its centroid will be at _____.
5.2 Area of a Triangle Y A(x 1, y 1)

In your earlier classes, you have studied how
to calculate the area of a triangle when its base and c
b
corresponding height (altitude) are given. You have used

the formula. B a C (x3, y3)
(x 2, y 2)
1 0
Area of triangle = × base × altitude sq.units. X′ X
2 Y¢
Fig. 5.6
With any three non-collinear points A(x 1, y1 ) ,
B(x 2 , y2 ) and C (y 3 , y 3 ) on a plane, we can form a triangle ABC.
Using distance between two points formula, we can calculate AB = c , BC = a ,

CA = b . a, b, c represent the lengths of the sides of the triangle ABC.
Using 2s = a + b + c , we can calculate the area of triangle ABC by using the Heron’s
formula s(s - a )(s - b)(s - c) . But this procedure of finding length of sides of D ABC
and then calculating its area will be a tedious procedure.
Y
There is an elegant way of finding area of a triangle A(x1, y1)
using the coordinates of its vertices. We shall discuss

such a method below.
C(x3,y3)
Let ABC be any triangle whose vertices are at B (x2, y2)
A(x 1, y1 ) , B(x 2 , y2 ) and C (x 3 , y 3 ) .

Q P R
0
X′ X
Draw AP, BQ and CR perpendiculars from A, B
Y¢ Fig. 5.7
and C to the x-axis, respectively.
Clearly ABQP, APRC and BQRC are all trapeziums.
Coordinate Geometry 205

Now from Fig.5.7, it is clear that
Area of D ABC
= Area of trapezium ABQP + Area of trapezium APRC − Area of trapezium BQRC.
You also know that, the area of trapezium
1
= × (sum of parallel sides) ´ (perpendicular distance between
2
the parallel sides)
Therefore, Area of DABC
1 1 1
= (BQ + AP )QP + (AP + CR)PR − (BQ + CR)QR
2 2 2
1 1 1
= (y2 + y1 )(x 1 − x 2 ) + (y1 + y 3 )(x 3 − x 1 ) − (y2 + y 3 )(x 3 − x 2 )
2 2 2
1
= {x 1(y2 − y 3 ) + x 2 (y 3 − y1 ) + x 3 (y1 − y2 )}
2
Thus, the area of D ABC is the absolute value of the expression
1
= {x (y − y3 ) + x 2 (y3 − y1 ) + x 3 (y1 − y2 )} sq.units.
2 1 2
The vertices A (x 1, y1 ) , B(x 2 , y2 ) and C (x 3 , y 3 ) of D ABC are said to be “taken in order”
if A, B, C are taken in anticlockwise direction. If we do this, then area of D ABC will
never be negative.
Another form Note
The following pictorial representation helps us to
write the above formula very easily. “As the area of a triangle can
never be negative, we must
x1 x2 x3 x1 take the absolute value, in case
1
Area of D ABC = area happens to be negative”.
2
y1 y2 y3 y1
1
= { }
(x y + x 2 y 3 + x 3 y1 ) − (x 2 y1 + x 3 y2 + x 1y 3 ) sq.units.
2 1 2
Progress Check
The vertices of D PQR are P(0, - 4) , Q(3, 1) and R(-8, 1)
1. Draw D PQR on a graph paper.
2. Check if D PQR is equilateral.
3. Find the area of D PQR .
4. Find the coordinates of M, the mid-point of QP.
5. Find the coordinates of N, the mid-point of QR.
6. Find the area of D MPN .
7. What is the ratio between the areas of D MPN and D PQR ?

5.2.1 Collinearity of three points
If three distinct points A (x 1, y1 ) , Note
B (x 2 , y2 ) and C (x 3 , y 3 ) are collinear, then we Another condition for collinearity
cannot form a triangle, because for such a If A (x 1, y1 ) , B (x 2 , y2 ) and C (x 3 , y 3 ) are
triangle there will be no altitude (height). collinear points, then
Therefore, three points A (x 1, y1 ) , B (x 2 , y2 ) x1(y2–y3)+x2(y3–y1)+ x3(y1–y2) = 0
and C (x 3 , y 3 ) will be collinear if the area of or x 1y2 + x 2y 3 + x 3y1 = x 1y 3 + x 2y1 + x 3y2 .
∆ ABC = 0 .
Similarly, if the area of D ABC is zero, then the three points lie on the same straight
line. Thus, three distinct points A (x 1, y1 ) , B (x 2 , y2 ) and C (x 3 , y 3 ) will be collinear if and
only if area of ∆ABC = 0 .
Y ,y 4) C (x3, y3)
D (x 4
5.3 Area of a Quadrilateral
If ABCD is a quadrilateral, then considering the
diagonal AC, we can split the quadrilateral ABCD into
two triangles ABC and ACD.
Using area of triangle formula given its vertices, we A (x1,y1) B (x2,y2)
can calculate the areas of triangles ABC and ACD. X′ 0 X
Now, Area of the quadrilateral ABCD Y¢

Fig. 5.8
= Area of triangle ABC + Area of triangle ACD
We use this information to find area of a quadrilateral Thinking Corner
when its vertices are given. How many triangles exist,
whose area is zero?
Let A (x 1, y1 ) , B (x 2 , y2 ) , C (x 3 , y 3 ) and D (x 4 , y 4 ) be the
vertices of a quadrilateral ABCD. Y ,y ) D (x ,y )
A(x 1 1 4 4
Now, Area of quadrilateral ABCD

= Area of the DABD +Area of the DBCD (Fig 5.9)
1
= {(x y + x 2y4 + x 4y1 ) − (x 2y1 + x 4y2 + x1y4 )}
2 1 2
B (x2,y2) C (x3,y3)
P Q R S
1
+
2 2 3
{
(x y + x 3y4 + x 4y2 ) − (x 3y2 + x 4y3 + x 2y4 ) X′ O } X
Y¢ Fig. 5.9
1
== {(x 1y2 + x 2y 3 + x 3y 4 + x 4y1 ) − (x 2y1 + x 3y2 + x 4y 3 + x 1y 4 )}
2
1
= {(x 1 − x 3 )(y2 − y 4 ) − (x 2 − x 4 )(y1 − y 3 )} sq.units.
2
The following pictorial representation helps us to write the above formula very easily.
Take the vertices A(x 1, y1 ) , B(x 2 , y2 ) , C (x 3 , y 3 ) and D(x 4 , y 4 ) in counter-clockwise direction
and write them column-wise as that of the area of a triangle.

x1 x2 x3 x4 x1
1
Area of the quadrilateral ABCD =
2
y1 y2 y3 y4 y1
1
= {(x y + x 2y3 + x 3y4 + x 4y1 ) − (x 2y1 + x 3y2 + x 4y3 + x1y4 )} sq.units.
2 1 2
Note
¾¾ To find the area of a quadrilateral, we divide it into triangular regions, which have no
common area and then add the area of these regions.
¾¾ The area of the quadrilateral is never negative. That is, we always take the area of
quadrilateral as positive.
Thinking Corner
1. If the area of a quadrilateral formed by the points (a, a), (–a, a), (a, –a) and
(–a, –a), where a ¹ 0 is 64 square units, then identify the type of the quadrilateral
2. Find all possible values of a.
Example 5.1 Find the area of the triangle whose vertices are (-3, 5) , (5, 6) and (5, - 2)
Solution Plot the points in a rough diagram and take them in counter-clockwise order.
Let the vertices be A (-3, 5) , B (5, - 2) , C (5, 6)
(x 1, y1 ) (x 2 , y2 ) (x 3 , y 3 ) 6
Y C(5,6)
A(–3,5)
5
The area of DABC is
4
1
= {(x y + x 2y3 + x 3y1 ) − (x 2y1 + x 3y2 + x1y3 )}
2 1 2
3
2
1 1
=
2
{(6 + 30 + 25) − (25 − 10 − 18)}
X′ 0 1 2 3 4 5 X
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1
-1
1
= {61 + 3} -2 B(5,–2)
2 Y¢
1 Fig. 5.10
= (64) = 32 sq.units
2
Example 5.2 Show that the points P(-1.5 , 3) , Q(6 , -2) , R(-3 , 4) are collinear.
Solution The points are P(-1.5 , 3) , Q(6 , -2) , R(-3 , 4)
1
Area of D PQR = {(x y + x 2y3 + x 3y1 ) − (x 2y1 + x 3y2 + x1y3 )}
2 1 2
1 1
= {(3 + 24 − 9) − (18 + 6 − 6)} = {18 − 18} = 0
2 2
Therefore, the given points are collinear.
Example 5.3 If the area of the triangle formed by the vertices A(-1, 2) , B(k , -2) and
C(7, 4) (taken in order) is 22 sq. units, find the value of k.

Solution The vertices are A(-1, 2) , B(k , -2) and C(7, 4)
Area of triangle ABC is 22 sq.units
1
{(x y + x 2y3 + x 3y1 ) − (x 2y1 + x 3y2 + x1y3 )} = 22
2 1 2
1

2
{(2 + 4k + 14) − (2k − 14 − 4)} = 22
2k + 34 = 44 gives
⇒ 2k = 10 so k = 5
Example 5.4 If the points P(-1, -4) , Q(b, c) and R(5, - 1) are collinear and if 2b + c = 4 ,
then find the values of b and c.
Solution Since the three points P(-1, - 4) , Q(b, c) and R(5, - 1) are collinear,
Area of triangle PQR = 0
1
{(x y + x 2y3 + x 3y1 ) − (x 2y1 + x 3y2 + x1y3 )} = 0
2 1 2
1

2
{(−c − b − 20) − (−4b + 5c + 1)} = 0
−c − b − 20 + 4b − 5c − 1 = 0
b - 2c = 7 …(1)
Also, 2b + c = 4 …(2) (from given information)
Solving (1) and (2) we get b = 3 , c = −2
Example 5.5 The floor of a hall is covered with identical tiles which are in the shapes of
triangles. One such triangle has the vertices at (-3 , 2) , (-1, -1) and (1, 2) . If the floor of
the hall is completely covered by 110 tiles, find the area of the floor.
Solution Vertices of one triangular tile are at
(-3 , 2) , (-1, -1) and (1, 2)
1
Area of this tile =
2
{(3 − 2 + 2) − (−2 − 1 − 6)} sq.units
1
= (12) = 6 sq.units A(–3,2) ,2)
2 C(1
Since the floor is covered by 110 triangle shaped
identical tiles, B(–1,–1)
Area of floor = 110 × 6 = 660 sq.units Fig. 5.11
Example 5.6 Find the area of the quadrilateral formed by the points (8, 6) , (5, 11) , (-5, 12)
and (-4, 3) .
Solution Before determining the area of quadrilateral, plot the vertices in a graph.
Let the vertices be A(8,6), B(5,11), C(–5,12) and D(–4,3)
Therefore, area of the quadrilateral ABCD

1 C(–5,12) Y
= {(x y + x 2y3 + x 3y4 + x 4y1 ) − (x 2y1 + x 3y2 + x 4y3 + x1y4 )}
2 1 2
12 B(5,11)
10
1 8
= {(88 + 60 − 15 − 24) − (30 − 55 − 48 + 24)} 6
2 A(8,6)
4
1
= {109 + 49} D(–4,3) 2
2
0 2 4 6 8 10 X
X′ -6 -4 -2

1 Y¢
= {158} = 79 sq.units Fig. 5.12
2
Progress Check
Given a quadrilateral ABCD with vertices A(–3, –8), B(6, –6), C(4, 2), D(–8, 2)
Y
6
1. Find the area of D ABC . 4
D(–8,2) C(4,2)
2. F
ind the area of D ACD . 2
X′ 0
-8 -6 -4 -2 2 4 6 8 10 X
3. Calculate area of D ABC + area of D ACD . -2
-4
4. Find the area of quadrilateral ABCD. -6
-8 B(6,–6)
5. Compare the answers obtained in 3 and 4. A(–3,–8)
-10
Y¢
Fig. 5.13
Example 5.7 The given diagram shows a plan for constructing a Y C(4,9)
9
new parking lot at a campus. It is estimated that such construction )
8 1,7
would cost `1300 per square feet. What will be the total cost for D(
7
making the parking lot? 6
5
Solution The parking lot is a quadrilateral whose vertices are at 4 5,5
)
B(
A(2, 2) , B(5, 5) , C(4, 9) and D(1, 7) . 3
2
A(2,2)
1 2 5 4 1 2 1
Area of parking lot = sq.units
2 2 5 9 7 2 X′ 0 1 2 3 4 5 X
Y¢
1 Fig. 5.14
= {(10 + 45 + 28 + 2) − (10 + 20 + 9 + 14)}
2
1
= {85 − 53}
2
1
= (32) = 16 sq.units.
2
Area of parking lot = 16 sq.feets
Construction rate per square feet = ₹ 1300
Total cost for constructing the parking lot = 16 × 1300 = ₹20800

Activity 1
(i) Take a graph sheet. Third vertex Area of Triangle
(ii) Consider a triangle whose base is the line
(1,1) A1 =
joining the points (0,0) and (6,0)
(2,2) A2 =
(iii) Take the third vertex as (1,1), (2,2), (3,3), (3,3) A3 =
(4,4), (5,5) and find their areas.
(4,4) A4 =
Fill in the details given.
(iv) Do you see any pattern with (5,5) A5 =
A1, A2, A3, A4, A5 ? If so mention it. Third vertex Area of Triangle
(v) Repeat the same process by taking third (1,2) A1 =
vertex in step (iii) as (1,2), (2,4), (3,8), (2,4) A2 =
(4,16), (5,32).
(3,8) A3 =
(vi) Fill the table with these new vertices. (4,16) A4 =
(vii) What pattern do you observe now with (5,32) A5 =
A 1, A 2, A 3, A 4, A 5?
Activity 2
Y C(5,7)
7
6
Find the area of the Two French mathematicians
5 D(5,5)
shaded region Rene Descartes and
4
Pierre-de-Fermat were
3
2
the first to conceive the
1 B(8,1)
idea of modern coordinate
A(1,1) geometry by 1630s.
X′ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 X
Y¢
Fig. 5.15
Exercise 5.1
1. Find the area of the triangle formed by the points

(i) (1,–1), (–4, 6) and (–3, –5) (ii) (–10, –4), (–8, –1) and (–3, –5)
2. Determine whether the sets of points are collinear?

 1 
(i) − , 3 , (–5, 6) and (–8, 8) (ii) (a, b+c), (b, c+a) and (c, a+b)
 2 
3. V
ertices of given triangles are taken in S.No. Vertices Area (sq.units)
order and their areas are provided aside. (i) (0, 0), (p, 8), (6, 2) 20
In each case, find the value of ‘p ’.
(ii) (p, p), (5, 6), (5, –2) 32

4. I n each of the following, find the value of ‘a’ for which the given points are collinear.
(i) (2, 3), (4, a) and (6, –3) (ii) (a, 2–2a), (–a+1, 2a) and (–4–a, 6–2a)
5. F
ind the area of the quadrilateral whose vertices are at
(i) (–9, –2), (–8, –4), (2, 2) and (1, –3) (ii) (–9, 0), (–8, 6), (–1, –2) and (–6, –3)
6. Find the value of k, if the area of a quadrilateral is 28 sq.units, whose vertices are
taken in the order (–4, –2), (–3, k), (3, –2) and (2, 3)
7. I f the points A(-3, 9) , B(a, b) and C(4, - 5) are collinear and if a + b = 1 , then find
a and b.
8. Let P(11, 7) , Q(13.5, 4) and R(9.5, 4) be the mid-
points of the sides AB, BC and AC respectively of D(–10,6)
C(6,10)
D ABC . Find the coordinates of the vertices A, B
G(3,7)
and C. Hence find the area of D ABC and compare H(–6,4)
this with area of D PQR .

9. In the figure, the quadrilateral swimming pool
shown is surrounded by concrete patio. Find the
area of the patio.
F(6,–2)
10. A triangular shaped glass with vertices at E(–3,–5)
A(-5, - 4) , B(1, 6) and C(7, - 4) has to be painted. If A(–4,–8) B(8,–4)
one bucket of paint covers 6 square feet, how many

buckets of paint will be required to paint the whole 4
Y
A(–5,3) F(–2,3)
glass, if only one coat of paint is applied. 3
D(1,3)
2
E(1.5,1)
1
11. In the figure, find the area of (i) triangle AGF
G(–4.5,0.5)
(ii) triangle FED (iii) quadrilateral BCEG.
X′ -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1
-1
O
1 2 3 4 X
C(2,–1)
-2
B(–4,–2)
5.4 Inclination of a Line Y¢
The inclination of a line or the angle of inclination of a line is the angle which a
straight line makes with the positive direction of X axis measured in the counter-clockwise
direction to the part of the line above the X axis. The inclination of the line is usually
denoted by q .
Note
¾¾ The inclination of X axis and every line parallel to X axis is 0° .
¾¾ The inclination of Y axis and every line parallel to Y axis is 90° .
5.4.1 Slope of a Straight line

While laying roads one must know how steep the road will be. Similarly, when
constructing a staircase, we should consider its steepness. For the same reason, anyone
travelling along a hill or a bridge, feels hard compared to travelling along a plain road.

All these examples illustrate one important aspect
called “Steepness”. The measure of steepness is called
slope or gradient.
The concept of slope is important in economics
because it is used to measure the rate at which the
demand for a product changes in a given period of time
on the basis of its price. Slope comprises of two factors
namely steepness and direction. Fig. 5.16
Definition
If q is the angle of inclination of a non-vertical straight line, then tan q is called the
slope or gradient of the line and is denoted by m.
Therefore the slope of the straight line is m = tan q , 0 ≤ q ≤ 180° , q ≠ 90°
To find the slope of a straight line when two points are given
Y
B(x2,y2)
Slope m = tanq
oppositeside
= (y2–y1)
adjacent side
A(x1,y1) q
C
(x2–x1)
BC
= q
AC 0
X′ X
y 2 − y1 Y¢
m = . Fig. 5.17
x 2 − x1
Note
Difference in y coordinates
Slope m = The slope of a vertical
Difference in x coordinates line is undefined.
y 2 - y1
The slope of the line through (x 1, y1 ) and (x 2 , y2 ) with x 1 ¹ x 2 is .
x 2 - x1
Values of slopes
S. No. Condition Slope Diagram
Y
4
3
2
The line is parallel 1
(i) to the positive q = 0°
q = 0°
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 X
direction of X axis.
X′-2 -1
-1
Y¢
Fig. 5.18(a)

Y
4
3
The line has positive 0∠q∠90°
2
slope (A line with 1
(ii) 0 < q < 90° q
positive slope rises

X′ -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 X
from left to right). -1
Y¢
Fig. 5.18(b)
Y
4
3
The line has negative 2
90°∠q∠180°
slope (A line with q
(iii) 90° < q < 180° 1
negative slope falls

X′ -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 X
from left to right). -1
Y¢
Fig. 5.18(c)
Y
4
3
The line is parallel 2
(iv) q = 180° to the negative 1

q = 180°
direction of X axis. X′
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 X
-1
Y¢
Fig. 5.18(d)
Y
4
q = 90°
3
2
The slope is 1
(v) q = 90°
undefined.

X′ -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 X
-1
Y¢
Fig. 5.18(e)
Activity 3
Y
6
5 l2
The diagram contain four lines l1
4
l1, l2, l3 and l4. 3
(i) Which lines have positive slope? 2

1
(ii) Which lines have negative slope?
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 X
X′
-1
-2 l3 l4
Y¢
Fig. 5.19

Progress Check
Write down the slope of each of the lines shown on the grid below. One is solved for you.
Y Y
(i) (ii) Slope = ?
Slope = ?
s
t
O X
O X Y Y
q
Y r
(iii) (iv) (v)
p
Slope = ?
Slope = 3/3 = 1 Slope = ?

O X O X O X
Fig. 5.20
Difference in y coordinate 3
Solution (iii) Slope of the line p = = =1
Difference in x coordinate 3
5.4.2 Slopes of parallel lines Y

l1
Two non-vertical lines are parallel if and only if
their slopes are equal. 0∠q∠90° l2
Let l1 and l2 be two non-vertical lines with slopes

m1 and m2 respectively. q1 q2
0
Let the inclination of the lines with positive direction X′ X
of X axis be q1 and q2 respectively.

Y¢
Assume, l1 and l2are parallel Fig. 5.21
q1 = q2 (Since, q1 , q2 are corresponding angles)

tan q1 = tan q2
m1 = m2
Hence, the slopes are equal.
Therefore, non-vertical parallel lines have equal slopes.
Conversely
Let the slopes be equal, then m1 = m2
tan q1 = tan q2
q1 = q2 (since 0 £ q21 ≤ 180° , 0 £ q12 ≤ 180° )

That is the corresponding angles are equal.
Therfore, l1 and l2 are parallel.
Thus, non-vertical lines having equal slopes are parallel.
Hence, non vertical lines are parallel if and only if their slopes are equal.
5.4.3 Slopes of perpendicular lines

Y
Two non-vertical lines with slopes m1 l2 l1
and m2 are perpendicular if and only if C
m1m2 = −1 .
Let l1 and l2 be two non-vertical lines

q2
with slopes m1 and m2 , respectively. Let their q1 90o– q1
inclinations be q1 and q2 respectively. X′ 0 A B X
Then m1 = tan q1 and m2 = tan q2

Y¢
Fig. 5.22
First we assume that, l1 and l2 are
perpendicular to each other.
Then ∠ABC = 90° − q1 (sum of angles of DABC is 180° )
Now measuring slope of l2 through angles q2 and 90° − q1 , which are opposite to each
other, we get
tan q2 = − tan(90° − q1 )
− sin(90° − q1 ) −cos q1 1
= = = −cot q1 gives, tan q2 = −
cos(90° − q1 ) sin q1 tan q1
tan q1. tan q2 = −1

m1.m2 = −1 .
Thus, when the line l1 is perpendicular to line l2 then m1m2 = −1 .

Conversely,
Let l1 and l2 be two non-vertical lines with slopes m1 and m2 respectively, such that
m1m2 = −1 .
Since m1 = tan q1 , m2 = tan q2
We have tan q1 tan q2 = −1
1
tan q1 = −
tan q2
tan q1 = −cot q2
tan q1 = − tan(90° − q2 )
tan q1 = tan (−(90° − q2 )) = tan (q2 − 90°)
q1 = q2 − 90° (since 0 £ q21 ≤ 180° , 0 £ q12 ≤ 180° )

q2 = 90° + q1
But in DABC , q2 = ∠C + q1 In any triangle, exterior

Therefore, ∠C = 90° angle is equal to sum of the
interior opposite angles.
Note
Let l1 and l2 be two lines with well-defined slopes m1 and m2 respectively, then
(i) l1 is parallel to l2 if and only if m1 = m2 .
l1 is perpendicular to l2 if and only if m1m2 = −1 .
(ii)
Example 5.8 (i) What is the slope of a line whose inclination is 30° ?
(ii) What is the inclination of a line whose slope is 3?
Solution (i) Here q = 30°

Thinking Corner
Slope m = tan q
The straight lines X axis
1
Therefore, slope m = tan 30° =
3 and Y axis are
(ii) Given m = 3 , let q be the inclination of the line perpendicular to each
other. Is the condition
tan q = 3 m1m2 = −1 true?
We get, q = 60°
Example 5.9 Find the slope of a line joining the given points
1 1 2 3    
(i) (-6, 1) and (-3, 2) (ii) − ,  and  ,  (iii) (14, 10) and (14, -6)
 3 2   7 7 
Solution
(i) (-6, 1) and (-3, 2)
y 2 − y1 2 −1 1
The slope = = = .
x 2 − x1 −3 + 6 3
 1 1 2 3
(ii) − ,  and  , 
 3 2   7 7  Progress Check
3 1 6−7
− Fill in the missing boxes
The slope = 7 2 = 14
2 1 6+7 S.No. Points Slope
+
7 3 21 1 A(–a, b), B(3a,–b)
1 21 3 2 A(2, 3), B(_,_) 2
=− × =− .
14 13 26 3 A(_, _), B(_,_) 0
(iii) (14, 10) and (14, - 6) 4 A(_, _), B(_,_) undefined
−6 − 10 −16
The slope = = .
14 − 14 0
The slope is undefined.

Example 5.10 The line r passes through the points (–2, 2) and (5, 8) and the line s
passes through the points (–8, 7) and (–2, 0). Is the line r perpendicular to s ?
8−2 6
Solution The slope of line r is m1 = =
5+2 7
0−7 −7
The slope of line s is m2 = =
−2 + 8 6
6 −7
The product of slopes = × = −1
7 6
That is, m1m2 = −1
Therefore, the line r is perpendicular to line s.
Example 5.11 The line p passes through the points (3, - 2) , (12, 4) and the line q passes
through the points (6, - 2) and (12, 2) . Is p parallel to q ?
4+2 6 2
Solution The slope of line p is m1 = = =
12 − 3 9 3
2+2 4 2
The slope of line q is m2 = = =
12 − 6 6 3
Thus, slope of line p = slope of line q.
Therefore, line p is parallel to the line q.
Example 5.12 Show that the points (-2, 5) , (6, - 1) and (2, 2) are collinear.
Solution The vertices are A(-2, 5) , B(6, -1) and C(2, 2) .
− 1 − 5 −6 −3 Y
Slope of AB =
= = 6
6+2 8 4 A
5
2 +1 3 −3 (–2,5)
Slope of BC = = = 4
2 − 6 −4 4 3
We get, Slope of AB = Slope of BC 2 C

(2,2)
1
Therefore, the points A, B, C all lie in a same
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 X
-4 -3 -2 -1
X′
straight line. -1
(6,–1)
B
-2
Hence the points A, B and C are collinear. Y¢
Fig. 5.23
Example 5.13 Let A(1, - 2) , B(6, - 2) , C(5, 1) and D(2, 1) be four points
(i) Find the slope of the line segments (a) AB (b) CD
(ii) F
ind the slope of the line segments (a) BC (b) AD
(iii) W
hat can you deduce from your answer.
y 2 − y1 −2 + 2
Solution (i) (a) Slope of AB = = =0 If the slopes of
x 2 − x1 6 −1 both the pairs of opposite
1−1 0 sides are equal then
(b) Slope of CD = = =0 the quadrilateral is a
2 − 5 −3
parallelogram.


1+2 3
(ii) (a) Slope of BC = = = −3
5 − 6 −1
1+2 3
(b) Slope of AD = = =3
2 −1 1
(iii) The slope of AB and CD are equal so AB, CD are parallel.

Similarly the lines AD and BC are not parallel, since their slopes are not equal.
So, we can deduce that the quadrilateral ABCD is a trapezium.
Example 5.14 Consider the graph representing growth of population (in crores). Find
the slope of the line AB and hence estimate the population in the year 2030?
Solution The points A(2005, 96) and B(2015, 100) are Y
on the line AB. 102
100 − 96 4 2
Slope of AB = = = 100
B(2015, 100)
2015 − 2005 10 5
Population (in crores)

98
Let the growth of population in 2030 be k crores.
96
A(2005, 96)
Assuming that the point C (2030, k ) is on AB,
94
we have, slope of AC = slope of AB 92
k - 96 2 k − 96 2
= gives = X′ 0 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 X
2030 - 2005 5 25 5 Year
Y¢
k - 96 = 10 Fig. 5.24
k = 106
Hence the estimated population in 2030 = 106 Crores.
Example 5.15 Without using Pythagoras theorem, show that the points (1, - 4) , (2, - 3)
and (4, - 7) form a right angled triangle.
Solution Let the given points be A(1, - 4) , B(2, - 3) and C(4, - 7) .
−3 + 4 1
The slope of AB = = =1
2 −1 1
−7 + 3 −4
The slope of BC = = = −2
4−2 2
−7 + 4 −3
The slope of AC = = = −1
4 −1 3
Slope of AB ´ slope of AC = (1)(−1) = −1 Thinking Corner
AB is perpendicular to AC. ∠A = 90° Provide three examples of
using the concept of slope in
Therefore, D ABC is a right angled triangle.
real-life situations.

Example 5.16 Prove analytically that the line segment joining the mid-points of two sides
of a triangle is parallel to the third side and is equal to half of its length.
Solution Let P (a, b) Q(c, d ) and R(e, f ) be the vertices of a triangle.
Let S be the mid-point of PQ and T be the mid-point of PR
P(a,b)
a + c b + d  a + e b + f 
Therefore, S =  ,  and T = 
 2 , 2 

 2 2 
b + f b +d S
−
Now, slope of ST = 2 2 = f −d T
a +e a +c e −c
−
2 2 Q(c,d)
(e,f)
f −d Fig. 5.25
And slope of QR = R
e −c
Therefore, ST is parallel to QR. (since, their slopes are equal)
2 2 Note
a + e a + c  b + f b + d 
Also ST =  −  +  −  This example
 2 2   2 2 
illustrates how a
1 geometrical result
= (e − c)2 + ( f − d )2
2 can be proved
1 using coordinate
ST
= QR Geometry.
2
Thus ST is parallel to QR and half of it.
Exercise 5.2
1. W
hat is the slope of a line whose inclination with positive direction of x -axis is
(i) 90 ° (ii) 0 °
2. W
hat is the inclination of a line whose slope is (i) 0 (ii) 1
3. Find the slope of a line joining the points
( )
(i) 5, 5 with the origin (ii) (sin q, - cos q) and (- sin q, cos q)
4. W
hat is the slope of a line perpendicular to the line joining A(5, 1) and P where P is
the mid-point of the segment joining (4, 2) and (-6, 4) .
5. Show that the given points are collinear: (-3, - 4) , (7, 2) and (12, 5)
6. I f the three points (3, - 1) , (a, 3) and (1, - 3) are collinear, find the value of a.
1
7. The line through the points (-2, a ) and (9, 3) has slope - . Find the value of a.
2
he line through the points (-2, 6) and (4,8) is perpendicular to the line through the
8. T
points (8,12) and (x , 24) . Find the value of x.
9. Show that the given points form a right angled triangle and check whether they
satisfies pythagoras theorem
(i) A(1, - 4) , B(2, - 3) and C(4, - 7) (ii) L(0, 5) , M(9, 12) and N (3, 14)

10. Show that the given points form a parallelogram :
A(2.5, 3.5) , B(10, - 4) , C(2.5, - 2.5) and D(-5, 5)
11. If the points A(2,2), B(–2, –3), C(1, –3) and D(x, y) form a parallelogram then find
the value of x and y.
12. Let A(3, - 4) , B(9, - 4) , C(5, - 7) and D(7, - 7) . Show that ABCD is a trapezium.
13. A quadrilateral has vertices at A(-4, - 2) , B(5, - 1) , C(6, 5) and D(-7, 6) . Show that
the mid-points of its sides form a parallelogram.
5.5 Straight Line Y
Any first degree equation in two variables x and y of

the form ax + by + c = 0 …(1) where a, b, c are real ax+
by+
c=
numbers and at least one of a, b is non-zero is called 0
“Straight line” in XY plane.
X′ 0 X
5.5.1 Equation of coordinate axes Y¢
Fig. 5.26
The X axis and Y axis together are called coordinate axes. Y
The x coordinate of every point on OY (Y axis) is 0. Therefore
(0,3)
equation of OY(Y axis) is x = 0 (fig 5.27)
(0,2)
(0,1)
Y The y coordinate of every (0,0)
point on OX (X axis) is 0. X′ 0 X
(0,–1)
(–4,0)
(–3,0)
(–2,0)
(–1,0)
Therefore the equation of OX

(1,0)
(2,0)
(3,0)
(4,0)
(5,0)
(0,0)
(0,–2)
X′ 0 X
(X axis) is y = 0 (fig 5.28) (0,–3)
(0,–4)
Y¢
Y¢ Fig. 5.27
Fig. 5.28
Y
5.5.2 E quation of a straight line parallel to X axis
(–4,b)
(–3,b)
(–2,b)
(–1,b)
(1,b)
(2,b)
(3,b)
(4,b)
(5,b)
(0,b)
Let AB be a straight line parallel to X axis, which

is at a distance ‘b’. Then y coordinate of every point on y=b
‘AB’ is ‘b’. (fig 5.29) X′ 0 Y¢ X
Fig. 5.29
Therefore, the equation of AB is y = b
Note
¾¾ If b > 0 , then the line y=b lies above the X axis
¾¾ If b < 0 , then the line y=b lies below the X axis
¾¾ If b = 0 , then the line y=b is the X axis itself.

5.5.3 Equation of a Straight line parallel to the Y axis Y
(c, 4)
Let CD be a straight line parallel to Y axis, which is at a (c, 3)
distance ‘c’. Then x coordinate of every point on CD is ‘c’. The (c, 2)
equation of CD is x = c. (fig 5.30) (c, 1)

Note (c, 0)
X′ 0 X
¾¾ If c > 0 , then the line x=c lies right to the side of the Y axis (c,–1)
x=c
(c,–2)
¾¾ If c < 0 , then the line x=c lies left to the side of the Y axis (c,–3)
¾¾ If c = 0 , then the line x=c is the Y axis itself. (c,–4)
Y¢
Fig. 5.30
Example 5.17 Find the equation of a straight line passing
through (5,7) and is (i) parallel to X axis (ii) parallel to Y axis.
Solution (i) The equation of any straight line parallel to X axis is y=b.
Since it passes through (5,7), b = 7 .
Therefore, the required equation of the line is y=7.
(ii) The equation of any straight line parallel toY axis is x=c
Since it passes through (5,7), c = 5
Therefore, the required equation of the line is x=5.
5.5.4 Slope-Intercept Form

Every straight line that is not vertical will cut the Y axis at a single point. The
y coordinate of this point is called y intercept of the line.
A line with slope m and y intercept c can be expressed through the equation
y=mx+c
We call this equation as the slope-intercept form of the equation of a line.
¾¾ If a line with slope m, m≠0 makes x intercept d, then the equation of the
straight line is y = m (x–d).
¾¾ y = mx represent equation of a straight line with slope m and passing through
the origin.
Example 5.18 Find the equation of a straight line whose

(i) Slope is 5 and y intercept is -9 (ii) Inclination is 45° and y intercept is 11
Solution (i) Given, Slope = 5, y intercept, c = −9
Therefore, equation of a straight line is y = mx + c
y = 5x − 9 ⇒ 5x − y − 9 = 0
(ii) Given, q = 45° , y intercept, c = 11
Slope m = tan q = tan 45° = 1
Therefore, equation of a straight line is of the form y = mx + c
Hence we get, y = x + 11 ⇒ x − y + 11 = 0

Example 5.19 Calculate the slope and y intercept of the straight line 8x − 7y + 6 = 0
Solution Equation of the given straight line is 8x − 7y + 6 = 0
7y = 8x + 6 (bringing it to the form y = mx + c )
6 8 For, the point
…(1)
y = x + (x, y) in a xy plane, the
7 7 x coordinate x is called
Comparing (1) with y = mx + c “Abscissae” and the
y coordinate y is called
8 6
Slope m = and y intercept c = “Ordinate”.
7 7
Example 5.20 The graph relates temperatures y (in Fahrenheit degree) to temperatures x
(in Celsius degree) (a) Find the slope and y intercept (b) Write an equation of the line
(c) What is the mean temperature of the earth in Fahrenheit degree if its mean temperature
is 25° Celsius?
change in y coordinate 68 − 32 36 9
Solution (a) From the figure, slope = = = = = 1.8
change is x coordinate 20 − 0 20 5
The line crosses the Y axis at (0, 32) 80
Y
9 70 (20, 68)
So the slope is and y intercept is 32.
5 60
50
Fahrenheit
(b) Use the slope and y intercept to write an equation 40
9 30 (0, 32)
The equation is y = x + 32
5 20
(c) In Celsius, the mean temperature of the earth is 25° . To 10

q
find the mean temperature in Fahrenheit, we find the 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 X
X′ -1
value of y when x = 25 Y′ Celsius
Fig. 5.31

9
y = x + 32
Note
5 The formula for converting Celsius to Fahrenheit is
9 9
y = (25) + 32 given by F = C + 32. which is the linear equation
5 5
representing a stragiht line derived in the example.
y = 77
Therefore, the mean temperature of the earth is 77° F.
Y
5.5.5 Point-Slope form 8
7
Here we will find the equation of a straight line 6
passing through a given point A(x 1, y1 ) and having the 5 (x, y)
P
slope m. 4
(y–y1)
3
A(x1, y1) q
Let P (x , y ) be any point other than A on the given 2
(x–x1)
line. Slope of the line joining A(x 1, y1 ) and P (x , y ) is given 1
q
by 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
y − y1 X ′ -1 X
m = tan q = Y′ M
x − x1
Fig. 5.32

Therefore, the equation of the required line is Thinking Corner
y − y1 = m(x − x 1 ) (Point slope form) Is it possible to express, the
equation of a straight line in
Example 5.21 Find the equation of a line passing slope-intercept form, when it
-5
through the point (3, - 4) and having slope is parallel to Y axis?
7
−5
Solution Given, (x 1, y1 ) = (3, −4) and m =
7
The equation of the point-slope form of the straight line is y − y1 = m(x − x 1 )
5
we write it as
y + 4 = − (x − 3)
7
⇒ 5x + 7y + 13 = 0
Example 5.22 Find the equation of a line passing through the point A(1, 4) and
perpendicular to the line joining points (2, 5) and (4, 7) .
Y
Solution 8
7 C
Let the given points be A(1, 4) , B(2, 5) and C (4, 7) . (4, 7)
6
7−5 2 B
5
Slope of line BC = = =1 90o (2, 5)
4−2 2 4 A(1, 4)
Let m be the slope of the required line. 3
2
Since the required line is perpendicular to BC,
1
m ´1 = −1
X′ -3 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X
-2 -1
m = −1
Y′
The required line also pass through the point A(1,4). Fig. 5.33
The equation of the required straight line is y − y1 = m(x − x 1 )
y - 4 = −1(x − 1)
y - 4 = −x + 1
we get, x + y − 5 = 0
5.5.6 Two Point form

Let A(x 1, y1 ) and B(x 2 , y2 ) be two given distinct points. Slope of the straight line
y 2 − y1
passing through these points is given by m = , (x 2 ¹ x 1 ) .
x 2 − x1
From the equation of the straight line in point slope form, we get
y 2 − y1
y - y1 = (x − x 1 )
x 2 − x1
y - y1 x − x1
Hence, = (is the equation of the line in two-point form)
y 2 - y1 x 2 − x1
Example 5.23 Find the equation of a straight line passing through (5, - 3) and (7, - 4) .
Solution The equation of a straight line passing through the two points (x 1, y1 ) and (x 2 , y2 ) is

y - y1 x − x1
=
y 2 - y1 x 2 − x1
The graet mathematical
Substituting the points we get, physicists like Galileo and Newton
y +3 x −5 used coordinate geometry to
=
−4 + 3 7−5 characterize the motions of
⇒ 2y + 6 = −x + 5 objects in plane and space.
Therefore, x + 2y + 1 = 0
Example 5.24 Two buildings of Y (14,12)

12
different heights are located at 11
(6,10)
opposite sides of each other. If a heavy 10
rod is attached joining the terrace of 9
the buildings from (6, 10) to (14, 12) , 8
find the equation of the rod joining 7

6
the buildings ?
5
Solution Let A(6, 10) , B(14, 12) be the 4
points denoting the terrace of the 3
buildings. 2
1
The equation of the rod is the
equation of the straight line passing X′ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 14 15 16 17 X
through A(6,10) and B(14,12) Y¢ Fig. 5.34
y - y1 x − x1 y - 10 x −6
= gives =
y 2 - y1 x 2 − x1 12 - 10 14 − 6
y - 10 x −6
=
2 8
Therefore, x − 4y + 34 = 0
Hence, equation of the rod is x − 4y + 34 = 0

5.5.7 Intercept Form P 14
Y
(0, b)
We will find the equation of a line whose 12 B
10
intercepts are a and b on the coordinate axes
8
respectively.
b 6
4
Let PQ be a line meeting X axis at A and Y axis
2 (a, 0)
at B. Let OA=a, OB=b. Then the coordinates of A a A
and B are (a, 0) and (0, b) respectively. Therefore, the X′-4 -2
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 X
-1
Q
equation of the line joining A and B is Y¢
Fig. 5.35
y − 0 x −a y x −a y −x
= we get, = gives = +1
b−0 0 −a b −a b a
x y
Hence, + = 1 (Intercept form of a line)
a b

Progress Check Fill the details in respective boxes
Form When to use? Name
y = mx + c Slope=m, Intercept=c are given
y − y1 x − x1
=
y 2 − y1 x 2 − x1
The intercepts are given Intercept form
Example 5.25 Find the equation of a line which passes through (5,7) and makes intercepts
on the axes equal in magnitude but opposite in sign.
Solution Let the x intercept be ‘a’ and y intercept be ‘–a’.
x y
The equation of the line in intercept form is + =1
a b
x y
⇒ + = 1 (Here b = –a)
a −a
\ x − y = a . ..(1)
Since (1) passes through (5,7)
Therefore, 5 - 7 = a ⇒ a = −2
Thus the required equation of the straight line is x − y = −2 ; or x − y + 2 = 0
Example 5.26 Find the intercepts made by the line 4x − 9y + 36 = 0 on the coordinate axes.
Solution Equation of the given line is 4x − 9y + 36 = 0
we write it as 4x - 9y = −36 (bringing it to the normal form)
x y
Dividing by -36 we get, + = 1 ...(1)
−9 4
Comparing (1) with intercept form, we get x intercept a = −9 ; y intercept b = 4
Example 5.27 A mobile phone is put to use when the battery power is 100%. The percent
of battery power ‘y’ (in decimal) remaining after using the mobile phone for x hours is
assumed as y = −0.25x + 1
(i) Find the number of hours elapsed if the battery power is 40%.
(ii) How much time does it take so that the battery has no power?
Solution
60%
(i) To find the time when the battery power is 40%,
we have to take y = 0.40
0.40 = −0.25x + 1 ⇒ 0.25x = 0.60
40%
0.60
we get, x = = 2.4 hours.
0.25
Fig. 5.36
(ii) If the battery power is 0 then y = 0
Therefore, 0 = −0.25x + 1 gives-0.25x = 1 hence x = 4 hours.
Thus, after 4 hours, the battery of the mobile phone will have no power.

Example 5.28 A line makes positive intercepts on coordinate axes whose sum is 7 and it
passes through (-3, 8) . Find its equation.
Solution If a and b are the intercepts then a + b = 7 or b = 7 − a
x y
By intercept form + = 1
a b
x y
We have + =1
a 7 −a
As this line pass through the point (-3, 8) , we have
−3 8
+ = 1 ⇒ –3(7–a) + 8a = a(7–a)
a 7 −a
−21 + 3a + 8a = 7a − a 2
So, a 2 + 4a − 21 = 0
Solving this equation (a − 3)(a + 7) = 0
a = 3 or a = −7
Since a is positive, we have a = 3 and b = 7–a = 7–3 =4.
x y
Hence + =1
3 4
Therefore, 4x + 3y − 12 = 0 is the required equation.
Example 5.29 A circular garden is bounded 12 Y

North Street
11
by East Avenue and Cross Road. Cross Road A(3,10)
10
intersects North Street at D and East Avenue
d
9
oa
sR
at E. AD is tangential to the circular garden at 8

os
Y
Cr
7
A(3, 10). Using the figure. M(7,7)
6
D
5
(a) Find the equation of
4
(i) East Avenue. 3
E C(0,2) B(7,2)
2
(ii) North Street East Avenue
1
(iii) Cross Road 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
X′ Y′ X
Fig. 5.37
(b) Where does the Cross Road intersect?
(i) North Street (ii) East Avenue
Solution (a) (i) East Avenue is the straight line joining C(0, 2) and B(7, 2) . Thus the
equation of East Avenue is obtained by using two-point form which is
y −2 x −0
=
2−2 7−0
y −2 x
= ⇒ y=2
0 7

(ii) Since the point D lie vertically above C(0, 2) . The x coordinate of D is 0.
Since any point on North Street has x coordinate value 0.
The equation of North Street is x = 0
(iii) To find equation of Cross Road.
Center of circular garden M is at (7, 7), A is (3, 10)
We first find slope of MA, which we call m1
10 − 7 −3
Thus m1 = = .
3−7 4
Since the Cross Road is perpendicular to MA, if m2 is the slope of the
−3 4
Cross Road then, m1m2 = −1 gives m2 = −1 so m2 = .
4 3
4
and it passes through the point A (3, 10) .
Now, the cross road has slope
3
4
The equation of the Cross Road is y − 10 = (x − 3)
3
3y − 30 = 4x − 12
Hence, 4x − 3y + 18 = 0
(b) (i) If D is (0, k ) then D is a point on the Cross Road.

Therefore, substituting x = 0 , y = k in the equation of Cross Road,
we get, 0 − 3k + 18 = 0
Value of k =6
Therefore, D is (0, 6)
(ii) To find E, let E be (q, 2)
Put y = 2 in the equation of the Cross Road,
we get, 4q − 6 + 18 = 0
4q = −12 gives q = –3
Therefore, The point E is (-3, 2)
Thus the Cross Road meets the North Street at D(0, 6) and
East Avenue at E (-3, 2) .
S.No. Equation Slope x intercept y intercept

1 3x – 4y + 2 = 0
2 y = 14x 0
3 2 –3

Activity 4
Y
6
5
If line l1 is perpendicular to line l2 and line l3 has
4
slope 3 then 3 A(0, 3)
2 l1
(i) find the equation of line l1 1 , 0) H
B(1
(ii) find the equation of line l2 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 X
X′ -1
-1
E
-2 l2
(iii) find the equation of line l3 C(1,–2)
l3
-3 G(2, –3)
Y′
Fig. 5.38
Activity 5
A ladder is placed against a vertical wall with its foot touching the horizontal floor. Find
the equation of the ladder under the following conditions.
No. Condition Picture Equation of the
ladder
(i) The ladder is 8
Y
(0, 8)
inclined at 60° to 7
the floor and it 6
touches the wall at 5
(0,8) Ladder 4 Wall

3
_________
2 C
1
60°
0 1 2 X
X′ -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1
Y¢
Fig. 5.39
(ii) The foot and top of
the ladder are at the _________ _________
points (2,4) and (5,1)
Exercise 5.3
1. F ind the equation of a straight line passing through the mid-point of a line segment
joining the points (1, - 5) , (4,2) and parallel to (i) X axis (ii) Y axis
2. The equation of a straight line is 2(x − y ) + 5 = 0 . Find its slope, inclination and
intercept on the Y axis.
3. Find the equation of a line whose inclination is 30˚ and making an intercept -3 on
the Y axis.
4. Find the slope and y intercept of 3x + (1 − 3 )y = 3 .
5. Find the value of ‘a’, if the line through (–2,3) and (8,5) is perpendicular to y = ax + 2

6. T
he hill in the form of a right triangle has its foot at (19, 3) . The inclination of the hill
to the ground is 45˚. Find the equation of the hill joining the foot and top.
7. Find the equation of a line through the given pair of points
 2   
(i) 2,  and  −1 , − 2 (ii) (2, 3) and (-7, - 1)

 3   2 

8. A
cat is located at the point (-6, - 4) in xy plane. A bottle of milk is kept at (5, 11) .
The cat wish to consume the milk travelling through shortest possible distance. Find
the equation of the path it needs to take its milk.
9. Find the equation of the median and altitude of DABC through A where the vertices
are A(6, 2) , B(-5, - 1) and C(1, 9)
-5
10. Find the equation of a straight line which has slope and passing through the
4
point (–1,2).
11. You are downloading a song. The percent y (in decimal form) of mega bytes
remaining to get downloaded in x seconds is given by y = −0.1x + 1 .
(i) find the total MB of the song.
(ii) after how many seconds will 75% of the song gets downloaded?
(iii) after how many seconds the song will be downloaded completely?
12. Find the equation of a line whose intercepts on the x and y axes are given below.
3
(i) 4, –6 (ii) -5,
4
13. Find the intercepts made by the following lines on the coordinate axes.
(i) 3x − 2y − 6 = 0 (ii) 4x + 3y + 12 = 0
14. Find the equation of a straight line
(i) passing through (1, - 4) and has intercepts which are in the ratio 2:5
(ii) passing through (-8, 4) and making equal intercepts on the coordinate axes
5.6 General Form of a Straight Line
The linear equation (first degree polynomial in two variables x and y) ax + by + c = 0
(where a, b and c are real numbers such that at least one of a, b is non-zero) always
represents a straight line. This is the general form of a straight line.
Now, let us find out the equations of a straight line in the following cases
(i) parallel to ax + by + c = 0
(ii) perpendicular to ax + by + c = 0
5.6.1 Equation of a line parallel to the line ax + by + c = 0

The equation of all lines parallel to the line ax + by + c = 0 can be put in the form
ax + by + k = 0 for different values of k.
5.6.2 Equation of a line perpendicular to the line ax + by + c = 0
The equation of all lines perpendicular to the line ax + by + c = 0 can be written as
bx − ay + k = 0 for different values of k.

Two straight lines a1x + b1y + c1 = 0 and a2x + b2y + c2 = 0 where the
coefficients are non-zero, are
a1 b1
(i) parallel if and only if = ; That is, a1b2 − a2b1 = 0
a2 b2
(ii) perpendicular if and only if a1a2 + b1b2 = 0
Parallel or Parallel or
No. Equations S.No. Equations
perpendicular perpendicular
5x + 2y + 5 = 0 8x − 10y + 11 = 0
1 3
5x + 2y − 3 = 0 4x–5y+16 = 0
3x − 7y − 6 = 0 2y − 9x − 7 = 0
2 4
7x + 3y + 8 = 0 27y + 6x − 21 = 0
5.6.3 Slope of a straight line

The general form of the equation of a straight line is ax + by + c = 0 . (at least one of
a, b is non-zero)
coefficient of x = a , coefficient of y = b , constant term = c .
The above equation can be rewritten as by = −ax − c
a c
gives y = − x − , if b ¹ 0 …(1)
b b
comparing (1) with the form y = mx + l
We get, slope m = −
a Thinking Corner
b How many straight
−coefficient of x
m = lines do you have with
coefficient of y
slope 1?
c
y intercept l = −
b
−constant term
y intercept =
coefficient of y
Example 5.30 Find the slope of the straight line 6x + 8y + 7 = 0 .

Solution Given 6x + 8y + 7 = 0
−coefficient of x 6 3
slope m = =− =−
coefficient of y 8 4
3
Therefore, the slope of the straight line is - .
4
Example 5.31 Find the slope of the line which is
(i) parallel to 3x − 7y = 11 (ii) perpendicular to 2x − 3y + 8 = 0

Solution (i) Given straight line is 3x − 7y = 11
⇒ 3x - 7y –11 = 0
−3 3
Slope m = =
−7 7
Since parallel lines have same slopes, slope of any line parallel to
3
3x − 7y = 11 is .
7
(ii) Given straight line is 2x − 3y + 8 = 0
−2 2
Slope m = =
−3 3
Since product of slopes is −1 for perpendicular lines, slope of any line
−1 −3
perpendicular to 2x − 3y + 8 = 0 is =
2 2
3
Example 5.32 Show that the straight lines 2x + 3y − 8 = 0 and 4x + 6y + 18 = 0 are parallel.
Solution Slope of the straight line 2x + 3y − 8 = 0 is
Aliter
−coefficient of x
m1 = a1 = 2 , b1 = 3
coefficient of y
a2 = 4 , b2 = 6
−2
m1 = a1 2 1
3 =
=
Slope of the straight line 4x + 6y + 18 = 0 is a2 4 2
b1 3 1
− 4 −2 = =
m2 = = b2 6 2
6 3
a1 b1
Here, m1 = m2 Therefore, =
a2 b2
That is, slopes are equal. Hence, the two straight lines Hence the lines are
are parallel. parallel.
Example 5.33 Show that the straight lines x − 2y + 3 = 0 and 6x + 3y + 8 = 0 are
perpendicular.
Solution Slope of the straight line x − 2y + 3 = 0 is
−1 1 Aliter
m1 = =
−2 2 a1 = 1 , b1 = −2 ;
Slope of the straight line 6x + 3y + 8 = 0 is
a2 = 6 , b2 = 3
−6
m2 = = −2
3 a1a2 + b1b2 = 6 − 6 = 0
1
Now, m1 × m2 = × (−2) = −1 The lines are perpendicular.
2
Hence, the two straight lines are perpendicular.
Example 5.34 Find the equation of a straight line which is parallel to the line 3x − 7y = 12
and passing through the point (6,4).

Solution Equation of the straight line, parallel to 3x − 7y − 12 = 0 is 3x − 7y + k = 0
Since it passes through the point (6,4)
3(6) − 7(4) + k = 0
k = 28 − 18 = 10
Therefore, equation of the required straight line is 3x − 7y + 10 = 0 .
4
Example 5.35 Find the equation of a straight line perpendicular to the line y = x − 7
3
and passing through the point (7, –1).
4x
Solution The equation y = − 7 can be written as 4x − 3y − 21 = 0 .
3
Equation of a straight line perpendicular to 4x − 3y − 21 = 0 is 3x + 4y + k = 0
Since it is passes through the point (7, –1),
21 − 4 + k = 0 we get, k = −17
Therefore, equation of the required straight line is 3x + 4y − 17 = 0 .
Example 5.36 Find the equation of a straight line parallel to Y axis and passing through
the point of intersection of the lines 4x + 5y = 13 and x − 8y + 9 = 0 .
Solution Given lines 4x + 5y − 13 = 0 ...(1)
x − 8y + 9 = 0 ...(2)
To find the point of intersection, solve equation (1) and (2)
x y 1
5 -13 45
-8 9 -8
1
x y 1
= =
45 - 104 −13 − 36 −32 − 5
x y 1
= =
-59 −49 −37
59 49
x= , y=
37 37
 59 49 
Therefore, the point of intersection (x , y ) =  , 
 37 37 
The equation of line parallel to Y axis is x = c.
 59 49  59
It passes through (x , y ) = 
,  . Therefore, c = .
 37 37  37
59
The equation of the line is x = ⇒ 37x − 59 = 0
37
Example 5.37 The line joining the points A(0, 5) and B(4, 1) is a tangent to a circle whose
centre C is at the point (4, 4) find
(i) the equation of the line AB.
(ii) the equation of the line through C which is perpendicular to the line AB.
(iii) the coordinates of the point of contact of tangent line AB with the circle.

Solution (i) Equation of line AB, A(0, 5) and B(4, 1) 6
Y
5)
y - y1 x − x1 5 A(0,
=
y 2 - y1 x 2 − x1 4 C (4,4)
3
y -5 x −0 P
= 2
1-5 4−0 1 (4, 1)
4(y - 5) = −4x ⇒ y –5 = – x B
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 X
x + y – 5 = 0 X′
-1
-2
(ii) The equation of a line which is perpendicular Y¢
to the line AB : x + y − 5 = 0 is x − y + k = 0 Fig. 5.40
Since it is passing through the point (4,4), we have

4 – 4 + k = 0 ⇒ k = 0
The equation of a line which is perpendicular to AB and through C is x − y = 0
(iii) The coordinate of the point of contact P of the
tangent line AB with the circle is point of Thinking Corner
intersection of lines. 1. Find the number of point
x + y − 5 = 0 and x − y = 0 of intersection of two
straight lines.
5 5
solving, we get x = and y = 2. Find the number of
2 2
straight lines
Therefore, the coordinate of the
 5 5 
perpendicular to the line

point of contact is P  ,  . 2x − 3y + 6 = 0 .
 2 2 
Activity 6
Find the equation of a straight line for the given diagrams
Y Y
6 3
5 2
4 Slope = 2 1
3 3
X′ -5 04 03 -2 -1
0 1 2 3 4 5 X
2 -1
1 -2
-3 (4, –4)
X′
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X
-1 -4
-2 -5
Y¢ Y¢
Y Y
6 3
5 2
4 Slope = 2 1
3
3
(4, –3) 0
X′ -5 04 03 -2 -1
1 2 3 4 5 X
2 -1
1 -2
-3
X′ -3 -2 -1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X
-1 -4
-2 -5
Y¢ Y¢
Fig. 5.41

Exercise 5.4
3
1. Find the slope of the following straight lines (i) 5y − 3 = 0 (ii) 7x − =0
17
2. Find the slope of the line which is
(i) parallel to y = 0.7x − 11 (ii) perpendicular to the line x = −11
3. Check whether the given lines are parellel or perpendicular
x y 1 2x y 1
(i) + + = 0 and + + =0
3 4 7 3 2 10
(ii) 5x + 23y + 14 = 0 and 23x − 5y + 9 = 0
4. If the straight lines 12y = −(p + 3)x + 12 , 12x − 7y = 16 are perpendicular then find ‘p’.
5. Find the equation of a straight line passing through the point P(-5, 2) and parallel to
the line joining the points Q(3, - 2) and R(-5, 4) .
6. Find the equation of a line passing through (6,–2) and perpendicular to the line
joining the points (6,7) and (2,–3).
7. A(-3, 0) B(10, - 2) and C(12, 3) are the vertices of DABC . Find the equation of the
altitude through A and B.
8. Find the equation of the perpendicular bisector of the line joining the points
A(-4, 2) and B(6, - 4) .
9. Find the equation of a straight line through the intersection of lines 7x + 3y = 10 ,
5x − 4y = 1 and parallel to the line 13x + 5y + 12 = 0
10. Find the equation of a straight line through the intersection of lines 5x − 6y = 2 ,
3x + 2y = 10 and perpendicular to the line 4x − 7y + 13 = 0
11. Find the equation of a straight line joining the point of intersection of 3x + y + 2 = 0
and x − 2y − 4 = 0 to the point of intersection of 7x − 3y = −12 and 2y = x + 3
12. Find the equation of a straight line through the point of intersection of the lines 8x + 3y = 18 ,
4x + 5y = 9 and bisecting the line segment joining the points (5,–4) and (–7,6).
Exercise 5.5

1. Th
e area of triangle formed by the points (−5,0) , (0,−5) and (5,0) is
(A) 0 sq.units (B) 25 sq.units (C) 5 sq.units (D) none of these
2. A
man walks near a wall, such that the distance between him and the wall is 10 units.
Consider the wall to be the Y axis. The path travelled by the man is
(A) x = 10 (B) y = 10 (C) x = 0 (D) y = 0
3. T
he straight line given by the equation x = 11 is
(A) parallel to X axis (B) parallel to Y axis
(C) passing through the origin (D) passing through the point (0,11)

4. If (5,7), (3,p) and (6,6) are collinear, then the value of p is
(A) 3 (B) 6 (C) 9 (D) 12
5. The point of intersection of 3x − y = 4 and x + y = 8 is
(A) (5,3) (B) (2,4) (C) (3,5) (D) (4,4)
1
6. The slope of the line joining (12, 3) , (4, a ) is . The value of ‘a’ is
8
(A) 1 (B) 4 (C) -5 (D) 2
7. The slope of the line which is perpendicular to a line joining the points (0,0) and
(–8,8) is
1
(A) –1 (B) 1 (C) (D) -8
3
1
8. If slope of the line PQ is then slope of the perpendicular bisector of PQ is
3
1
(A) 3 (B) - 3 (C) (D) 0
3
9. If A is a point on the Y axis whose ordinate is 8 and B is a point on the X axis whose
abscissae is 5 then the equation of the line AB is
(A) 8x + 5y = 40 (B) 8x − 5y = 40 (C) x = 8 (D) y = 5
10. The equation of a line passing through the origin and perpendicular to the line
7x − 3y + 4 = 0 is
(A) 7x − 3y + 4 = 0 (B) 3x − 7y + 4 = 0 (C) 3x + 7y = 0 (D) 7x − 3y = 0
11. Consider four straight lines
(i) l1; 3y = 4x + 5 (ii) l2 ; 4y = 3x − 1 (iii) l 3 ; 4y + 3x = 7 (iv) l 4 ; 4x + 3y = 2
Which of the following statement is true ?
(A) l1 and l2 are perpendicular (B) l1 and l 4 are parallel
(C) l2 and l 4 are perpendicular (D) l2 and l 3 are parallel
12. A straight line has equation 8y = 4x + 21 . Which of the following is true
(A) The slope is 0.5 and the y intercept is 2.6
(B) The slope is 5 and the y intercept is 1.6
(C) The slope is 0.5 and the y intercept is 1.6
(D) The slope is 5 and the y intercept is 2.6
13. When proving that a quadrilateral is a trapezium, it is necessary to show
(A) Two sides are parallel. (B) Two parallel and two non-parallel sides.
(C) Opposite sides are parallel. (D) All sides are of equal length.
14. When proving that a quadrilateral is a parallelogram by using slopes you must find
(A) The slopes of two sides (B) The slopes of two pair of opposite sides
(C) The lengths of all sides (D) Both the lengths and slopes of two sides
15. (2, 1) is the point of intersection of two lines.
(A) x − y − 3 = 0; 3x − y − 7 = 0 (B) x + y = 3; 3x + y = 7
(C) 3x + y = 3; x + y = 7 (D) x + 3y − 3 = 0; x − y − 7 = 0

Unit Exercise - 5
1. PQRS is a rectangle formed by joining the points P(-1, -1) , Q(-1, 4) , R(5, 4) and
S(5, -1) . A, B, C and D are the mid-points of PQ, QR, RS and SP respectively. Is
the quadrilateral ABCD a square, a rectangle or a rhombus? Justify your answer.
2. The area of a triangle is 5 sq.units. Two of its vertices are (2,1) and (3, –2). The
third vertex is (x, y) where y = x + 3 . Find the coordinates of the third vertex.
3. Find the area of a triangle formed by the lines 3x + y − 2 = 0 , 5x + 2y − 3 = 0 and
2x − y − 3 = 0
4. I f vertices of a quadrilateral are at A(-5, 7) , B(-4, k ) , C(-1, -6) and D(4, 5) and its
area is 72 sq.units. Find the value of k.
5. Without using distance formula, show that the points (-2, -1) , (4, 0) , (3, 3) and (-3, 2)
are vertices of a parallelogram.
6. Find the equations of the lines, whose sum and product of intercepts are 1 and –6
respectively.
7. The owner of a milk store finds that, he can sell 980 litres of milk each week at
₹14/litre and 1220 litres of milk each week at ₹16/litre. Assuming a linear relationship
between selling price and demand, how many litres could he sell weekly at ₹17/litre?
8. Find the image of the point (3,8) with respect to the line x + 3y = 7 assuming the
line to be a plane mirror.
9. Find the equation of a line passing through the point of intersection of the lines
4x + 7y − 3 = 0 and 2x − 3y + 1 = 0 that has equal intercepts on the axes.
10. A person standing at a junction (crossing) of two straight paths represented by the
equations 2x − 3y + 4 = 0 and 3x + 4y − 5 = 0 seek to reach the path whose equation
is 6x − 7y + 8 = 0 in the least time. Find the equation of the path that he should follow.
Points to Remember
zz The area of a triangle formed by the points (x 1, y1 ) , (x 2 , y2 ) and (x 3 , y 3 ) is
1
{(x y + x 2y3 + x 3y1 ) − (x 2y1 + x 3y2 + x1y3 )} sq.units
2 1 2
zz Three points A(x 1, y1 ) , B(x 2 , y2 ) and C (x 3 , y 3 ) are collinear if and only if
(i) area of ∆ABC = 0 or x 1y2 + x 2y 3 + x 3y1 = x 2y1 + x 3y2 + x 1y 3
(ii) slope of AB=slope of BC or slope of AC
zz The area of a quadrilateral formed by the four points (x 1, y1 ) , (x 2 , y2 ) , (x 3 , y 3 ) and
1
(x 4 , y 4 ) is {(x y + x 2y3 + x 3y4 + x 4y1 ) − (x 2y1 + x 3y2 + x 4y3 + x1y4 )} sq.units.
2 1 2
zz If a line makes an angle q with the positive direction of X axis, then its slope
m = tan q .
y - y1
zz If A(x 1, y1 ), B(x 2 , y2 ) are two distinct points then the slope of AB is 2 .
x 2 - x1
−a
zz Slope of line ax + by + c = 0 is m = .
b

Equation of straight line in various forms
Form Name Form Name
x y
ax + by + c = 0 General form + =1 Intercept form
a b
y − y1 = m(x − x 1 ) Point-slope form x =c Parallel to Y axis
y = mx + c Slope-intercept y =b Parallel to X axis
y − y1 x − x1
= Two point form
y 2 − y1 x 2 − x1
zz Two straight lines are parallel if and only if their slopes are equal.
zz Two straight lines with well defined slopes m1 , m2 are perpendicular if and only if
m1 × m2 = −1.
ICT CORNER
ICT 5.1
“Co-Ordinate Geometry” will open. In the left side of the work book there are many activity related to mensuration
chapter. Select the work sheet “Area of a Quadrilateral”
Step 2: In the given worksheet you can change the Question by clicking on “New Problem”. Move the slider to see the steps.
Work out each problem and verify your answer.
ICT 5.2
“Co-Ordinate Geometry” will open. In the left side of the work book there are many activity related to mensuration
chapter. Select the work sheet “Slope_Equation of a Straight Line”
Step 2: In the given worksheet you can change the Line by Dragging the points A and B on graph. Click on the Check boxes
on Left Hand Side to see various forms of same straight line.


6
TRIGONOMETRY
“The deep study of nature is the most fruitful source of
mathematical discoveries” - Joseph Fourier.
French mathematician Francois Viete used trigonometry

in the study of Algebra for solving certain equations by making
suitable trigonometric substitutions. His famous formula for
π can be derived with repeated use of trigonometric ratios.
One of his famous works titled Canon Mathematics covers
trigonometry; it contains trigonometric tables, it also gives the
mathematics behind the construction of the tables, and it details
how to solve both plane and spherical triangles. He also provided
Francois Viete
the means for extracting roots and solutions of equations of degree (1540–1603 AD(CE))
atmost six. Viete introduced the term “coefficient” in mathematics.
He provided a simple formula relating the roots of a equation with its coefficients. He
also provided geometric methods to solve doubling the cube and trisecting the angle
problems. He was also involved in deciphering codes.
Learning Outcomes
zz To recall trigonometric ratios.
zz To recall fundamental relations between the
trigonometric ratios of an angle.
zz To recall trigonometric ratios of complementary angles.
zz To understand trigonometric identities.
zz To know methods of solving problems concerning heights and distances
of various objects.
6.1 Introduction
From very ancient times surveyors, navigators and astronomers have made use of
triangles to determine distances that could not be measured directly. This gave birth to
the branch of mathematics what we call today as “Trigonometry”.
Hipparchus of Rhodes around 200 BC(BCE), constructed a table of chord lengths for
a circle of circumference 360 × 60 = 21600 units which corresponds to one unit of
circumference for each minute of arc. For this achievement, Hipparchus is considered as
“The Father of Trigonometry” since it became the basis for further development.
239
6 Trigonometry.indd 239 15-12-2020 03:13:22 PM

Indian scholars of the 5th century AD(CE), realized that working with half-chords
for half-angles greatly simplified the theory of chords and its application to astronomy.
Mathematicians like Aryabhata, the two Bhaskaras and several others developed
astonishingly sophisticated techniques for calculating half-chord (Jya) values.
Mathematician Abu Al-Wafa of Baghdad believed to have invented the tangent
function, which he called the “Shadow”. Arabic scholars did not know how to translate
the word Jya, into their texts and simply wrote jiba as a close approximate word.
Misinterpreting the Arabic word ‘jiba’ for ‘cove’ or ‘bay’, translators wrote the Arabic
word ‘jiba’ as ‘sinus’ in Latin to represent the half-chord. From this, we have the name ‘sine’
used to this day. The word “Trigonometry” itself was invented by German mathematician
Bartholomaeus Pitiscus in the beginning of 17th century AD(CE).
Recall
Trigonometric Ratios
Let 0° < q < 90°
P Let us take right triangle OMP
Hy
Opposite side
p ot Opposite side MP
en
us sin q = =
e Hypotenuse OP
q Adjacent side OM
M O
cos q = =
Adjacent Side Hypotenuse OP
Fig. 6.1
From the above two ratios we can obtain other four trigonometric ratios as follows.
Note
sin q cos q
tan q = ; cot q = ; All right triangles with q as one of the angle are
cos q sin q
similar. Hence the trigonometric ratios defined
1 1
cosecq = ; sec q = through such right angle triangles do not depend on
sin q cosq the triangle chosen.
Trigonometric ratios of complementary angle

sin(90° − q) = cos q cos(90° − q) = sin q tan(90° − q) = cot q
cosec(90° − q) = sec q sec(90° − q) = cosec q cot(90° − q) = tan q
Visual proof of trigonometric complementary angle

Consider a semicircle of radius 1 as shown in the figure.
Let ∠QOP = q .
Then ∠QOR = 90° − q, so that OPQR forms a rectangle.
OP
From triangle OPQ , = cos q
OQ

But OQ = radius = 1
∴ OP = OQ cos q = cos q
Y
PQ
Similarly, = sin θ
OQ R Q
Þ PQ = OQ sin q = sin q ( OQ = 1)
1
OP = cosθ, PQ = sinθ … (1)
q
°−
90
Now, from triangle QOR, q
X′ O P X
OR
we have = cos(90° − q)
OQ Y′
Fig. 6.2
∴ OR = OQ cos(90° − q)
OR = cos(90° − q)
RQ
Similarly, = sin(90° − q)
OQ
Then, RQ = sin(90° − q)
OR = cos(90° − q) , RQ = sin(90° − q) … (2)
OPQR is a rectangle, Note
OP = RQ and OR = PQ (sin q)2 = sin2 q (cosecq)2 = cosec2q

Therefore, from (1) and (2) we get, (cos q)2 = cos2 q (sec q)2 = sec2 q
sin(90° − q) = cos q and cos(90° − q) = sin q (tan q)2 = tan2 q (cot q)2 = cot2 q
Table of Trigonometric Ratios for 0°, 30°, 45°, 60°, 90°

q
Trigonometric 0° 30° 45° 60° 90°
Ratio
1 1 3
sin q 0 1
2 2 2
3 1 1
cos q 1 0
2 2 2
1
tan q 0 1 3 undefined
3
2
cosecq undefined 2 2 1
3
2
sec q 1 2 2 undefined
3
1
cot q undefined 3 1 0
3
Trigonometry 241

Thinking Corner
1. When will the values of sin q and cosq be equal?
2. For what values of q, sin q = 2 ?
3. A mong the six trigonometric quantities, as the value of angle increase from
0° to 90° , which of the six trigonometric quantities has undefined values?
4. Is it possible to have eight trigonometric ratios?
5. Let 0° ≤ q ≤ 90° . For what values of q does
(i) sin q > cos q (ii) cos q > sin q (iii) sec q = 2 tan q (iv) cosec q = 2 cot q
6.2 Trigonometric Identities

For all real values of q , we have the following three identities.
(i) sin2q + cos2 q=1 (ii) 1+tan2q = sec2 q (iii) 1 + cot2 q = cosec2q
These identities are termed as three fundamental identities of trigonometry.
We will now prove them as follows.
Picture Identity Proof
In the right angled ∆OMP, we have

OM PM
= cos q, = sin q ...(1)
OP OP
By Pythagoras theorem
MP 2 + OM 2 = OP 2 ...(2)
P
Dividing each term on both sides of (2) by
OP 2 , ( OP≠0) we get,
MP 2 OM 2 OP 2
+ =
sin2 q + cos2 q = 1 OP 2 OP 2 OP 2
2 2 2
 MP  OM  OP 
q
Þ   +   =  
M O  OP   OP  OP 
Fig. 6.3
From (1), (sin q)2 + (cos q)2 = 12
Hence sin2 q + cos2 q = 1

MP OP
= tan q, = sec q ...(3)
OM OM

From (2), MP 2 + OM 2 = OP 2
OM 2 , ( OM ¹ 0 ) we get,
MP 2 OM 2 OP 2
+ =
1 + tan2 q = sec2 q OM 2 OM 2 OM 2
2 2 2
 MP  OM   OP 
Þ   +   =  
OM  OM  OM 
From (3), (tan q)2 + 12 = (sec q)2

Hence 1 + tan2 q = sec2 q .
OM OP
= cot q, = cosec q ...(4)
MP MP
From (2), MP 2 + OM 2 = OP 2
MP 2 , ( MP ¹ 0) we get,
1 + cot2 q = cosec2q MP 2 OM 2 OP 2
+ =
MP 2 MP 2 MP 2
2 2 2
 MP  OM   OP 
Þ   +   =  
 MP   MP   MP 
From (4), 12 + (cot q)2 = (cosecq)2
Hence, 1 + cot2 q = cosec2q
These identities can also be rewritten as follows.
Identity Equal forms

sin2 q + cos2 q = 1 sin2 q = 1 − cos2 q (or) cos2 q = 1 − sin2 q
1 + tan2 q = sec2 q tan2 q = sec2 q − 1 (or) sec2 q − tan2 q = 1
1 + cot2 q = cosec2q cot2 q = cosec2q − 1 (or) cosec2q − cot2 q = 1
Note
Though the above identities are true for any angle q , we will consider the six
trigonometric ratios only for 0° < q < 90°
Trigonometry 243

Activity 1
Take a white sheet of paper. Construct two perpendicular lines OX, OY which
meet at O, as shown in the Fig. 6.4(a).
Y
Considering OX as X axis, OY as Y axis.
We will verify the values of sin q and cos q for
certain angles q .
Let q = 30°
Construct a line segment OA of any length such
that ∠AOX = 30°, as shown in the Fig. 6.4(b). O X
Fig. 6.4(a)
Draw a perpendicular from A to OX, meeting at B.
Now using scale, measure the lengths of AB, OB and OA.
Y
AB OB AB
Find the ratios , and .
OA OA OB A
What do you get? Can you compare these values with

the trigonometric table values? What is your conclusion?
30°
Carry out the same procedure for q = 45° and q = 60° .
O B X
What are your conclusions? Fig. 6.4(b)
Example 6.1 Prove that tan2 q − sin2 q = tan2 q sin2 q

sin2 q
Solution tan2 q - sin2 q = tan2 q − .cos2 q
cos2 q
= tan2 q(1 − cos2 q) = tan2 q sin2 q
sin A 1 − cos A
Example 6.2 Prove that =
1 + cos A sin A
sin A sin A 1 − cos A
Solution = × [multiply numerator and denominator by
1 + cos A 1 + cos A 1 − cos A
the conjugate of 1 + cos A ]
sin A(1 − cos A) sin A(1 − cos A)
= =
(1 + cos A)(1 − cos A) 1 − cos2 A
sin A(1 − cos A) 1 − cos A

= =
sin2 A sin A
cot2 q
Example 6.3 Prove that 1 + = cosec q
1 + cosec q
cot2 q cosec2q − 1   cosec2q − 1 = cot2 q 
Solution 1 + =1+  
1 + cosec q cosec q +1
(cosec q + 1)(cosec q − 1)
= 1+
cosec q + 1
= 1 + (cosec q − 1) = cosec q

Example 6.4 Prove that sec q − cos q = tan q sin q
1 1 − cos2 q
Solution sec q - cos q = − cos q =
cos q cos q
sin2 q
=  1 − cos2 q = sin2 q 
cos q  
sin q
= × sin q = tan q sin q
cos q
1 + cos q
Example 6.5 Prove that = cosec q + cot q
1 − cos q
1 + cos q 1 + cos q 1 + cos q
Solution = × [multiply numerator and denominator
1 − cos q 1 − cos q 1 + cos q
by the conjugate of 1 - cos q ]
(1 + cos q)2 1 + cos q   sin2 q + cos2 q = 1
= =
1 − cos2 q 2
sin q  
1 + cos q
= = cosec q +cotq
sin q
sec q sin q
Example 6.6 Prove that − = cot q
sin q cos q
1
sec q sin q sin q 1 sin q
Solution - = cos q − = −
sin q cos q sin q cos q sin q cos q cos q
1 − sin2 q cos2 q
= = = cot q
sin q cos q sin q cos q
Example 6.7 Prove that sin2 A cos2 B + cos2 A sin2 B + cos2 A cos2 B + sin2 A sin2 B = 1
Solution sin2 A cos2 B + cos2 A sin2 B + cos2 A cos2 B + sin2 A sin2 B
= sin2 A cos2 B + sin2 A sin2 B + cos2 A sin2 B + cos2 A cos2 B
= sin2 A(cos2 B + sin2 B ) + cos2 A(sin2 B + cos2 B )
= sin2 A(1) + cos2 A(1) ( sin2 B + cos2 B = 1)
= sin2 A + cos2 A = 1
Example 6.8 If cos q + sin q = 2 cos q , then prove that cos q − sin q = 2 sin q
Solution Now, cos q + sin q = 2 cos q .
Squaring both sides,
(cos q + sin q)2 = ( 2 cos q)2
cos2 q + sin2 q + 2 sin q cos q = 2 cos2 q
Trigonometry 245

2 cos2 q - cos2 q - sin2 q = 2 sin q cos q
cos2 q - sin2 q = 2 sin q cos q
(cos q + sin q)(cos q − sin q) =2 sin q cos q
2 sin q cos q 2 sin q cos q
cos q - sin q = = [ cos q + sin q = 2 cos q ]
cos q + sin q 2 cos q
= 2 sin q
Therefore, cos q − sin q = 2 sin q .
Example 6.9 Prove that (cosec q − sin q)(sec q − cos q)(tan q + cot q) =1
Solution (cosec q − sin q)(sec q − cos q)(tan q + cot q)
 1  1   sin q cos q 
=  − sin q   − cos q   + 
 sin q   cos q   cos q sin q 
1 − sin2 q 1 − cos2 q sin2 q + cos2 q

= × ×
sin q cos q sin q cos q
cos2 q sin2 q × 1
= = 1
sin2 q cos2 q
sin A sin A
Example 6.10 Prove that + = 2cosecA.
1 + cos A 1 − cos A
sin A sin A
Solution +
1 + cos A 1 − cos A
sin A(1 − cos A) + sin A(1 + cos A)
=
(1 + cos A)(1 − cos A)
sin A − sin A cos A + sin A + sin A cos A
=
1 − cos2 A
2 sin A 2 sin A
= 2
= = 2 cosec A
1 − cos A sin2 A
P2 −1
Example 6.11 If cosec q+cot q=P , then prove that cos q = 2
P +1
Solution Given cosec q+cot q=P ...(1)
cosec2q - cot2q =1 (identity)
1
cosec q - cot q =
cosec q +cot q
1
cosec q - cot q = ...(2)
P
1
Adding (1) and (2) we get, 2cosec q = P +
P
2
P +1
2cosec q = ...(3)
P
1
Subtracting (2) from (1), we get, 2 cot q = P −
P

P2 −1
2 cot q = ...(4)
P
2 cot q P2 −1 P P2 −1
Dividing (4) by (3) we get, = × 2 Þ cos q = 2
2 cosec q P P +1 P +1
sin2 A − sin2 B
Example 6.12 Prove that tan A − tan B =2 2
cos2 A cos2 B
2 2
sin A sin B
Solution tan2 A − tan2 B = −
cos2 A cos2 B
sin2 A cos2 B − sin2 B cos2 A
=
cos2 A cos2 B
sin2 A(1 − sin2 B ) − sin2 B (1 − sin2 A)
=
cos2 A cos2 B
sin2 A − sin2 A sin2 B − sin2 B + sin2 A sin2 B sin2 A − sin2 B
= =
cos2 A cos2 B cos2 A cos2 B
 cos3 A − sin 3 A   cos 3 A + sin 3 A 

Example 6.13 Prove that   − 

 = 2 sin A cos A
 cos A − sin A   cos A + sin A 
 cos3 A − sin 3 A   cos 3 A + sin 3 A 
Solution   −  
 cos A − sin A   cos A + sin A 
(cos A − sin A)(cos2 A + sin2 A + cos A sin A)   a 3 − b 3 = (a − b)(a 2 + b 2 + ab)
=    
 cos A − sin A   a 3 + b 3 = (a + b)(a 2 + b 2 − ab)
 
(cos A + sin A)(cos2 A + sin2 A − cos A sin A)
−  
 cos A + sin A 
= (1 + cos A sin A) − (1 − cos A sin A)

= 2 cos A sin A
sin A cos A
Example 6.14 Prove that + =1
sec A + tan A − 1 cosecA+cotA − 1
sin A cos A
Solution +
sec A + tan A − 1 cosecA+cot A − 1
sin A(cos ecA+ cot A − 1) + cos A(sec A + tan A − 1)
=
(sec A + tan A − 1)(cos ecA+ cot A− 1)
sin A cos ecA+ sin A cot A − sin A + cos A sec A + cos A tan A − cos A
=
(sec A + tan A − 1)(cos ecA+ cot A − 1)
1 + cos A − sin A + 1 + sin A − cos A

=
 1 sin A  1 cos A 
 + − 1  + − 1
 cos A cos A   sin A sin A 
Trigonometry 247

2
=
1 + sin A − cos A  1 + cos A − sin A 
   
 cos A   sin A 
2 sin A cos A
=
(1 + sin A − cos A)(1 + cos A − sin A)
2 sin A cos A 2 sin A cos A

= =
[1 + (sin A − cos A)][1 − (sin A − cos A)] 1 − (sin A − cos A)2

= =
1 − (sin A + cos2 A − 2 sin A cos A)
2
1 − (1 − 2 sin A cos A)

= = = 1.
1 − 1 + 2 sin A cos A 2 sin A cos A
1 + tan2 A  1 − tan A 2
Example 6.15 Show that   =  
 1 + cot2 A   1 − cot A 
Solution
LHS RHS 

2

1 − tan A 
2 
1 + tan2 A  1 + tan2 A
   1 − tan A 
  =  
 1 + cot2 A  =  1 − cot A   1 
  1+ 1 1 − 
tan2 A  tan A 
2
 
 
1 + tan2 A  1 − tan A 
= = tan2 A ... (1) =   = (− tan A)2 = tan2 A ... (2)
2
tan A + 1  tan A − 1 
 
tan2 A  tan A 
1 + tan2 A  1 − tan A 2
From (1) and (2),   =  
  
 1 + cot A   1 − cot A 
2
(1 + cot A + tan A)(sin A − cos A)

Example 6.16 Prove that 3 3
= sin2 A cos2 A
sec A − cos ec A
(1 + cot A + tan A)(sin A − cos A)
Solution
sec3 A − cos ec 3A
 
1 + cos A + sin A  (sin A − cos A)
 sin A cos A 
=
(sec A − cos ecA)(sec2 A + sec A cos ecA + cos ec 2A)
(sin A cos A + cos2 A + sin2 A)(sin A − cos A)

= sin A cos A
 1 1 1 
(sec A − cosecA)  2 + + 
 cos A cos A sin A sin2 A 

 sin A cos A 
(sin A cos A + 1)  − 
 sin A cos A sin A cos A 
=
 sin2 A + sin A cos A + cos2 A 
(sec A − cossecA)  
 sin2 A cos2 A 
(sin A cos A + 1)(sec A − cos ecA)
= × sin2 A cos2 A = sin2 A cos2 A
(sec A − cos ecA)(1 + sin A cos A)
cos2 q sin2 q
Example 6.17 If = p and = q , then prove that p 2q 2 (p 2 + q 2 + 3) = 1
sin q cos q
2
cos q sin2 q
Solution We have = p ...(1) and = q ...(2)
sin q cos q
 cos2 q   sin2 q   cos2 q   sin2 q  
2 2 2 2
p q (p + q + 3) = 
2 2 2 2      ×   +   + 3 [from (1) and (2)]
  
 sin q   cos q   sin q   cos q  
 
 cos q   sin q   cos q sin q
4 4 4 4 
=  2   2  ×  2 + + 3 

 sin q   cos q   sin q cos q
2

 cos6 q + sin6 q + 3 sin2 q cos2 q 
= (cos2 q × sin2 q) ×  



2 2
sin q cos q 
6 6 2 2
= cos q + sin q + 3 sin q cos q

= (cos2 q)3 + (sin2 q)3 + 3 sin2 q cos2 q
= [(cos2 q + sin2 q)3 − 3 cos2 q sin2 q(cos2 q + sin2 q)] + 3 sin2 q cos2 q
= 1 − 3 cos2 q sin2 q(1) + 3 cos2 q sin2 q = 1
Progress Check
1. The number of trigonometric ratios is _____.

2. 1 - cos2 q is _____.
3. (sec q + tan q)(sec q − tan q) is _____.
4. (cot q + cosecq)(cot q − cosecq) is _____.
5. cos 60° sin 30° + cos 30° sin 60° is _____.
6. tan 60° cos 60° + cot 60° sin 60° is _____.
7. (tan 45° + cot 45°) + (sec 45° cosec45°) is _____.
8. (i) sec q = cosecq if q is _____. (ii) cot q = tan q if q is ____.
Exercise 6.1
1. Prove the following identities.

(i) cot q + tan q = sec q cosecq (ii) tan 4 q + tan2 q = sec4 q − sec2 q
1 − tan2 q cos q
(i) = tan2 q (ii) = sec q − tan q
2
cot q − 1 1 + sin q
Trigonometry 249

1 + sin q 1 + sin q 1 − sin q

(i) = sec q + tan q (ii) + = 2 sec q
1 − sin q 1 − sin q 1 + sin q
(i) sec6 q = tan6 q + 3 tan2 q sec2 q + 1
(ii) (sin q + sec q)2 + (cos q + cosec q)2 = 1 + (sec q + cosec q)2

cot θ − cos θ cosec θ − 1
(i) sec4 q(1 − sin 4 q) − 2 tan2 q = 1 (ii) =
cot θ + cos θ cosec θ+ 1
sin A − sin B cos A − cos B sin 3 A + cos3 A sin 3 A − cos3 A
(i) + = 0 (ii) + =2
cos A + cos B sin A + sin B sin A + cos A sin A − cos A
7. (i) If sin q + cos q = 3 , then prove that tan q + cot q = 1.
3 tan q − tan 3 q
(ii) If 3 sin q − cos q = 0, then show that tan 3q =
1 − 3 tan2 q
cos α cos α
8. (i) If = m and = n , then prove that (m 2 + n 2 )cos2 b = n 2
cos β sin β
2 2
(ii) If cot q + tan q = x and sec q − cos q = y , then prove that (x 2y )3 − (xy 2 )3 = 1
9. (i) If sin q + cos q = p and sec q + cosec q = q , then prove that q(p 2 − 1) = 2p
(ii) If sin q(1 + sin2 q) = cos2 q , then prove that cos6 q − 4 cos4 q + 8 cos2 q = 4
cos q 1 a2 − 1
10. If = , then prove that 2 = sin q
1 + sin q a a +1
6.3 Heights and Distances

In this section, we will see how trigonometry is used for
finding the heights and distances of various objects without actually
measuring them. For example, the height of a tower, mountain, building or tree, distance
of a ship from a light house, width of a river, etc. can be determined by using knowledge
of trigonometry. The process of finding Heights and Distances is the best example of
applying trigonometry in real-life situations. We would explain these applications through
some examples. Before studying methods to find heights
and distances, we should understand some basic definitions. t
ig h
o fs
Line of Sight ne
Li
The line of sight is the line drawn from the eye of an
observer to the point in the object viewed by the observer. Fig. 6.5

Theodolite
Theodolite is an instrument which is used in measuring the angle
between an object and the eye of the observer. A theodolite consists of two
graduated wheels placed at right angles to each other and a telescope. The
wheels are used for the measurement of horizontal and vertical angles. The
angle to the desired point is measured by positioning the telescope towards Fig. 6.6
that point. The angle can be read on the telescope scale.
Object
O Angle of Elevation
Eye of the observer
The angle of elevation is an angle formed by

gh
t the line of sight with the horizontal when the point
f si
eo being viewed is above the horizontal level. That is,
Lin n
f elevatio
Angle o the case when we raise our head to look at the object.
P Horizontal line A (see Fig. 6.7) Angle of
Depression
Fig. 6.7
Angle of Depression
The angle of depression is an angle formed by the line of
sight with the horizontal when the point is below the horizontal
level. That is, the case when we lower our head to look at the
Fig. 6.8
point being viewed. (see Fig. 6.8)
Clinometer
The angle of elevation and depression are usually
measured by a device called clinometer.
Fig. 6.9
Note
¾¾ From a given point, when height of an object ¾¾ The angle of elevation increases as we
increases the angle of elevation increases. move towards the foot of the vertical
If h1 > h2 then α > β object like tower or building.
A If d2 < d1 then β > α A
h1
h2
a b
C B
a b d2
B C d1
Fig. 6.10(a) Fig. 6.10(b)
Trigonometry 251

Activity 2
Representation of situations through right triangles. Draw a figure to illustrate the
situation.
Situations Draw a figure
A
A tower stands vertically on the ground.

From a point on the ground, which is 20m
away from the foot of the tower, the angle
of elevation of the top of the tower is found
to be 45°.
45°
C 20 m B
Fig. 6.11
An observer of 1.8 m tall is 25.2 m away
from a chimney. The angle of elevation of ………………………………..
the top of the chimney from her eyes is 45°.
From a point P on the ground the angle of
elevation of the top of a 20 m tall building
is 30°. A flag is hoisted at the top of the ………………………………..
building and the angle of elevation of the
top of the flagstaff from P is 55° .
The shadow of a tower standing on a level
ground is found to be 40 m longer when ………………………………….
the Sun’s altitude is 30° than when it is 60°.
6.3.1 Problems involving Angle of Elevation
In this section, we try to solve problems when Angle of elevation are given.
C
C
Example 6.18
Calculate ÐBAC in the given triangles. (tan
8 cm
4 cm
38.7° = 0.8011, tan 69.4° = 2.6604)

qo
Solution B A
qo
5 cm B 3 cm A
Fig. 6.12(a) Fig. 6.12(b)
(i) In the right angled ∆ABC [see Fig.6.12(a)] (ii) In the right angled ∆ ABC [see Fig.6.12(b)]
opposite side 4 8
tan q = = tan q =
adjacent side 5 3
tan q = 0.8 tan q = 2.66
Þ q = 38.7° ( tan 38.7° = 0.8011) Þ q = 69.4° ( tan 69.4° = 2.6604)
\ ÐBAC = 38.7° \ ∠BAC = 69.4°

Example 6.19 A tower stands vertically on the ground. From a point on the ground,
which is 48 m away from the foot of the tower, the angle of elevation of the top of the tower
is 30° . Find the height of the tower.
Solution Let PQ be the height of the tower. P

Take PQ = h and QR is the distance between the tower
and the point R. In the right angled ∆PQR, ∠PRQ = 30°
h
PQ
tan q =
QR
30°
h 1 h
tan 30° = Þ = Þ h = 16 3 R 48 m Q
48 3 48 Fig. 6.13
Therefore, the height of the tower is 16 3 m
Example 6.20 A kite is flying at a height of 75 m above the ground. The string attached
to the kite is temporarily tied to a point on the ground. The inclination of the string
with the ground is 60° . Find the length of the string, assuming that there is no slack
in the string.
Solution Let AB be the height of the kite above the ground. Then, AB = 75.
Let AC be the length of the string. A
In the right angled ∆ABC, ∠ACB = 60°
AB
sin q =
AC
stri
75 m
75

ng
sin 60° =
AC
3 75 150
Þ = Þ AC = = 50 3
2 AC 3 60°
Hence, the length of the string is 50 3 m. B Fig. 6.14 C
Example 6.21 Two ships are sailing in the sea on either sides of a lighthouse. The
angle of elevation of the top of the lighthouse as observed from the ships are 30° and
45° respectively. If the lighthouse is 200 m high, find the distance between the two
ships. ( 3 = 1.732 )
B
Solution Let AB be the
lighthouse. Let C and D be the
200m
positions of the two ships.

Then, AB = 200 m . 30° 45°
C A D
∠ACB = 30° , ∠ADB = 45°
Fig. 6.15
Trigonometry 253

AB
In the right angled ∆BAC, tan 30° =
AC
1 200
= Þ AC = 200 3 ...(1)
3 AC
AB
In the right angled ∆BAD, tan 45° =
AD
200
1= Þ AD = 200 ...(2)
AD
Now, CD = AC + AD = 200 3 + 200 [by (1) and (2)]
CD = 200( 3 + 1) = 200 × 2.732 = 546.4
Distance between two ships is 546.4 m .
Example 6.22 From a point on the ground, the angles of elevation of the bottom and top
of a tower fixed at the top of a 30 m high building are 45° and 60° respectively. Find the
height of the tower. ( 3 = 1.732)
C
Solution Let AC be the height of the tower.
Let AB be the height of the building.
h
Then, AC = h metres, AB = 30 m
In the right angled ∆CBP, ∠CPB = 60° A
BC
tan q =
BP
30m
AB + AC 30 + h
tan 60° = Þ 3= ...(1)
BP BP
60o
In the right angled ∆ABP, ∠APB = 45° 45o
B P
AB
tan q =
Fig. 6.16
BP
30
tan 45° = Þ BP = 30 ...(2)
BP
30 + h
Substituting (2) in (1), we get 3 =
30
h = 30( 3 − 1) = 30(1.732 − 1) = 30(0.732) = 21.96
Hence, the height of the tower is 21.96 m.
Example 6.23 A TV tower stands vertically on a bank of a canal. The tower is watched
from a point on the other bank directly opposite to it. The angle of elevation of the top
of the tower is 58°. From another point 20 m away from this point on the line joining this
point to the foot of the tower, the angle of elevation of the top of the tower is 30°. Find the
height of the tower and the width of the canal. (tan 58° = 1.6003)

Solution A
Let AB be the height of the TV tower.
TV Tower
CD = 20 m.
Let BC be the width of the canal.

AB
In the right angled ∆ABC, tan 58° = 30° 58°
BC D 20m C B
Fig. 6.17
AB
1.6003 = ...(1)
BC
AB AB
In the right angled ∆ABD, tan 30° = =
BD BC + CD
1 AB
= ...(2)
3 BC + 20
1.6003 BC + 20
Dividing (1) by (2) we get, =
1 BC
3
20
BC = = 11.29 m ...(3)
1.7717
AB
1.6003 = [from (1) and (3)]
11.29
AB = 18.07
Hence, the height of the tower is 18.07 m and the width of the canal is 11.29 m .
Example 6.24 An aeroplane sets off from G on a bearing of 24° towards H, a point
250 km away. At H it changes course and heads towards J deviates further by 55° and
a distance of 180 km away.
(i) How far is H to the North of G? (ii) How far is H to the East of G?
(iii) How far is J to the North of H? (iv) How far is J to the East of H?
sin 24° = 0.4067
 sin 11° = 0.1908 
 N
cos 24° = 0.9135 cos 11° = 0.9816

Solution J
H
OG
(i) In the right angled ∆GOH, cos 24° =
GH
OG
0.9135 = ; OG = 228.38 km G
250
Distance of H to the North of G = 228.38 km Fig. 6.18 (a)
Trigonometry 255

(ii) In the right angled ∆GOH,
OH N
sin 24° =
GH
55o 180 k
m J
OH
0.4067 = ; OH = 101.68 O H 11o
250 66o I
Distance of H to the East of
km
G = 101.68 km 24o 250
G
(iii) In the right angled ∆HIJ,
Fig. 6.18 (b)
IJ
sin 11° =
HJ
IJ
0.1908 = ; IJ = 34.34 km
180
Distance of J to the North of H = 34.34 km
(iv) In the right angled ∆HIJ,

HI
cos11° =
HJ
HI
0.9816 = ; HI = 176.69 km
180
Distance of J to the East of H = 176.69 km
Example 6.25 As shown in the figure, two trees are standing on flat ground. The angle of elevation
of the top of both the trees from a point X on the ground is 40° . If the horizontal distance between
X and the smaller tree is 8 m and the distance of the top of the two trees is 20 m, calculate
(i) the distance between the point X and the top of the smaller tree.
(ii) the horizontal distance between the two trees.
(cos 40° = 0.7660)
Solution Let AB be the height of the bigger tree and CD be the height of the smaller tree
and X is the point on the ground. B
CX
(i) In the right angled ∆XCD, cos 40° =
XD
8 20
XD = =10.44 m m
0.7660
Therefore, the distance between X and top
D
of the smaller tree = XD = 10.44 m
(ii) In the right angled ∆XAB,

40o
AX AC + CX
cos 40° = = A C 8m X
BX BD + DX Fig. 6.19

AC + 8
0.7660 = Þ AC = 23.32 − 8 = 15.32 m
20 + 10.44
Therefore, the horizontal distance between two trees = AC = 15.32 m
Thinking Corner
1. What type of triangle is used to calculate heights and distances?
2. When the height of the building and distances from the foot of the building is
given, which trigonometric ratio is used to find the angle of elevation?
3. If the line of sight and angle of elevation is given, then which trigonometric ratio
is used
(i) to find the height of the building
(ii) to find the distance from the foot of the building.
Exercise 6.2
1. Find the angle of elevation of the top of a tower from a point on the ground, which
is 30 m away from the foot of a tower of height 10 3 m.
2. A road is flanked on either side by continuous rows of houses of height 4 3 m with no
space in between them. A pedestrian is standing on the median of the road facing a row
house. The angle of elevation from the pedestrian to the top of the house is 30° . Find the
width of the road.
3. To a man standing outside his house, the angles of elevation of the top and bottom
of a window are 60° and 45° respectively. If the height of the man is 180 cm and if he
is 5 m away from the wall, what is the height of the window? ( 3 = 1.732)
4. A statue 1.6 m tall stands on the top of a pedestal. From a point on the ground, the
angle of elevation of the top of the statue is 60ϒ and from the same point the angle of
elevation of the top of the pedestal is 40ϒ. Find the height of the pedestal.
(tan 40° = 0.8391, 3 = 1.732)
5. A flag pole of height ‘h’ metres is on the top of

h
the hemispherical dome of radius ‘r’ metres. A
man is standing 7 m away from the dome.
Seeing the top of the pole at an angle 45° and r
moving 5 m away from the dome and seeing

45o 30 o
the bottom of the pole at an angle 30°. Find 7m 5m
(i) the height of the pole (ii) radius of the
dome. ( 3 = 1.732)
Trigonometry 257

6. T
he top of a 15 m high tower makes an angle of elevation of 60° with the bottom of
an electronic pole and angle of elevation of 30° with the top of the pole. What is the
height of the electric pole?
6.3.2 Problems involving Angle of Depression
Note
In this section, we try to solve Angle of Depression and Angles of q
depression
problems when Angles of depression are Angle of Elevation are equal Angles of
become they are alternative q elevation
given.
angles. Fig. 6.20
Example 6.26 A player sitting on the top of a tower of height 20 m observes the angle of
depression of a ball lying on the ground as 60°. Find the distance between the foot of the
tower and the ball. ( 3 = 1.732)
Solution Let BC be the height of the tower and A be the position of the ball lying on the
ground. Then,
X
BC = 20 m and ∠XCA = 60° = ∠CAB
C
60o
Let AB = x metres.
In the right angled ∆ABC,

BC
20 m
tan 60° =
AB
20
3 =
x 60o
20 × 3 20 × 1.732 A x B
x = = = 11.55 m.
3× 3 3 Fig. 6.21
Hence, the distance between the foot of the tower and the ball is 11.55 m.
Example 6.27 The horizontal distance between two buildings is 140 m. The angle of
depression of the top of the first building when seen from the top of the second building
is 30°. If the height of the first building is 60 m, find the height of the second building.
( 3 = 1.732) X C
Solution The height of the first building 30o
AB = 60 m. Now, AB = MD = 60 m
30o
Let the height of the second building
A 140 m M
h
CD = h. Distance BD = 140 m
60 m
Now, AM = BD = 140 m
From the diagram,
∠XCA = 30° = ∠CAM Building - I B 140 m D Building - II

Fig. 6.22

CM
In the right angled ∆AMC, tan 30° =
AM
1 CM
=
3 140
140 140 3
CM = =
3 3
140 × 1.732
=
3
CM = 80.83
Now, h = CD = CM +MD = 80.83+60 = 140.83
Therefore, the height of the second building is 140.83 m
Example 6.28 From the top of a tower 50 m high, the angles of depression of the top and
bottom of a tree are observed to be 30° and 45° respectively. Find the height of the tree.
( 3 = 1.732)
Solution The height of the tower AB = 50 m
Let the height of the tree CD = y and BD = x
From the diagram, ∠XAC = 30° = ∠ACM and ∠XAD = 45° = ∠ADB
In the right angled ∆ABD, X A

30o
AB 45o
tan 45° =
BD
50
50 m
1= Þ x = 50 m 30o
x C
M
In the right angled ∆AMC,
AM y
tan 30° = 45o
CM D x B
1 AM Fig. 6.23
= [ DB = CM]
3 50
50 50 3 50 × 1.732
AM = = = = 28
= 28.87
.85 m.
3 3 3
Therefore, height of the tree = CD = MB = AB − AM = 50 – 28.87 = 21.13 m
Trigonometry 259

Example 6.29 As observed from the top of a 60 m high lighthouse from the sea level,
the angles of depression of two ships are 28° and 45° . If one ship is exactly behind the
other on the same side of the lighthouse, find the distance between the two ships.
(tan 28° =0.5317) D X
28o
45o
Solution Let the observer on the
lighthouse CD be at D.
Height of the lighthouse CD = 60 m
60 m
From the diagram,
∠XDA = 28° = ∠DAC and
45o 28o
∠XDB = 45° = ∠DBC C B A
Fig. 6.24
DC
In the right angled ∆DCB, tan 45° =
BC
60
1 = Þ BC = 60 m
BC
DC
In the right angled ∆DCA, tan 28° =
AC
60 60
0.5317 = Þ AC = = 112.85
AC 0.5317
Distance between the two ships AB = AC − BC = 52.85 m
Example 6.30 A man is watching a boat speeding away from the top of a tower. The boat
makes an angle of depression of 60° with the man’s eye when at a distance of 200 m from
the tower. After 10 seconds, the angle of depression becomes 45°. What is the approximate
speed of the boat (in km / hr), assuming that it is sailing in still water? ( 3 = 1.732)
Solution Let AB be the tower.
X A
Let C and D be the positions of the boat. 45o
60o
From the diagram,
∠XAC = 60° = ∠ACB and
∠XAD = 45° = ∠ADB , BC = 200 m
AB
In the right angled ∆ABC, tan 60° =
BC 45o 60o
AB
Þ 3= D C 200m B
200 Fig. 6.25
we get AB = 200 3 ...(1)
AB
In the right angled ∆ABD, tan 45° =
BD

200 3
Þ 1= [by (1)]
BD
we get, BD = 200 3
Now, CD = BD − BC
CD = 200 3 − 200 = 200( 3 − 1) = 146.4
It is given that the distance CD is covered in 10 seconds.

That is, the distance of 146.4 m is covered in 10 seconds.
distance
Therefore, speed of the boat =
time
146.4 3600
= = 14.64 m/s Þ 14.64 ´ km/hr = 52.704 km/hr
10 1000
Exercise 6.3
1. From the top of a rock 50 3 m high, the angle of depression of a car on the ground
is observed to be 30°. Find the distance of the car from the rock.
2. The horizontal distance between two buildings is 70 m. The angle of depression of
the top of the first building when seen from the top of the second building is 45°. If
the height of the second building is 120 m, find the height of the first building.
3. From the top of the tower 60 m high the angles of depression of the top and bottom
of a vertical lamp post are observed to be 38° and 60° respectively. Find the height of
the lamp post. (tan 38° = 0.7813, 3 = 1.732)
4. An aeroplane at an altitude of 1800 m finds that two boats are sailing towards it in
the same direction. The angles of depression of the boats as observed from the
aeroplane are 60° and 30° respectively. Find the distance between the two boats.
( 3 = 1.732)
5. From the top of a lighthouse, the angle of depression of two ships on the opposite
sides of it are observed to be 30° and 60°. If the height of the lighthouse is h meters
and the line joining the ships passes through the foot of the lighthouse, show that the
4h
distance between the ships is m.
3
6. A lift in a building of height 90 feet with transparent glass walls is descending from
the top of the building. At the top of the building, the angle of depression to a fountain
in the garden is 60°. Two minutes later, the angle of depression reduces to 30°. If the
fountain is 30 3 feet from the entrance of the lift, find the speed of the lift which is
descending.
Trigonometry 261

6.3.3 Problems involving Angle of Elevation and Depression
Let us consider the following situation.
A man standing at a top of lighthouse

xo
located in a beach watch on aeroplane flying
above the sea. At the same instant he watch a yo
ship sailing in the sea. The angle with which

he watch the plane correspond to angle of
elevation and the angle of watching the ship
corresponding to angle of depression. This is
one example were one oberseves both angle
of elevation and angle of depression.
Fig. 6.26
In the Fig.6.26, x° is the angle of
elevation and y° is the angle of depression.
In this section, we try to solve problems when Angles of elevation and depression are
given.
Example 6.31 From the top of a 12 m high building, the angle of elevation of the top of
a cable tower is 60° and the angle of depression of its foot is 30°. Determine the height of
the tower.
Solution As shown in Fig.6.27, OA is the building, O is the point of observation on the
top of the building OA. Then, OA = 12 m.
PP ¢ is the cable tower with P as the top and P ' as the bottom.
Then the angle of elevation of P, ∠MOP = 60° . P
And the angle of depression of P ¢ , ∠MOP ′ = 30° .

Suppose, height of the cable tower PP ' = h metres.
Through O, draw OM ^ PP '
h-12
MP = PP ′ − MP ′ = h − OA = h − 12
60o
MP O M
In the right angled ∆OMP, = tan 60° 30o
OM
12 m
h − 12
Þ = 3 P¢
OM A
Fig. 6.27
h − 12
OM = ...(1)
3
MP ′
In the right angled ∆OMP ¢, = tan 30°
OM
12 1
Þ =
OM 3

OM = 12 3 ...(2)
h − 12
From (1) and (2) we have, = 12 3
3
Þ h − 12 = 12 3 × 3 we get, h = 48
Hence, the required height of the cable tower is 48 m.
Example 6.32 A pole 5 m high is fixed on the top of a tower. The angle of elevation of
the top of the pole observed from a point ‘A’ on the ground is 60° and the angle of
depression to the point ‘A’ from the top of the tower is 45°. Find the height of the
tower. ( 3 = 1.732)
Solution Let BC be the height of the tower and CD be the height of the pole.
Let ‘A’ be the point of observation. D
Let BC = x and AB = y.
From the diagram,
5m
∠BAD = 60° and ∠XCA = 45° = ∠BAC
BC
In the right angled ∆ABC, tan 45° = C X
AB 45o
x
Þ 1= Þ x = y ...(1)
y
x
BD BC + CD
In the right angled ∆ABD, tan 60° = =
AB AB
x +5
Þ 3 = Þ 3y = x +5 60o
45o
y A
B y
we get, 3 x =x +5 [From (1)] Fig. 6.28
5 5 3 +1 5(1.732 + 1)
x= = × = = 6.83
3 −1 3 −1 3 +1 2
Hence, height of the tower is 6.83 m.

Example 6.33 From a window (h metres high above the ground) of a house in a street,
the angles of elevation and depression of the top and the foot of another house on the
opposite side of the street are q1 and q2 respectively. Show that the height of the opposite
 cot q2 
house is h 1 +  .
 cot q1 
Solution Let W be the point on the window where the angles of elevation and depression
are measured. Let PQ be the house on the opposite side.
Then WA is the width of the street.
Trigonometry 263

Height of the window = h metres P
= AQ (WR = AQ )
Let PA = x metres. x
AP
In the right angled ∆PAW, tan q1 = W q1
AW A
x q2
Þ tan q1 = h
AW
x
AW = R Q
tan q1 Fig. 6.29
we get, AW = x cot q 1 ...(1)
AQ
In the right angled ∆QAW, tan q2 =
AW
h
Þ tan q2 = Thinking Corner
AW
What is the minimum number
we get, AW = h cot q2 ...(2) of measurements required to
From (1) and (2) we get, x cot q1 = h cot q2 determine the height or distance
cot q2
or angle of elevation?
Þ x = h
cot q1
cot q2  cot q2 
Therefore, height of the opposite house = PA+AQ = x + h = h + h = h 1 + 
cot q1  cot q1 
Hence Proved.
Progress Check
1. The line drawn from the eye of an observer to the point of object is __________.
2. Which instrument is used in measuring the angle between an object and the eye
of the observer?
3. When the line of sight is above the horizontal level, the angle formed is _______.
4. The angle of elevation ___________ as we move towards the foot of the vertical
object (tower).
5. When the line of sight is below the horizontal level, the angle formed is _______.
Exercise 6.4
1. From the top of a tree of height 13 m the angle of elevation and depression of the top
and bottom of another tree are 45° and 30° respectively. Find the height of the
second tree. ( 3 = 1.732)

2. A man is standing on the deck of a ship, which is 40 m above water level. He observes
the angle of elevation of the top of a hill as 60° and the angle of depression of the
base of the hill as 30° . Calculate the distance of the hill from the ship and the height
of the hill. ( 3 = 1.732)
3. If the angle of elevation of a cloud from a point ‘h’ metres above a lake is q1 and the
angle of depression of its reflection in the lake is q2 . Prove that the height that the
h(tan q1 + tan q2 )
cloud is located from the ground is .
tan q2 − tan q1
4. The angle of elevation of the top of a cell phone tower from the foot of a high
apartment is 60° and the angle of depression of the foot of the tower from the top of
the apartment is 30° . If the height of the apartment is 50 m, find the height of the
cell phone tower. According to radiations control norms, the minimum height of a
cell phone tower should be 120 m. State if the height of the above mentioned cell
phone tower meets the radiation norms.
5. The angles of elevation and depression of the top and bottom of a lamp post from the
top of a 66 m high apartment are 60° and 30° respectively. Find
(i) The height of the lamp post.
(ii) The difference between height of the lamp post and the apartment.
(iii) The distance between the lamp post and the apartment. ( 3 = 1.732)
6. Three villagers A, B and C can see C
each other using telescope across a
valley. The horizontal distance A
between A and B is 8 km and the 20o
horizontal distance between B and B 30o
C is 12 km. The angle of depression

8 km 12 km
of B from A is 20° and the angle of
elevation of C from B is 30° . Calculate : (i) the vertical height between A and B.
(ii) the vertical height between B and C. (tan 20° = 0.3640, 3 = 1.732)
Exercise 6.5

1
1. The value of sin2 q + is equal to
1 + tan2 q
(A) tan2 q (B) 1 (C) cot2 q (D) 0
2. tan qcosec q - tan q is equal to
2
(A) sec q (B) cot2 q (C) sin q (D) cot q

3. If (sin a + coseca)2 + (cos a + sec a)2 = k + tan2 a + cot2 a , then the value of k is
equal to
(A) 9 (B) 7 (C) 5 (D) 3
Trigonometry 265

4. If sin q + cos q = a and sec q + cosecq = b , then the value of b(a 2 - 1) is equal to
(A) 2a (B) 3a (C) 0 (D) 2ab
5 1
5. If 5x = sec q and = tan q , then x 2 - 2 is equal to
x x
1
(A) 25 (B) (C) 5 (D) 1
25
6. If sin q = cos q , then 2 tan2 q + sin2 q − 1 is equal to
-3 3 2 -2
(A) (B) (C) (D)
2 2 3 3
7. If x = a tan q and y = b sec q then
y2 x 2 x 2 y2 x 2 y2 x 2 y2
(A) − = 1 (B) − = 1 (C) + =1 (D) − =0
b2 a 2 a 2 b2 a 2 b2 a 2 b2
8. (1 + tan q + sec q)(1 + cot q − cosecq) is equal to
(A) 0 (B) 1 (C) 2 (D) -1
9. a cot q + b cosecq = p and b cot q + a cosec q = q then p 2 - q 2 is equal to

(A) a 2 - b 2 (B) b 2 - a 2 (C) a 2 + b 2 (D) b - a
10. If the ratio of the height of a tower and the length of its shadow is 3 : 1 , then the
angle of elevation of the sun has measure
(A) 45° (B) 30° (C) 90° (D) 60°
11. The electric pole subtends an angle of 30° at a point on the same level as its foot. At
a second point ‘b’ metres above the first, the depression of the foot of the pole is 60° .
The height of the pole (in metres) is equal to
b b b
(A) 3 b (B) (C) (D)
3 2 3
12. A tower is 60 m heigh. Its shadow is x metres shorter when the sun’s altitude is 45°
than when it has been 30° , then x is equal to
(A) 41.92 m (B) 43.92 m (C) 43 m (D) 45.6 m
13. The angle of depression of the top and bottom of 20 m tall building from the top of
a multistoried building are 30° and 60° respectively. The height of the multistoried
building and the distance between two buildings (in metres) is
(A) 20, 10 3 (B) 30, 5 3 (C) 20, 10 (D) 30, 10 3
14. Two persons are standing ‘x’ metres apart from each other and the height of the first
person is double that of the other. If from the middle point of the line joining their
feet an observer finds the angular elevations of their tops to be complementary, then
the height of the shorter person (in metres) is
x x
(A) 2 x (B) (C) (D) 2x
2 2 2

15. The angle of elevation of a cloud from a point h metres above a lake is b . The angle
of depression of its reflection in the lake is 45° . The height of location of the cloud
from the lake is
h(1 + tan b ) h(1 − tan b )
(A) (B) (C) h tan(45° − b ) (D) none of these
1 − tan b 1 + tan b
Unit Exercise - 6
 sec A − 1   sin A − 1  tan2 q − 1
    = 0
1. Prove that (i) cot A   + sec A  (ii)
2 2
= 1 − 2 cos2 q
1 + sin A  1 + sec A  2
tan q + 1
2
 1 + sin q − cos q  1 − cos q

2. Prove that   =
1 + sin q + cos q  1 + cos q
3. If x sin 3 q + y cos3 q = sin q cos q and x sin q = y cos q , then prove that x 2 + y 2 = 1 .
4. If a cos q − b sin q = c , then prove that (a sin q + b cos q) = ± a 2 + b 2 − c 2 .
5. A bird is sitting on the top of a 80 m high tree. From a point on the ground, the angle
of elevation of the bird is 45° . The bird flies away horizontally in such away that it
remained at a constant height from the ground. After 2 seconds, the angle of elevation
of the bird from the same point is 30° . Determine the speed at which the bird flies.
( 3 = 1.732)
6. An aeroplane is flying parallel to the Earth’s surface at a speed of 175 m/sec and at a
height of 600 m. The angle of elevation of the aeroplane from a point on the Earth’s
surface is 37° . After what period of time does the angle of elevation increase to 53° ?
(tan 53° = 1.3270, tan 37° = 0.7536)
7. A bird is flying from A towards B at an angle of 35° , a point 30 km away from A. At
B it changes its course of flight and heads towards C on a bearing of 48° and distance
32 km away.
(i) How far is B to the North of A? (ii) How far is B to the West of A?
(iii) How far is C to the North of B? (iv) How far is C to the East of B?
(sin 55° = 0.8192, cos 55° = 0.5736, sin 42° = 0.6691, cos 42° = 0.7431)
8. Two ships are sailing in the sea on either side of the lighthouse. The angles of
depression of two ships as observed from the top of the lighthouse are 60° and 45°
 3 + 1
  metres, find the height
respectively. If the distance between the ships is 200  
 3 
of the lighthouse.
9. A building and a statue are in opposite side of a street from each other 35 m apart.
From a point on the roof of building the angle of elevation of the top of statue is 24° and
the angle of depression of base of the statue is 34° . Find the height of the statue.
(tan 24° = 0.4452, tan 34° = 0.6745)
Trigonometry 267

Points to Remember
zz An equation involving trigonometric ratios of an angle is called a trigonometric
identity if it is true for all values of the angle.
zz Trigonometric identities
(i) sin2 q + cos2 q = 1 (ii) 1 + tan2 q = sec2 q (iii) 1 + cot2 q = cosec2q

zz The line of sight is the line drawn from the eye of an observer to the point in the
object viewed by the observer.
zz The angle of elevation of an object viewed is the angle formed by the line of sight
with the horizontal when it is above the horizontal level.
zz The angle of depression of an object viewed is the angle formed by the line of sight
with the horizontal when it is below the horizontal level.
zz The height or length of an object or distance between two distant objects can be
determined with the help of trigonometric ratios.
ICT CORNER
ICT 6.1
“Trigonometry” will open. Select the work sheet “Basic Identity”
Step 2: In the given worksheet you can change the triangle by dragging the point “B”. Check the identity for each
angle of the right angled triangle in the unit circle.
ICT 6.2
“Trigonometry” will open. Select the work sheet “Heights and distance problem-1”
Step 2: In the given worksheet you can change the Question by clicking on “New Problem”. Move the slider, to
view the steps. Workout the problem yourself and verify the answer.


7
MENSURATION
“Nature is an infinite sphere of which the centre is everywhere and
the circumference nowhere”. - Blaise Pascal
Pappus, born at Alexandria, Egypt is the last of the great Greek

geometers. Pappus major work ‘Synagoge’ or ‘The Mathematical
Collection’ is a collection of mathematical writings in eight books.
He described the principles of levers, pulleys, wedges, axles

and screws. These concepts are widely applied in Physics and
modern Engineering Science.
Pappus
290 - 350 AD(CE)
Learning Outcomes
zz To determine the surface area and volume of cylinder,
cone, sphere, hemisphere and frustum.
zz To compute volume and surface area of combined solids.
zz To solve problems involving conversion of solids from
one shape to another with no change in volume.
7.1 Introduction
The ancient cultures throughout the world sought the idea of measurements for
satisfying their daily needs. For
example, they had to know how
much area of crops needed to be
grown in a given region; how
much could a container hold?
Cube Cuboid Triangular Prism
etc. These questions were very (Rectangular perllelopiped)
important for making decisions
in agriculture and trade. They
needed efficient and compact
way of doing this. It is for this
reason, mathematicians thought
of applying geometry to real life
situations to attain useful results. Square Pyramid Triangular Pyramid Hexagonal Pyramid
This was the reason for the origin Fig. 7.1
of mensuration. Thus, mensuration can be thought as applied geometry.

269
7 Mensuration.indd 269 16-12-2020 03:17:47 PM

We are already familiar with the areas of plane figures like square, rectangle, triangle,
circle etc. These figures are called 2-dimensional shapes as they can be drawn in a plane.
But most of the objects which we come across in our daily life cannot be represented in a
plane. For example, tubes, water tanks, bricks, ice-cream cones, football etc. These objects
are called solid shapes or 3-dimensional shapes.
We often see solids like cube, cuboid, prism and pyramid. For three dimensional
objects measurements like surface area and volume exist.
In this chapter, we shall study about the surface area and volume
of some of the standard solid shapes such as cylinder, cone, sphere,
hemisphere and frustum.
7.2 Surface Area

Surface area is the measurement of all exposed area of a solid object.
7.2.1 Right Circular Cylinder

Observe the given figures in Fig.7.2 and Pipe
identify the shape.
These objects resemble the shape of a
Drum Tube Light
cylinder.
Fig. 7.2 C B
Definition : A right circular cylinder is a solid generated by the revolution
of a rectangle about one of its sides as axis. h
If the axis is perpendicular to the radius then the cylinder is called
r
a right circular cylinder. In the Fig.7.3, AB = h represent the height and D A
AD = r represent the radius of the cylinder. Fig. 7.3
Top circular base
A solid cylinder is an object bounded by two
circular plane surfaces and a curved surface. The Lateral (or)
area between the two circular bases is called its Curved surface
‘Lateral Surface Area’ (L.S.A.) or ‘Curved Surface
Area’ (C.S.A.). Bottom circular base
Fig. 7.4
Formation of a Right Circular Cylinder – Demonstration
(i) Take a rectangle sheet of a paper of length l and breadth b.
(ii) Revolve the paper about one of its
sides, say b to complete a full rotation
(without overlapping). b b b
(iii)
The shape thus formed will be l
l
a right circular cylinder whose l
circumference of the base is l and the height is b. Fig. 7.5

Surface Area of a Right Circular Cylinder
(i) Curved surface area
Curved surface area (C.S.A.) of a right circular cylinder
= Area of the corresponding rectangle
= l ×b
= 2pr × h ( l is the circumference
= 2prh of the base, b is the height)[see Fig. 7.5]
C.S.A. of a right circular cylinder = 2prh sq. units.
(ii) Total surface area

Total surface area refers to the sum of areas of the curved surface area and the two
circular regions at the top and bottom.
That is, total surface area (T.S.A.) of right circular cylinder

= C.S.A + Area of top circular region
+Area of bottom circular region.
= 2prh + pr 2 + pr 2 (Refer Fig.7.4)
= 2prh + 2pr 2
= 2pr (h + r )
T.S.A. of a right circular cylinder = 2pr (h + r ) sq. units

Note
22
¾¾ We always consider p = , unless otherwise stated.
7
¾¾ The term ‘surface area’ refers to ‘total surface area’.
Example 7.1 A cylindrical drum has a height of 20 cm and base radius of 14 cm. Find its
curved surface area and the total surface area.
Solution Given that, height of the cylinder h = 20 cm ; radius r =14 cm
Now, C.S.A. of the cylinder = 2prh sq. units
22
C.S.A. of the cylinder = 2 × × 14 × 20 = 2 × 22 × 2 × 20 = 1760 cm2
7
T.S.A. of the cylinder = 2pr (h + r ) sq. units
22 22
= 2× × 14 × (20 + 14) = 2 × × 14 × 34
7 7
= 2992 cm2
Therefore, C.S.A. = 1760 cm2 and T.S.A. = 2992 cm2
Mensuration 271

Example 7.2 The curved surface area of a right circular cylinder of height 14 cm is
88 cm2 . Find the diameter of the cylinder.
Solution Given that, C.S.A. of the cylinder =88 sq. cm
2prh = 88
22
2´ ´ r ´ 14 = 88 (h=14 cm)
7
88 × 7
2r = =2
22 × 14
Therefore, diameter = 2 cm
Example 7.3 A garden roller whose length is 3 m long and whose diameter is 2.8 m is
rolled to level a garden. How much area will it cover in 8 revolutions?
Solution Given that, diameter d = 2.8 m and height = 3 m
radius r = 1.4 m
Area covered in one revolution = curved surface area of the cylinder
= 2prh sq. units
22
= 2× × 1.4 × 3 = 26.4
7
Area covered in 1 revolution = 26.4 m2 Fig. 7.6
Area covered in 8 revolutions = 8 × 26.4 = 211.2
Therefore, area covered is 211.2 m2
Thinking Corner
1. When ‘h’ coins each of radius ‘r’ units and thickness 1 unit is stacked one upon the
other, what would be the solid object you get? Also find its C.S.A.
2. When the radius of a cylinder is double its height, find the relation between its
C.S.A. and base area.
3. Two circular cylinders are formed by rolling two rectangular aluminum sheets each
of dimensions 12 m length and 5 m breadth, one by rolling along its length and the
other along its width. Find the ratio of their curved surface areas.
7.2.2 Hollow Cylinder R

An object bounded by two co-axial cylinders of the same height and
different radii is called a ‘hollow cylinder’.
h
Let R and r be the outer and inner radii of the cylinder. Let h be its height.
C.S.A of the hollow cylinder = outer C.S.A. of the cylinder r
+ inner C.S.A. of the cylinder
Fig. 7.7
= 2pRh + 2prh
C.S.A of a hollow cylinder = 2p(R + r )h sq. units

T.S.A. of the hollow cylinder = C.S.A. + Area of two rings at the top and bottom.
= 2p(R + r )h + 2p(R 2 − r 2 )
T.S.A. of a hollow cylinder = 2p(R + r )(R − r + h ) sq. units
Example 7.4 If one litre of paint covers 10 m2, how many litres of paint is required to
paint the internal and external surface areas of a cylindrical tunnel whose
thickness is 2 m, internal radius is 6 m and height is 25 m.
2m
Solution Given that, height h = 25 m; thickness = 2 m
25m
internal radius r = 6 m
Now, external radius R = 6 + 2 = 8 m 6m
C.S.A. of the cylindrical tunnel = C.S.A. of the hollow cylinder Fig. 7.8
C.S.A. of the hollow cylinder = 2p(R + r )h sq. units

22
= 2× (8 + 6) × 25
7
Hence, C.S.A. of the cylindrical tunnel = 2200 m2
Area covered by one litre of paint = 10 m2

2200
Number of litres required to paint the tunnel = = 220
10
Therefore, 220 litres of paint is needed to paint the tunnel.
Progress Check
1. Right circular cylinder is a solid obtained by revolving _______ about _______.
2. In a right circular cylinder the axis is _______to the diameter.
3. The difference between the C.S.A. and T.S.A. of a right circular cylinder is ______.
4. The C.S.A. of a right circular cylinder of equal radius and height is ________ the
area of its base.
7.2.3 Right Circular Cone
Observe the given figures in Fig.7.9

and identify which solid shape they
represent?
Christmas Birthday Ice cream Playing
These objects resemble the shape of Tree Cap Cone Top
a cone.
Fig. 7.9
Mensuration 273

Definition : A right circular cone is a solid generated by the revolution of a
right angled triangle about one of the sides containing the right angle as axis. A
Formation of a Right Circular Cone - Demonstration

In Fig. 7.10, if the right triangle ABC revolves about AB as axis, the
hypotenuse AC generates the curved surface of the cone represented in the h
diagram. The height of the cone is the length of the axis AB, and the slantC r
B
height is the length of the hypotenuse AC. Fig. 7.10
Surface area of a right circular cone A A
Suppose the surface area of the cone is cut

along the hypotenuse AC and then unrolled on
a plane, the surface area will take the form of l l l l
a sector ACD, of which the radius AC and the
arc CD are respectively the slant height and the D C
r D C
circumference of the base of the cone. s
Fig. 7.11
Here the sector of radius ‘l ’ and arc length ‘s’ will be similar to a circle of radius l .
(i) Curved surface area

Area of the sector Arc length of the sector
=
Area of the circle Circumference of the circle
Arc length of the sector
Area of the sector =
´ Area of the circle
Circumference of the circle
s s 2pr
= × pl 2 = × l = × l ( s = 2pr )
2pl 2 2
∴ Curved Surface Area of the cone = Area of the Sector = prl sq. units.
C.S.A. of a right circular cone = prl sq. units.
Thinking Corner
1. Give practical example of solid cone.
2. Find surface area of a cone in terms of its radius when height is equal to radius.
3. Compare the above surface area with the area of the base of the cone.
Activity 1
(i) Take a semi-circular paper with radius 7 cm and make it a cone. Find the C.S.A.
of the cone.
(ii) Take a quarter circular paper with radius 3.5 cm and make it a cone. Find the
C.S.A. of the cone.

Derivation of slant height ‘l’ A
ABC is a right angled triangle, right angled at B. The hypotenuse,

base and height of the triangle are represented by l, r and h respectively.
Now, using Pythagoras theorem in DABC,
h
AC 2 = AB 2 + BC 2
l2 = h2 + r 2 C
r
B
l = h + r units
2 2
Fig. 7.12
(ii) Total surface area
Total surface area of a cone = C.S.A. + base area of the cone
= prl + pr 2 ( the base is a circle)
T.S.A. of a right circular cone = pr (l + r ) sq. units.
Example 7.5 The radius of a conical tent is 7 m and the height is 24 m. Calculate the
length of the canvas used to make the tent if the width of the rectangular canvas is 4 m?
Solution Let r and h be the radius and height of the cone respectively.
Given that, radius r =7 m and height h = 24 m
Hence, l = r 2 + h 2
= 49 + 576
l = 625 = 25 m
C.S.A. of the conical tent = prl sq. units
22
Area of the canvas = × 7 × 25 = 550 m2
7
Area of the canvas 550
Now, length of the canvas = = = 137.5 m
width 4
Therefore, the length of the canvas is137.5 m
Example 7.6 If the total surface area of a cone of radius 7cm is 704 cm2, then find its
slant height.
Solution Given that, radius r = 7 cm

Now, total surface area of the cone = pr (l + r ) sq. units
T.S.A. = 704 cm2
22
704 = × 7 (l + 7 )
7
32 = l + 7 ⇒ l = 25 cm
Therefore, slant height of the cone is 25 cm.
Mensuration 275

Example 7.7 From a solid cylinder whose height is 2.4 cm and
diameter 1.4 cm, a conical cavity of the same height and base is hollowed
out (Fig.7.13). Find the total surface area of the remaining solid.
2.4cm
Solution Let h and r be the height and radius of the cone and cylinder.
Let l be the slant height of the cone.

Given that, h = 2.4 cm and d = 1.4 cm ; r = 0.7 cm 1.4cm
Fig. 7.13
Total surface area of the C
.S.A. of the cylinder + C.S.A. of the cone
=
remaining solid + area of the bottom
= 2prh + prl + pr 2 sq. units
= pr (2h + l + r ) sq. units
Now, l = r 2 + h 2 = 0.49 + 5.76 = 6.25 = 2.5 cm
l = 2.5 cm
Area of the remaining solid = pr (2h + l + r ) sq. units

22
= × 0.7 × (2 × 2.4) + 2.5 + 0.7 
7  
= 17.6
Therefore, total surface area of the remaining solid is 17.6 cm2
Progress Check
1. Right circular cone is a solid obtained by revolving ____ about ____.

2. In a right circular cone the axis is ____ to the diameter.
3. The difference between the C.S.A. and T.S.A. of a cone is ____.
4. When a sector of a circle is transformed to form a cone, then match the conversions
taking place between the sector and the cone.
Sector Cone
Radius Circumference of the base
Area Slant height
Arc length Curved surface area
7.2.4 The Sphere
Definition : A sphere is a solid generated by the revolution of a semicircle about its

diameter as axis.

Every plane section of a sphere is a circle. The line of section of a sphere by a plane
passing through the centre of the sphere is called a great circle
all other plane sections are called small circles. Q R
As shown in the diagram, circle with CD as diameter is a C D

great circle, whereas, the circle with QR as diameter is a small
circle.
Surface area of a sphere

Fig. 7.14
Archimedes Proof
Place a sphere inside a right circular cylinder of equal diameter r
and height. Then the height of the cylinder will be the diameter of
the sphere. In this case, Archimedes proved that the outer area of
the sphere is same as curved surface area of the cylinder.
h = 2r
Surface area of sphere =curved surface area of cylinder
= 2prh = 2pr (2r )
Fig. 7.15
Surface area of a sphere = 4pr 2 sq.units
Activity 2
(i) Take a sphere of radius ‘r’.
(ii) Take a cylinder whose base diameter and height are equal to the diameter of the
sphere.
(iii) Now, roll thread around the surface of the sphere and the cylinder without
overlapping and leaving space between the threads.
(iv) Now compare the length of the two threads in both the cases.
(v) Use this information to find surface area of sphere.
7.2.5 Hemisphere r
A section of the sphere cut by a plane through any of its great

r
circle is a hemisphere.
By doing this, we observe that a hemisphere is exactly half the Fig. 7.16
portion of the sphere.
C.S.A. of the sphere 4pr 2
Curved surface area of hemisphere = =
2 2
C.S.A. of a hemisphere = 2pr 2 sq.units
Total surface area of hemisphere = C.S.A. +Area of top circular region

= 2pr 2 + pr 2
T.S.A. of a hemisphere = 3pr 2 sq.units
Mensuration 277

7.2.6 Hollow Hemisphere
Let the inner radius be r and outer radius be R,
then thickness = R−r
Therefore, C.S.A. = Area of external hemisphere r
R
+ Area of internal hemisphere
Fig. 7.17
= 2pR 2 + 2pr 2
C.S.A. of a hollow hemisphere = 2p(R 2 + r 2 ) sq. units
T.S.A. = C.S.A. + Area of annulus region
= 2p(R 2 + r 2 ) + p(R 2 − r 2 )
= p 2R 2 + 2r 2 + R 2 − r 2 
 
T.S.A. of a hollow hemisphere = p(3R + r ) sq. units
2 2
Example 7.8 Find the diameter of a sphere whose surface area is 154 m2.
Solution Let r be the radius of the sphere. Activity 3
Given that, surface area of sphere = 154 m2 Using a globe, list any two countries
4pr 2 = 154 in the northern and southern
hemispheres.
22
4 ´ ´r 2 = 154
7 Northern
1 7 Hemisphere
⇒ r2 = 154 × ×
4 22 Equator
49 7
r2 = we get r = Southern
4 2 Hemisphere
Therefore, diameter is 7 m
Fig. 7.18
Example 7.9 The radius of a spherical balloon increases from 12 cm to 16 cm as air
being pumped into it. Find the ratio of the surface area of the balloons in the two cases.
Solution Let r1 and r2 be the radii of the balloons.
r1 12 3
Given that, = =
r2 16 4 2
 r   3 
4pr12
2
r12 9
Now, ratio of C.S.A. of balloons =  1 
= 2 =   =   =
4pr22
r2  r2   4  16
Therefore, ratio of C.S.A. of balloons is 9:16.
Thinking Corner
1. Find the value of the radius of a sphere whose surface area is 36p sq. units.
2. How many great circles can a sphere have?
3. Find the surface area of the earth whose diameter is 12756 kms.

Progress Check
1. Every section of a sphere by a plane is a ____________.

2. The centre of a great circle is at the ____________ of the sphere.
3. The difference between the T.S.A. and C.S.A. of hemisphere is ______.
4. The ratio of surface area of a sphere and C.S.A. of hemisphere is _________.
5. A section of the sphere by a plane through any of its great circle is ________.
Example 7.10 If the base area of a hemispherical solid is 1386 sq. metres, then find its
total surface area?
Note
Solution Let r be the radius of the hemisphere.
For finding the C.S.A.
Given that, base area = pr 2 = 1386 sq. m and T.S.A. of a hollow
T.S.A. = 3pr sq.m
2 sphere, the formulla for
finding the surface area
= 3 × 1386 = 4158
of a sphere can be used.
Therefore, T.S.A. of the hemispherical solid is 4158 m2.
Thinking Corner
1. Shall we get a hemisphere when a sphere is cut along the small circle?
2. T.S.A of a hemisphere is equal to how many times the area of its base?
3. How many hemispheres can be obtained from a given sphere?
Example 7.11 The internal and external radii of a hollow hemispherical shell are 3 m and
5 m respectively. Find the T.S.A. and C.S.A. of the shell.
Solution Let the internal and external radii of the hemispherical shell be r and R
respectively.
Given that, R = 5 m, r =3 m
R
C.S.A. of the shell = 2p(R 2 + r 2 ) sq. units r
22
= 2× × (25 + 9) = 213.71
7
T.S.A. of the shell = p(3R 2 + r 2 ) sq. units
Fig. 7.19
22
= (75 + 9) = 264
7
Therefore, C.S.A. = 213.71 m 2 and T.S.A. = 264 m2.
Example 7.12 A sphere, a cylinder

and a cone are of the same height r
O r
O
which is equal to its radius, where as
h=r h=r
cone and cylinder are of same height. r
O
Find the ratio of their curved surface
areas. Fig. 7.20
Mensuration 279

Solution Required Ratio = C.S.A. of the sphere: C.S.A. of the cylinder : C.S.A. of the cone
= 4pr 2 : 2prh : prl (l = r 2 + h 2 = 2r 2 = 2r )
= 4pr 2 : 2pr 2 : pr 2 r
= 4pr 2 : 2pr 2 : 2pr 2
= 4 : 2: 2 = 2 2 : 2 : 1
7.2.7 Frustum of a right circular cone

In olden days a cone shaped buckets
[Fig.7.21(a)] filled with sand / water were used
to extinguish fire during fire accidents. Later,
it was reshaped to a round shaped bottom
[Fig.7.21(b)] to increase its volume.
Fig. 7.21(a) Fig. 7.21(b) Fig. 7.21(c)
The shape in [Fig.7.21(c)] resembling a
inverted bucket is called as a frustrum of a cone.
The objects which we use in our daily life

such as glass, bucket, street cone are examples of Bucket Street Cone Glass
frustum of a cone. (Fig.7.22) Fig. 7.22
A
Definition
H When a cone ABC is cut through by a plane parallel to its
D r E
L
base, the portion of the cone DECB between the cutting plane
h and the base is called a frustum of the cone.
l
R
B C
Fig. 7.23
Surface area of a frustum

Let R and r be radii of the base and top region of the frustum DECB respectively, h
is the height and l is the slant height of the same.
1
Therefore, C.S.A. = (sum of the perimeters of base and top region) × slant height
2
1
= (2pR + 2pr )l
2
C.S.A. of a frustum = p(R + r )l sq. units where, l = h 2 + (R − r )2
T.S.A.
= C.S.A. + Area of the bottom circular region
+ Area of the top circular region.
T.S.A. of a frustum = p(R + r )l + pR 2 + pr 2 sq. units

where, l = h 2 + (R − r )2

Example 7.13 The slant height of a frustum of a cone is 5 cm and the radii of its ends are
4 cm and 1 cm. Find its curved surface area.
Solution Let l, R and r be the slant height, top radius and bottom radius of the frustum.
Given that, l = 5 cm, R = 4 cm, r = 1 cm
Now, C.S.A. of the frustum = p (R + r )l sq. units
22
Thinking Corner
= × (4 + 1) × 5 1. Give two real life examples
7
for a frustum of a cone.
550
=
7 2. Can a hemisphere be
Therefore, C.S.A. = 78.57 cm2 considered as a frustum of
a sphere.
Example 7.14 An industrial metallic bucket is in the shape of the frustum of a right
circular cone whose top and bottom diameters are 10 m and 4 m and whose height is 4 m.
Find the curved and total surface area of the bucket.
Solution Let h, l, R and r be the height, slant height, top radius and bottom radius of the
frustum.
Given that, diameter of the top =10 m; radius of the top R = 5 m.
diameter of the bottom = 4 m; radius of the bottom r = 2 m, height h= 4 m
Now, l = h 2 + (R − r )2
10 m
= 42 + (5 − 2)2
l = 16 + 9 = 25 =5m 4 cm
C.S.A.
= p(R + r )l sq. units
22 4m
= (5 + 2) × 5 = 110 m 2 Fig. 7.24
7
T.S.A. = p(R + r )l + pR 2 + pr 2 sq. units
22   1408
= (5 + 2)5 + 25 + 4  = = 201.14
7   7
Therefore, C.S.A. = 110 m2 and T.S.A. = 201.14 m2
Progress Check
1. The portion of a right circular cone intersected between two parallel planes is
_________.
2. How many frustums can a right circular cone have?
Mensuration 281

Exercise 7.1
1. T
he radius and height of a cylinder are in the ratio 5:7 and its curved surface area is
5500 sq.cm. Find its radius and height.
solid iron cylinder has total surface area of 1848 sq.m. Its curved surface area is
2. A
five – sixth of its total surface area. Find the radius and height of the iron cylinder.
he external radius and the length of a hollow wooden log are 16 cm and 13 cm
3. T
respectively. If its thickness is 4 cm then find its T.S.A.
right angled triangle PQR where ∠Q = 90 is rotated about QR and PQ. If
4. A
QR=16 cm and PR=20 cm, compare the curved surface areas of the right circular
cones so formed by the triangle.
5. 4 persons live in a conical tent whose slant height is 19 m. If each person require
22 m2 of the floor area, then find the height of the tent.
6. A
girl wishes to prepare birthday caps in the form of right circular cones for her
birthday party, using a sheet of paper whose area is 5720 cm2, how many caps can be
made with radius 5 cm and height 12 cm.
7. The ratio of the radii of two right circular cones of same height is 1:3. Find the ratio
of their curved surface area when the height of each cone is 3 times the radius of the
smaller cone.
8. The radius of a sphere increases by 25%. Find the percentage increase in its surface area.
9. The internal and external diameters of a hollow hemispherical vessel are 20 cm and
28 cm respectively. Find the cost to paint the vessel all over 6cm
2
at ` 0.14 per cm .
8cm
10. The frustum shaped outer portion of the table lamp has to be
painted including the top part. Find the total cost of painting
12cm
the lamp if the cost of painting 1 sq.cm is ` 2.
7.3 Volume
Having discussed about the surface areas of cylinder, cone,
sphere, hemisphere and frustum, we shall now discuss about the
volumes of these solids.
Volume refers to the amount of space occupied by an object.
The volume is measured in cubic units.
7.3.1 Volume of a solid right circular cylinder
h
The volume of a right circular cylinder of base radius ‘r’ and height ‘h’
is given by V = (Base Area) × (Height) = pr 2 × h = pr 2h cubic units.
r
Therefore, Volume of a cylinder = pr h cu. units.
2
Fig. 7.25

7.3.2 Volume of a hollow cylinder (volume of the material used)
R
Let the internal and external radii of a hollow cylinder be r and R
units respectively. If the height of the cylinder is h units then
volume of the  volume of the  h
The volume V =  −
 


outer cylinder  inner cylinder 
   
V = pR 2h − pr 2h = p(R 2 − r 2 )h
Fig. 7.26
2 2
Volume of a hollow cylinder = p(R − r )h cu. units.
Example 7.15 Find the volume of a cylinder whose height is 2 m and whose base area
is 250 m2.
Solution Let r and h be the radius and height of the cylinder respectively.
Given that, height h = 2 m, base area = 250 m2
Now, volume of a cylinder = pr 2h cu. units
= base area × h
= 250× 2 = 500 m3
Therefore, volume of the cylinder = 500 m3
Thinking Corner
1. If the height is inversely proportional to the square of its radius, the volume of the
cylinder is ____________.
2. What happens to the volume of the cylinder with radius r and height h, when its
(a) radius is halved (b) height is halved.
Example 7.16 The volume of a cylindrical water tank is 1.078 × 106 litres. If the diameter
of the tank is 7 m, find its height.
Solution Let r and h be the radius and height of the cylinder respectively.
Given that, volume of the tank = 1.078 × 106 = 1078000 litre
1
= 1078 m3 ( 1l = m 3)
1000
7
diameter = 7m Þ radius = m
2
volume of the tank = pr 2h cu. units
22 7 7
1078 = × × ×h
7 2 2
Therefore, height of the tank is 28 m
Mensuration 283

Example 7.17 Find the volume of the iron used to make a hollow cylinder of height 9 cm
and whose internal and external radii are 21 cm and 28 cm respectively.
Solution Let r, R and h be the internal radius, external radius and height of the hollow
cylinder respectively.
Given that, r =21cm, R = 28 cm, h = 9 cm
Now, volume of hollow cylinder = p(R 2 − r 2 )h cu. units
22
= (282 − 212 ) × 9
7
22
= (784 − 441) × 9 = 9702
7
Therefore, volume of iron used = 9702 cm3
Example 7.18 For the cylinders A and B (Fig. 7.27),

(i) find out the cylinder whose volume is greater.
(ii) verify whether the cylinder with greater volume has greater total surface area.
(iii) find the ratios of the volumes of the cylinders A and B.
Solution 7 cm
(i) Volume of cylinder = pr 2h cu. units
22 7 7
Volume of cylinder A = × × × 21
7 2 2
21cm
= 808.5 cm3 21cm
22 21 21
Volume of cylinder B =
7 cm
× × ×7
7 2 2
= 2425.5 cm3
cylinder A cylinder B
Therefore, volume of cylinder B is greater Fig. 7.27
than volume of cylinder A.
(ii) T.S.A. of cylinder = 2pr (h + r ) sq. units

22 7
T.S.A. of cylinder A = 2 × × × (21 + 3.5) = 539 cm2
7 2
22 21
T.S.A. of cylinder B = 2 × × × (7 + 10.5) = 1155 cm2
7 2
Hence verified that cylinder B with greater volume has a greater surface area.
Volume of cylinder A 808.5 1
(iii) = =
Volume of cylinder B 2425.5 3
Therefore, ratio of the volumes of cylinders A and B is 1 : 3.

7.3.3 Volume of a right circular cone
Let r and h be the radius and height of a cone then its volume
1
V = pr 2h cu. units.
3
Demonstration
zz Consider a right circular cylinder
C3 and three right circular cones of
C1 C2 C3 same base radius and height as
C2
C1 that of the cylinder.
zz The contents of three cones will

exactly occupy the cylinder.
Fig. 7.28
From, Fig.7.28 we see that,
3× (Volume of a cone) = Volume of cylinder
= pr 2h cu. units
1
Volume of a cone = pr 2h cu. units
3
Example 7.19 The volume of a solid right circular cone is 11088 cm3. If its height is 24 cm
then find the radius of the cone.
Solution Let r and h be the radius and height of the cone respectively.
Given that, volume of the cone = 11088 cm3
1 2
pr h = 11088
3
1 22
´ ´ r 2 ´ 24 = 11088
3 7
r 2 = 441
Therefore, radius of the cone r = 21 cm
Thinking Corner
1. Is it possible to find a right circular cone with equal
(a) height and slant height (b) radius and slant height (c) height and radius.
2. There are two cones with equal volumes. What will be the ratio of their radius and
height?
Mensuration 285

Example 7.20 The ratio of the volumes of two cones is 2:3. Find the ratio of their radii if
the height of second cone is double the height of the first.
Solution Let r1 and h1 be the radius and height of the cone-I and let r2 and h2 be the
radius and height of the cone-II.
Volume of the cone I 2

Given that, h2 = 2h1 and =
Volume of the cone II 3
1 2
pr h 2
3 1 1 = 2 ⇒ r1 ´ h1 =
2
1 2 3 r22 2h1 3
pr2 h2
3
r12 4 r 2
= ⇒ 1 =
r22 3 r2 3
Therefore, ratio of their radii = 2 : 3
Progress Check
1. Volume of a cone is the product of its base area and ______.

2. If the radius of the cone is doubled, the new volume will be ______ times the
original volume.
3. Consider the cones given in Fig.7.29 cone A cone B
(i) Without doing any calculation,

find out whose volume is
4 cm
3 cm
greater?
(ii) Verify whether the cone with
greater volume has greater 3 cm 4 cm
Fig. 7.29
surface area.
(iii) Volume of cone A : Volume of cone B = ?
7.3.4 Volume of sphere

4
Let r be the radius of a sphere then its volume is given by V = pr 3 cu. units.
3
Demonstration
zz Consider a sphere and two right
circular cones of same base radius
and height such that twice the radius
of the sphere is equal to the height of
the cones.
zz Then we can observe that the
contents of two cones will exactly
occupy the sphere.
Fig. 7.30

From the Fig.7.30, we see that
Volume of a sphere = 2 × (Volume of a cone)
where the diameters of sphere and cone are equal
to the height of the cone.
1 
= 2  pr 2h 
3   
2
= pr 2 (2r ) , ( h = 2r )
3
4
Volume of a sphere = pr 3 cu. units
3
7.3.5 Volume of a hollow sphere / spherical shell (volume of the material used)
Let r and R be the inner and outer radius of the hollow sphere.
Volume enclosed between the outer and inner spheres
4 4 r
= pR 3 − pr 3
3 3 R
4
Volume of a hollow sphere = p(R 3 − r 3 ) cu. units
3
Fig. 7.31
7.3.6 Volume of solid hemisphere
r
Let r be the radius of the solid hemisphere.
1
Volume of the solid hemisphere =
(volume of sphere) r
2
1 4 
=  pr 3  Fig. 7.32
2 3 
2 3
Volume of a solid hemisphere = pr cu. units
3
7.3.7 Volume of hollow hemisphere (volume of the material used)
Let r and R be the inner and outer radius of the hollow hemisphere.
R
r
Volume of hollow 
 Volume of outer   Volume of inner 
   
=
 hemisphere  −  hemisphere 
hemisphere    

2 2
= pR 3 − pr 3
3 3
Fig. 7.33
2
Volume of a hollow hemisphere = p(R 3 − r 3 ) cu. units
3
Thinking Corner
A cone, a hemisphere and a cylinder have equal bases. The heights of the cone and
cylinder are equal and are same as the common radius. Are they equal in volume?
Mensuration 287

Example 7.21 The volume of a solid hemisphere is 29106 cm3. Another hemisphere whose
volume is two-third of the above is carved out. Find the radius of the new hemisphere.
Given that, volume of the hemisphere = 29106 cm3
2
Now, volume of new hemisphere = (Volume of original sphere)
3
2
= × 29106
3
Volume of new hemisphere = 19404 cm3
2 3
pr = 19404
3
19404 × 3 × 7
r 3 = = 9261
2 × 22
r = 3 9261 = 21 cm
Therefore, r = 21 cm
Thinking Corner
1. Give any two real life examples of sphere and hemisphere.
2. A plane along a great circle will split the sphere into _____ parts.
3. If the volume and surface area of a sphere are numerically equal, then the radius
of the sphere is ________.
Example 7.22 Calculate the mass of a hollow brass sphere if the inner diameter is 14 cm
and thickness is 1mm, and whose density is 17.3 g/ cm3. (Hint: mass = density × volume)
Solution Let r and R be the inner and outer radii of the hollow sphere.
1
Given that, inner diameter d = 14 cm; inner radius r = 7 cm; thickness = 1 mm = cm
10
1 71
Outer radius R = 7 + = = 7.1 cm
10 10
4
Volume of hollow sphere = p (R 3 − r 3 ) cu. units
3
4 22 (
= × 357.91 − 343) = 62.48 cm3
3 7
But, density of brass in 1 cm3 = 17.3 gm
Total mass = 17.3× 62.48 = 1080.90 gm
Therefore, total mass is 1080.90 grams.

Progress Check
1. What is the ratio of volume to surface area of a sphere?

2. The relationship between the height and radius of the hemisphere is ________.
3. The volume of a sphere is the product of its surface area and _______.
A
7.3.8 Volume of frustum of a cone
Let H and h be the height of cone and frustum respectively,
L and l be the slant height of the same. H
B r C
If R, r are the radii of the circular bases of the frustum, L
then volume of the frustum of the cone is the difference of the h

l
volumes of the two cones.
1 1 R
D
V = pR 2H − pr 2 (H − h ) E
3 3 Fig. 7.34
Since the triangles ABC and ADE are similar, the ratio of their corresponding sides
are proportional.
H -h r hR
Therefore, = ⇒
⇒ H = …(1) Thinking Corner
H R R −r
Is it possible to obtain the
1 1
V = pR 2H − pr 2 (H − h ) volume of the full cone when
3 3
p 1 2
the volume of the frustum is
2 2
= H (R − r ) + pr h known?
3 3
p hR p
= (R 2 − r 2 ) + r 2h [using (1)]
3 R −r 3
p p
= hR(R + r ) + r 2h
3 3
ph 2
Volume of a frustum = (R + Rr + r 2 ) cu. units
3
Example 7.23 If the radii of the circular ends of a frustum which is 45 cm high are 28 cm
and 7 cm, find the volume of the frustum.
Solution Let h, r and R be the height, top and bottom radii of the frustum. 7 cm
Given that, h = 45 cm, R = 28 cm, r = 7 cm
1
Volume = p R 2 + Rr + r 2  h cu. units
45 cm

3  
1 22  2
= × × 28 + (28 × 7) + 72  × 45
3 7  
2 8 cm
1 22
= × × 1029 × 45 = 48510 Fig. 7.35
3 7
Therefore, volume of the frustum is 48510 cm3
Mensuration 289

The adjacent figure represents an oblique frustum of a
C
cylinder. Suppose this solid is cut by a plane through C, not
parallel to the base AB, then
h1 + h2 h1
CSA = 2pr × sq. units
2 h2
where h1 and h2 denote the greatest and least height of the frustum.
r
h1 + h2 A B
Then its volume = pr × 2
cu. units Fig. 7.36
2
Exercise 7.2
1. A 14 m deep well with inner diameter 10 m is dug and the earth taken out is evenly
spread all around the well to form an embankment of width 5 m. Find the height of
the embankment.
2. A
cylindrical glass with diameter 20 cm has water to a height of 9 cm. A small
cylindrical metal of radius 5 cm and height 4 cm is immersed completely. Calculate
the raise of the water in the glass?
3. I f the circumference of a conical wooden piece is 484 cm then find its volume when
its height is 105 cm.
4. A conical container is fully filled with petrol. The radius is 10m and the height is
15 m. If the container can release the petrol through its bottom at the rate of 25 cu.
meter per minute, in how many minutes the container will be emptied. Round off
your answer to the nearest minute.
5. A
right angled triangle whose sides are 6 cm, 8 cm and 10 cm is revolved about the
sides containing the right angle in two ways. Find the difference in volumes of the
two solids so formed.
6. T
he volumes of two cones of same base radius are 3600 cm3 and 5040 cm3. Find the
ratio of heights.
7. If the ratio of radii of two spheres is 4:7, find the ratio of their volumes.
8. A solid sphere and a solid hemisphere have equal total surface area. Prove that the
ratio of their volume is 3 3 : 4 .
9. The outer and the inner surface areas of a spherical copper shell are 576p cm2 and
324p cm2 respectively. Find the volume of the material required to make the shell.
10. A container open at the top is in the form of a frustum of a cone of height 16 cm with
radii of its lower and upper ends are 8 cm and 20 cm respectively. Find the cost of
milk which can completely fill a container at the rate of `40 per litre.
7.4 Volume and Surface Area of Combined Solids
Observe the shapes given (Fig.7.37).
The shapes provided lead to the following definitions of ‘Combined Solid’.

A combined solid is said to be a solid
formed by combining two or more solids.
The concept of combined solids is
useful in the fields like doll making, building
construction, carpentry, etc. Tent
To calculate the surface area of the
combined solid, we should only calculate the
areas that are visible to our eyes. For example, if Ice Cream Capsule Tanjore Doll
a cone is surmounted by a hemisphere, we need Fig. 7.37
to just find out the C.S.A. of the hemisphere and C.S.A. of the cone separately and add
them together. Note that we are leaving the base area of both the cone and the hemisphere
since both the bases are attached together and are not visible.
But, the volume of the solid formed by joining two basic solids will be the sum of the
volumes of the individual solids.
6 cm
Example 7.24 A toy is in the shape of a cylinder surmounted by a
hemisphere. The height of the toy is 25 cm. Find the total surface
area of the toy if its common diameter is 12 cm.
Solution Let r and h be the radius and height of the cylinder 1 9 cm
respectively.
Given that, diameter d = 12 cm, radius r = 6 cm
Total height of the toy is 25 cm
Therefore, height of the cylindrical portion = 25 − 6 = 19 cm Fig. 7.38
T.S.A. of the toy = C.S.A. of the cylinder + C.S.A. of the hemisphere
+Base Area of the cylinder
2
= 2prh + 2pr + pr 2
= pr (2h + 3r ) sq. units

22
= × 6 × (38 + 18)
7
22
= × 6 × 56 = 1056
7
Therefore, T.S.A. of the toy is 1056 cm2
Example 7.25 A jewel box (Fig. 7.39) is in the shape of a cuboid of

dimensions 30 cm ´ 15 cm ´10 cm surmounted by a half part of
a cylinder as shown in the figure. Find the volume of the box.
10 cm
Solution Let l, b and h1 be the length, breadth and height of the 1 5

cm 30cm
cuboid. Also let us take r and h2 be the radius and height of the
cylinder. Fig. 7.39
Mensuration 291

1
Now, Volume of the box = Volume of the cuboid + (Volume of cylinder)
2
1
= (l × b × h1 ) + (pr 2h2 ) cu. units
2
1  22 15 15 
= (30 × 15 × 10) +  × × × 30
2 7 2 2 
= 4500 + 2651.79 = 7151.79
Therefore, Volume of the box = 7151.79 cm3
Example 7.26 Arul has to make arrangements for the accommodation of 150 persons
for his family function. For this purpose, he plans to build a tent which is in the shape of
cylinder surmounted by a cone. Each person occupies 4 sq. m of the space on ground and
40 cu. meter of air to breathe. What should be the height of the conical part of the tent if
the height of cylindrical part is 8 m?
Solution Let h1 and h2 be the height of cylinder and cone respectively.

Area for one person = 4 sq. m
6m
Total number of persons = 150
8m
Therefore, total base area = 150´4
pr 2 = 600 ... (1)
Volume of air required for 1 person = 40 m3 Fig. 7.40
Total Volume of air required for 150 persons = 150 × 40 = 6000 m3

1 2
pr 2h1 + pr h2 = 6000
3
 1 
pr 2 h1 + h2  = 6000
 3 
22 2100  1 
× 600 8 + h2  = 6000 [using (1)]
7 11  3 
1 6000
8 + h2 =
3 600
1
h = 10 – 8 = 2
3 2
1
h =6m
3 2
Therefore, the height of the conical tent h2 is 6 m
Example 7.27 A funnel consists of a frustum of a cone attached to a cylindrical portion

12 cm long attached at the bottom. If the total height be 20 cm, diameter of the cylindrical
portion be 12 cm and the diameter of the top of the funnel be 24 cm. Find the outer
surface area of the funnel.

Solution Let R, r be the top and bottom radii of the frustum.
Let h1, h2 be the heights of the frustum and cylinder respectively.
Given that, R = 12 cm, r = 6 cm, h2 = 12 cm 12 cm

Now, h1 = 20–12 = 8 cm
(R − r )
2
8cm
Here, Slant height of the frustum l = + h12 units
6 cm
= 36 + 64
20cm
l = 10 cm
12cm
Outer surface area = 2prh2 + p (R + r )l sq. units
= p 2rh2 + (R + r )l 
 
= p (2 × 6 × 12) + (18 × 10) Fig. 7.41

 
= p 144 + 180
22
= × 324 = 1018.28
7
Therefore, outer surface area of the funnel is 1018.28 cm2
Example 7.28 A hemispherical section is cut out from one face of
a cubical block (Fig.7.42) such that the diameter l of the hemisphere
is equal to side length of the cube. Determine the surface area of
the remaining solid.
Given that, diameter of the hemisphere = side of the cube = l
l Fig. 7.42
Radius of the hemisphere =
2
TSA of the remaining solid = Surface area of the cubical part
+ C.S.A. of the hemispherical part
− Area of the base of the hemispherical part
= 6 × (Edge)2 + 2pr 2 − pr 2
= 6 × (Edge)2 + pr 2
2
l  1
= 6 × (l ) + p   = (24 + p)l 2 2
2  4
1
Total surface area of the remaining solid = (24 + p)l 2 sq. units
4
Mensuration 293

Activity 4
Combined solids
List out the solids in

each combined solid
Total Surface Area of
the combined solid
Exercise 7.3
1. A vessel is in the form of a hemispherical bowl mounted by a hollow cylinder. The

diameter is 14 cm and the height of the vessel is 13 cm. Find the capacity of the vessel.
2. Nathan, an engineering student was asked to make a model shaped like a cylinder
with two cones attached at its two ends. The diameter of the model is 3 cm and its
length is 12 cm. If each cone has a height of 2 cm, find the volume of the model that
Nathan made.
3. From a solid cylinder whose height is 2.4 cm and the diameter 1.4 cm, a cone of the
same height and same diameter is carved out. Find the volume of the remaining
solid to the nearest cm 3 .
12 cm
4. A solid consisting of a right circular cone of height 12 cm and radius
6 cm standing on a hemisphere of radius 6 cm is placed upright in a
right circular cylinder full of water such that it touches the bottom.
Find the volume of the water displaced out of the cylinder, if the
radius of the cylinder is 6 cm and height is 18 cm. 6 cm
6 cm
5. A capsule is in the shape of a cylinder with two hemisphere stuck to
each of its ends. If the length of the entire capsule is 12 mm and the diameter of the
capsule is 3 mm, how much medicine it can hold?
6. As shown in figure a cubical block of side 7 cm is surmounted

by a hemisphere. Find the surface area of the solid.
7 cm
7. A right circular cylinder just enclose a sphere of radius r units.
Calculate
(i) the surface area of the sphere
(ii) the curved surface area of the cylinder
(iii) the ratio of the areas obtained in (i) and (ii).

7.5 Conversion of Solids from one shape to another with no change in Volume
Conversions or Transformations becomes a common part of our daily life. For
example, a gold smith melts a bar of gold to transform it to a jewel. Similarly, a kid playing
with clay shapes it into different toys, a carpenter uses the wooden logs to form different
house hold articles/furniture. Likewise, the conversion of solids from one shape to another
is required for various purposes.
In this section we will be learning problems involving conversions of solids from one
shape to another with no change in volume.
Example 7.29 A metallic sphere of radius 16 cm is melted and recast into small spheres
each of radius 2 cm. How many small spheres can be obtained?
Solution Let the number of small spheres obtained be n.
Let r be the radius of each small sphere and R be the radius of metallic sphere.
Here, R = 16 cm, r = 2 cm
Now, n´ (Volume of a small sphere) = Volume of big metallic sphere
4  4
n  pr 3  = pR 3
 3  3
4  4
n  p × 23  = p × 163
 3  3
8n = 4096 ⇒ n = 512
Therefore, there will be 512 small spheres.
Example 7.30 A cone of height 24 cm is made up of modeling clay. A child reshapes it in
the form of a cylinder of same radius as cone. Find the height of the cylinder.
Solution Let h1 and h2 be the heights of a cone and cylinder respectively.
Also, let r be the raius of the cone.
Given that, height of the cone h1 = 24 cm; radius of the cone and cylinder r = 6 cm
Since, Volume of cylinder = Volume of cone
1 2
pr 2h2 = pr h1
3
1 1
h2 = ´h1 ⇒ h2 = × 24 = 8
3 3
Therefore, height of cylinder is 8 cm
Example 7.31 A right circular cylindrical container of base radius 6 cm and height 15 cm
is full of ice cream. The ice cream is to be filled in cones of height 9 cm and base radius 3
cm, having a hemispherical cap. Find the number of cones needed to empty the container.
Solution Let h and r be the height and radius of the cylinder respectively.
Given that, h = 15 cm, r = 6 cm
Mensuration 295

Volume of the container V = pr 2h cubic units.
22
= × 6 × 6 × 15
7
Let, r1 = 3 cm, h1 = 9 cm be the radius and height of the cone.
Also, r1 = 3 cm is the radius of the hemispherical cap.
Volume of one ice cream cone = (Volume of the cone + Volume of the hemispherical cap)
1 2
= pr12h1 + pr13
3 3
1 22 2 22
= × ×3×3×9 + × ×3×3×3
3 7 3 7
22 22
= × 9(3 + 2) = × 45
7 7
volume of the cylinder
Number of cones =
volume of one ice cream cone
22
× 6 × 6 × 15
Number of ice cream cones needed = 7 = 12
22
× 45
7
Thus 12 ice cream cones are required to empty the cylindrical container.
Activity 5
The adjacent figure shows a cylindrical can with two balls. The can is
just large enough so that two balls will fit inside with the lid on. The
radius of each tennis ball is 3 cm. Calculate the following
(i) height of the cylinder.
(ii) radius of the cylinder.
(iii) volume of the cylinder.
(iv) volume of two balls.
(v) volume of the cylinder not occupied by the balls.
(vi) percentage of the volume occupied by the balls. Fig. 7.43
Exercise 7.4
1. An aluminium sphere of radius 12 cm is melted to make a cylinder of radius 8 cm.
Find the height of the cylinder.
2. Water is flowing at the rate of 15 km per hour through a pipe of diameter 14 cm into a
rectangular tank which is 50 m long and 44 m wide. Find the time in which the level
of water in the tanks will rise by 21 cm.
3. A conical flask is full of water. The flask has base radius r units and height h units, the
water is poured into a cylindrical flask of base radius xr units. Find the height of water
in the cylindrical flask.

4. A solid right circular cone of diameter 14 cm and height 8 cm is melted to form a hollow
sphere. If the external diameter of the sphere is 10 cm, find the internal diameter.
5. Seenu’s house has an overhead tank in the shape of a cylinder. This is filled by pumping
water from a sump (underground tank) which is in the shape of a cuboid. The sump has
dimensions 2 m ´1.5 m ´ 1 m. The overhead tank has its radius of 60 cm and height 105
cm. Find the volume of the water left in the sump after the overhead tank has been
completely filled with water from the sump which has been full, initially.
6. The internal and external diameter of a hollow hemispherical shell are 6 cm and 10 cm
respectively. If it is melted and recast into a solid cylinder of diameter 14 cm, then find
the height of the cylinder.
7. A solid sphere of radius 6 cm is melted into a hollow cylinder of uniform thickness. If
the external radius of the base of the cylinder is 5 cm and its height is 32 cm, then find
the thickness of the cylinder.
8. A hemispherical bowl is filled to the brim with juice. The juice is poured into a
cylindrical vessel whose radius is 50% more than its height. If the diameter is same for
both the bowl and the cylinder then find the percentage of juice that can be transferred
from the bowl into the cylindrical vessel.
Exercise 7.5
1. The curved surface area of a right circular cone of height 15 cm and

base diameter 16 cm is
(A) 60p cm2 (B) 68p cm2 (C) 120p cm2 (D) 136p cm2
2. I f two solid hemispheres of same base radius r units are joined together along their
bases, then curved surface area of this new solid is
(A) 4pr 2 sq. units (B) 6pr 2 sq. units (C) 3p r 2 sq. units (D) 8pr 2 sq. units
3. The height of a right circular cone whose radius is 5 cm and slant height is 13 cm will be
(A) 12 cm (B) 10 cm (C) 13 cm (D) 5 cm
4. I f the radius of the base of a right circular cylinder is halved keeping the same height,
then the ratio of the volume of the cylinder thus obtained to the volume of original
cylinder is
(A) 1:2 (B) 1:4 (C) 1:6 (D) 1:8
1
5. The total surface area of a cylinder whose radius is of its height is
3
9ph 2 8ph 2 56ph 2
(A) sq.units (B) 24ph 2 sq.units (C) sq.units (D) sq.units
8 9 9
6. In a hollow cylinder, the sum of the external and internal radii is 14 cm and the
width is 4 cm. If its height is 20 cm, the volume of the material in it is
Mensuration 297

7. If the radius of the base of a cone is tripled and the height is doubled then the volume is
(A) made 6 times (B) made 18 times (C) made 12 times (D) unchanged
8. T
he total surface area of a hemi-sphere is how much times the square of its radius.
(A) π (B) 4p (C) 3p (D) 2p
9. A
solid sphere of radius x cm is melted and cast into a shape of a solid cone of same
radius. The height of the cone is
(A) 3x cm (B) x cm (C)4x cm (D)2x cm
10. A frustum of a right circular cone is of height 16cm with radii of its ends as 8cm and
20cm. Then, the volume of the frustum is
11. A shuttle cock used for playing badminton has the shape of the combination of
(A) a cylinder and a sphere (B) a hemisphere and a cone
(C) a sphere and a cone (D) frustum of a cone and a hemisphere
12. A spherical ball of radius r1 units is melted to make 8 new identical balls each of
radius r2 units. Then r1 : r2 is
(A) 2:1 (B) 1:2 (C) 4:1 (D) 1:4
13. The volume (in cm3) of the greatest sphere that can be cut off from a cylindrical log
of wood of base radius 1 cm and height 5 cm is
4 10 20
(A) p (B) p (C) 5p (D)p
3 3 3
14. The height and radius of the cone of which the frustum is a part are h1 units and r1
units respectively. Height of the frustum is h2 units and radius of the smaller base is
r2 units. If h2 : h1 = 1 : 2 then r2 : r1 is
(A) 1 : 3 (B) 1 : 2 (C) 2 : 1 (D) 3 : 1
15. The ratio of the volumes of a cylinder, a cone and a sphere, if each has the same
diameter and same height is
(A) 1:2:3 (B) 2:1:3 (C) 1:3:2 (D) 3:1:2
Unit Exercise - 7
1. T he barrel of a fountain-pen cylindrical in shape, is 7 cm long and 5 mm in diameter.

A full barrel of ink in the pen will be used for writing 330 words on an average. How
many words can be written using a bottle of ink containing one fifth of a litre?
2. A hemi-spherical tank of radius 1.75 m is full of water. It is connected with a pipe
which empties the tank at the rate of 7 litre per second. How much time will it take
to empty the tank completely?
3. F ind the maximum volume of a cone that can be carved out of a solid hemisphere of
radius r units.
4. An oil funnel of tin sheet consists of a cylindrical portion 10 cm long attached to a
frustum of a cone. If the total height is 22 cm, the diameter of the cylindrical portion

be 8 cm and the diameter of the top of the funnel be 18 cm, then find the area of the
tin sheet required to make the funnel.
5. Find the number of coins, 1.5 cm in diameter and 2 mm thick, to be melted to form
a right circular cylinder of height 10 cm and diameter 4.5 cm.
6. A hollow metallic cylinder whose external radius is 4.3 cm and internal radius is 1.1
cm and whole length is 4 cm is melted and recast into a solid cylinder of 12 cm long.
Find the diameter of solid cylinder.
7. The slant height of a frustum of a cone is 4 m and the perimeter of circular ends are
18 m and 16 m. Find the cost of painting its curved surface area at `100 per sq. m.
436p
8. A
hemi-spherical hollow bowl has material of volume cubic cm. Its external
3
diameter is 14 cm. Find its thickness.
5 1
9. The volume of a cone is 1005 cu. cm. The area of its base is 201 sq. cm. Find the
slant height of the cone. 7 7
10. A metallic sheet in the form of a sector of a circle of radius 21 cm has central angle
of 216°. The sector is made into a cone by bringing the bounding radii together. Find
the volume of the cone formed.
Points to Remember
Curved surface Area /
Total surface Area Volume
Solid Figure Lateral surface Area
(in sq. units) (in cubic units)
(in sq. units)
Cuboid 2h (l + b ) 2 (lb + bh + lh ) l ´b ´ h
Cube 4a 2 6a 2 a3
Right l 2prh 2pr (h + r ) pr 2h

Circular
Cylinder h
Right prl prl + pr 2 1 2

pr h
Circular l = r +h2 2
= pr (l + r ) 3
Cone l = slant height
h
r
Sphere 4pr 2 4pr 2 4 3

pr
3
r
Mensuration 299

Hemisphere r
2pr 2 3pr 2 2 3
pr
r 3
Hollow 2p (R + r ) h 2p(R + r ) (
p R2 − r 2 h)
cylinder ( R − r + h)
h
r
Hollow sphere 4pR 2 = outer (

4p R 2 + r 2 ) 4
surface area 3
(
p R3 − r 3 )
r
Hollow
R
r
(
2p R 2 + r 2 ) (
p 3R 2 + r 2 ) 2
(
p R3 − r 3 )
hemisphere 3
Frustum of r
p (R + r )l where p(R + r )l + pR 2 1
ph R 2 + r 2 + Rr 
right circular h 3  
l = h 2 + (R − r )
2 2
+pr
cone
R
ICT CORNER
ICT 7.1
“Mensuration _X” will open. Select the work sheet “Cone-Cylinder relation”
Step 2: In the given worksheet you can change the radius and height of the cone-Cylinder by moving the sliders on the left-
hand side. Move the vertical slider, to view cone filled in the cylinder and this proves 3 times cone equal to one cylinder of
same radius and same height.
ICT 7.2
“Mensuration _X” will open. Select the work sheet “Cylinder Hemispheres”
Step 2: In the given worksheet you can change the radius of the Hemisphere-Cylinder by moving the sliders on the left-
hand side. Move the slider Attach/Detach to see how combined solid is formed. You can rotate 3-D picture to see the faces.
Working is given on the left-hand side. Work out and verify your answer.


STATISTICS AND
8 PROBABILITY
“Life is a School of Probability” - Walter Bagehot
Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis, born at Kolkata, was an

Indian statistician who devised a measure of comparison between
two data sets. He introduced innovative techniques for conducting
large-scale sample surveys and calculated acreages and crop yields
by using the method of random sampling. For his pioneering
work, he was awarded the Padma Vibhushan, one of India’s highest
honours, by the Indian government in 1968 and he is hailed as “Father
of Indian Statistics”. The Government of India has designated 29th
Prasanta Chandra
June every year, coinciding with his birth anniversary, as “National Mahalanobis
Statistics Day”.
Learning Outcomes
zz To recall the measures of central tendency.
zz To recall mean for ungrouped and grouped data.
zz To understand the concept of dispersion.
zz To understand and compute range, standard deviation, variance and
coefficient of variation.
zz To understand random experiments, sample space and use of a tree
diagram.
zz To define and describe different types of events of a random experiment.
zz To understand addition theorem of probability and apply it in solving
some simple problems.
8.1 Introduction
‘STATISTICS’ is derived from the Latin word ‘status’ which means a political state.
Today, statistics has become an integral part of everyone’s life, unavoidable whether
making a plan for our future, doing a business, a marketing research or preparing economic
reports. It is also extensively used in opinion polls, doing advanced research. The study
of statistics is concerned with scientific methods for collecting, organising, summarising,
presenting, analysing data and making meaningful decisions. In earlier classes we have
studied about collection of data, presenting the data in tabular form, graphical form and
calculating the Measures of Central Tendency. Now, in this class, let us study about the
Measures of Dispersion.
301
8 Stats and Probability.indd 301 15-12-2020 03:24:04 PM

Recall
Measures of Central Tendency
It is often convenient to have one number that represent the whole data. Such a
number is called a Measures of Central Tendency.
The Measures of Central Tendency usually will be Thinking Corner
near to the middle value of the data. For a given data there 1. Does the mean, median
exist several types of measures of central tendencies. and mode are same for a
given data?
The most common among them are
2. What is the difference
•
Arithmetic Mean Median • Mode • between the arithmetic
mean and average?
Note
¾¾ Data : The numerical representation of facts is called data.
¾¾ Observation : Each entry in the data is called an observation.
¾¾ Variable : The quantities which are being considered in a survey are called
variables. Variables are generally denoted by xi, i = 1,2,3,…,n.
¾¾ Frequencies : The number of times, a variable occurs in a given data is called the
frequency of that variable. Frequencies are generally denoted as
fi, i = 1,2,3,…,n.
In this class we have to recall the Arithmetic Mean.
Arithmetic Mean
The Arithmetic Mean or Mean of the given values is Thinking Corner
sum of all the observations divided by the total number of The mean of n
observations. It is denoted by x (pronounced as x bar) observations is x , if first
Sum of all the observations term is increased by 1
x =
Number of observations second term is increased

Methods of finding Mean
by 2 and so on. What
will be the new mean?
Ungrouped data Grouped data
Direct Method Direct Method Assumed Mean Method Step Deviation Method
n n
n
∑ fidi ∑ fd i i
n
∑x i
∑x f i i X = A+ i =1 X = A +C × i =1
n
X= i =1 n
X= i =1 n
∑f ∑f i
n ∑f i i =1
i
i =1
i =1
where di = xi–A xi − A
where di =
c
We apply the respective formulae depending upon the information provided in the problem.

Progress Check
1. The sum of all the observations divided by number of observations is _______.

2. If the sum of 10 data values is 265 then their mean is _______.
3. If the sum and mean of a data are 407 and 11 respectively, then the number of
observations in the data are _______.
8.2 Measures of Dispersion

The following data provide the runs scored by two batsmen in the last 10 matches.
Batsman A: 25, 20, 45, 93, 8, 14, 32, 87, 72, 4
Batsman B: 33, 50, 47, 38, 45, 40, 36, 48, 37, 26
25 + 20 + 45 + 93 + 8 + 14 + 32 + 87 + 72 + 4
Mean of Batsman A = = 40
10
33 + 50 + 47 + 38 + 45 + 40 + 36 + 48 + 37 + 26
Mean of Batsman B = = 40
10
The mean of both datas are same (40), but they differ significantly.
Batsman A Batsman B
100 100
90 90
80 80
70 70
Runs
Runs
60 60
50 50
40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
No. of Matches No. of Matches
Fig. 8.1(a) Fig. 8.1(b)
From the above diagrams, we see that runs of batsman B are grouped around the
mean. But the runs of batsman A are scattered from 0 to 100, though they both have same
mean.
Thus, some additional statistical information may be required to determine how the
values are spread in data. For this, we shall discuss Measures of Dispersion.
Dispersion is a measure which gives an idea about the scatteredness of the values.
Measures of Variation (or) Dispersion of a data provide an idea of how observations

spread out (or) scattered throughout the data.
Different Measures of Dispersion are
1. Range 2. Mean deviation 3. Quartile deviation

4. Standard deviation 5. Variance 6. Coefficient of Variation
Statistics and Probability 303

8.2.1 Range
The difference between the largest value and the smallest value is called Range.
Range R = L– S
Progress Check
L −S
Coefficient of range =
L +S The range of first 10 prime
where L - Largest value; S - Smallest value numbers is _______
Example 8.1 Find the range and coefficient of range of
the following data: 25, 67, 48, 53, 18, 39, 44.
Solution Largest value L = 67; Smallest value S =18
Range R = L − S = 67 − 18 = 49
L −S
Coefficient of range =
L +S
67 − 18 49
Coefficient of range = = = 0.576
67 + 18 85
Example 8.2 Find the range of the following distribution.
Age (in years) 16-18 18-20 20-22 22-24 24-26 26-28

Number of students 0 4 6 8 2 2
Solution Here Largest value L = 28 Note

Smallest value S = 18
If the frequency of initial class is
Range R = L −S zero, then the next class will be
R = 28 − 18 = 10 Years considered for the calculation of
range.
Example 8.3 The range of a set of data is 13.67 and
the largest value is 70.08. Find the smallest value. Note
Solution Range R = 13.67
The range of a set of data does
Largest value L = 70.08 not give the clear idea about
Range R = L − S the dispersion of the data from
13.67 = 70.08 − S measures of Central Tendency.
S = 70.08 − 13.67 = 56.41 For this, we need a measure which
depend upon the deviation from
Therefore, the smallest value is 56.41.
the measures of Central Tendency.
8.2.2 Deviations from the mean
For a given data with n observations x 1, x 2 ,¼x n , the deviations from the mean x are
x 1 - x , x 2 - x , …, x n - x .
8.2.3 Squares of deviations from the mean
The squares of deviations from the mean x of the observations x 1, x 2 ,¼, x n are
n
(x 1 - x )2,(x 2 - x )2,...,(x n - x )2 or ∑ (x
i =1
i
− x )2

Note
We note that (x i − x ) ≥ 0 for all observations x i , i = 1,2,3,…,n. If the deviations from
the mean (x i − x ) are small, then the squares of the deviations will be very small.
8.2.4 Variance
The mean of the squares of the deviations from the mean is called Variance.
It is denoted by s 2 (read as sigma square).
Variance
= Mean of squares of deviations Thinking Corner
2 2 2
(x − x ) + (x 2 − x ) + ... + (x n − x ) Can variance be
= 1
n n negative?
∑ (x i − x )2
Variance s 2 = i =1
n
8.2.5 Standard Deviation
The positive square root of Variance is called Standard deviation. That is, standard
deviation is the positive square root of the mean of the squares of deviations of the given
values from their mean. It is denoted by s.
Standard deviation gives a clear idea about
how far the values are spreading or deviating from Karl Pearson was the
the mean. first person to use the word
n standard deviation. German
∑ (x i
− x )2 mathematician Gauss used the
Standard deviation s = i =1
word Mean error.
n
Calculation of standard deviation
Grouped data
Ungrouped
(Both discrete
data
and continuous)
Assumed Step Assumed Step

Direct Mean Mean
Mean Deviation Mean Deviation
Method method method
Method Method Method Method
Calculation of Standard Deviation for ungrouped data

(i) Direct Method Note
Σ(x i − x )2
Standard deviation s = The standard deviation and
n
mean have same units in which
Σ(x i2 − 2x ix + x 2 )
= the data are given.
n

Σx i2 Σx i x 2
=
n
− 2x
n
+
n
× 1 + 1 + to n times ( )
Σx i2 x2 Σx i2 Σx i2
= − 2x × x + ×n = − 2x 2 + x 2 = −x2
n n n n
2
Σx i2  Σx i 
Standard deviation, s = −  
n  n 
Note
¾¾ While computing standard deviation, arranging data in ascending order is not mandatory.
¾¾ If the data values are given directly then to find standard deviation we can use the
2
2  
formula s = Σx i −  Σx i 
n  n 
¾¾ If the data values are not given directly but the squares of the deviations from the mean
of each observation is given then to find standard deviation we can use the
Σ (x i − x )
2
formula s = .
n
Example 8.4 The number of televisions sold in each day of a week are 13, 8, 4, 9, 7, 12, 10.
Find its standard deviation.
Solution x x2 Standard deviation Thinking Corner
i i
13 169 Σx i2  Σx 
2
Can the standard deviation
s = −  i  be more than the variance?
8 64 n  n 
4 16
2
9 81 623  63  Progress Check
7 49 = −  
12 144
7  7 
10 100 = 89 − 81 = 8 If the variance is
Σx i = 63 Σx i 2 = 623 Hence, s  2.83 0.49 then the standard
deviation is _____.
(ii) Mean method
Another convenient way of finding standard deviation is to use the following formula.
Σ(x i − x )2
Standard deviation (by mean method) s =
n
Σdi 2
If di = x i − x are the deviations, then s =
n
Example 8.5 The amount of rainfall in a particular season for 6 days are given as 17.8 cm,
19.2 cm, 16.3 cm, 12.5 cm, 12.8 cm and 11.4 cm. Find its standard deviation.
Solution Arranging the numbers in ascending order we get, 11.4, 12.5, 12.8, 16.3, 17.8,
19.2. Number of observations n = 6
11.4 + 12.5 + 12.8 + 16.3 + 17.8 + 19.2 90
Mean = = = 15
6 6

di = x i − x Σdi 2
xi
= x − 15
di 2 Standard deviation s =
n
11.4 –3.6 12.96
51.22
12.5 –2.5 6.25 = = 8.53
12.8 –2.2 4.84 6
16.3 1.3 1.69 Hence, s  2.9
17.8 2.8 7.84
19.2 4.2 17.64
Σdi 2 = 51.22
(iii) Assumed Mean method
When the mean value is not an integer (since calculations are very tedious in decimal
form) then it is better to use the assumed mean method to find the standard deviation.
Let x 1, x 2 , x 3 , ..., x n be the given data values and let x be their mean.
Let di be the deviation of xi from the assumed mean A, which is usually the middle
value or near the middle value of the given data.
di = x i − A gives, x i = di + A ...(1)
Sdi = Σ(x i − A)
= Σx i − (A + A + A +  to n times)
Sdi = Σx i − A × n
Sdi Σx i
= −A
n n
d = x − A (or) x = d + A ...(2)
Σ(x i − x )2 Σ(di + A − d − A)2

Standard deviation s = = (using (1) and (2))
n n
Σ(di − d )2 Σ(di 2 − 2di × d + d 2 )

= =
n n
Σdi 2 Σdi d2
= − 2d + (1 + 1 + 1 +  to n times)
n n n
Σdi 2 d2
= − 2d × d + × n (since d is a constant)
n n
Σdi 2
= −d 2
n Thinking Corner
2 For any collection of n values, can you
Σdi 2  Σdi 
Standard deviation s = −   find the value of
n  n 
(i) Σ(x i − x ) (ii) (Σx i ) − x

Example 8.6 The marks scored by 10 students in a class test are 25, 29, 30, 33, 35, 37, 38,
40, 44, 48. Find the standard deviation.
Solution The mean of marks is 35.9 which is not an integer. Hence we take assumed
mean, A = 35, n = 10 .
Standard deviation
di = x i − A
xi di 2
di = x i − 35  Σd 
2
Σdi 2
25 –10 100 s = −  i 
n  n 
29 –6 36
30 –5 25 453  9 
2
33 –2 4 = − 
10 10 
35 0 0
37 2 4
= 45.3 − 0.81
38 3 9
40 5 25 = 44.49
44 9 81 s  6.67
48 13 169
Σdi = 9 Σdi 2 = 453
(ii) Step deviation method

Let x 1, x 2 , x 3 ,... x n be the given data. Let A be the assumed mean.
Let c be the common divisor of x i - A .
xi − A
Let di =
c
Then x i = dic + A …(1)
Sx i = Σ (dic + A) = c Σdi + A × n
Sx i Σdi
=c +A
n n
x = cd + A …(2)
x i - x = cdi + A − cd − A = c(di − d ) (using (1) and (2))
Σ(x i − x )2 Σ(c(di − d ))2 c 2Σ(di − d )2
s = = =
n n n
2
Σdi2  Σd 
s =c× −  i 
n  n 
Note
We can use any of the above methods for finding the standard deviation
Activity 1
Find the standard deviation of the marks obtained by you in all five subjects in the quarterly
examination and in the midterm test separately. What do you observe from your results.

Example 8.7 The amount that the children have spent for purchasing some eatables in
one day trip of a school are 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40. Using step deviation method, find
the standard deviation of the amount they have spent.
Solution We note that all the observations are divisible by 5. Hence we can use the step
deviation method. Let the Assumed mean A = 20, n = 8.
x −A Standard deviation
di = x i − A
di = i
xi c di 2 2
di = x i − 20 c = 5 Σdi 2  Σdi 
s =
−   × c
n  n 
5 –15 –3 9
10 –10 –2 4 2
15 –5 –1 1 44  4  11 1
= −   × 5 = − ×5
20 0 0 0 8 8  2 4
25 5 1 1
30 10 2 4 = 5.5 − 0.25 × 5 = 2.29 × 5
35 15 3 9
40 20 4 16 s  11.45
Σdi = 4 2
Σdi = 44
Example 8.8 Find the standard deviation of the following data 7, 4, 8, 10, 11. Add 3 to
all the values then find the standard deviation for the new values.
Solution Arranging the values in ascending order we get, 4, 7, 8, 10, 11 and n = 5
xi xi2 Standard deviation

2
 Σx 
Σx i2
4 16 s= −  i 
7 49 n  n 
2
8 64 350  40 
10 100 = −  
5  5 
11 121
Σx i = 40 Σx i 2 = 350 s = 6  2.45
When we add 3 to all the values, we get the new values as 7,10,11,13,14.
xi xi2 Standard deviation
2
7 49 Σx i2  Σx 
s =
−  i 
10 100 n  n 
11 121 2
635  55 
13 169 = −  
5  5 
14 196
Σx i = 55 2
Σx i = 635
s = 6  2.45
We see that the standard deviation will not change when we add some fixed constant k
to all the values.

Example 8.9 Find the standard deviation of the data 2, 3, 5, 7, 8. Multiply each data by 4.
Find the standard deviation of the new values.
Solution Given, n = 5
xi xi2 2
 Σx 
Σx i2
2 4 Standard deviation s = −  i 
n  n 
3 9
5 25 2
151  25 
7 49 s= −   = 30.2 − 25 = 5.2  2.28
8 64 5  5 
Σx i = 25 Σx i = 151
2
When we multiply each data by 4, we get the new values as 8, 12, 20, 28, 32.
xi xi2  Σx 
2
Σx i2
8 64 Standard deviation s = −  i 
n  n 
12 144
2
20 400 2416 100 
= −   = 483.2 − 400 = 83.2
28 784 5  5 
32 1024
Σx i = 100 Σx i = 2416
2 s = 16 × 5.2 = 4 5.2  9.12
We see that when we multiply each data by some fixed constant k the standard deviation
also get multiplied by k.
Example 8.10 Find the mean and variance of the first n natural numbers.
Sum of all the observations
Solution Mean x =
Number of observations
Σx i 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n n (n + 1)
= = =
n n 2 ×n
n +1
Mean x =
2
Σx i 2  Σx i  Σx i = 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n 
2 2 2 2 2 2
Variance s =
2
−  
n  n  (Σx i )2 = (1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n )2 
 2

n (n + 1)(2n + 1)  n (n + 1)
= − 
6 ×n  2 ×n 
 
2n 2 + 3n + 1 n 2 + 2n + 1
= −
6 4
4n + 6n + 2 − 3n − 6n − 3 n 2 − 1
2 2
Variance s =
2
= .
12 12
Calculation of Standard deviation for grouped data
(i) Mean method
Σfi (x i − x )2
Standard deviation s = ( fi are frequency values of the
N
di = x i − x corresponding data points xi )
Σfidi 2 n
s= , where, N = ∑ fi
N i =1

Example 8.11 48 students were asked to write the total number of hours per week they
spent on watching television. With this information find the standard deviation of hours
spent for watching television.
x 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
f 3 6 9 13 8 5 4
Solution
xi fi x i fi di = x i − x di 2 fidi 2 Mean
6 3 18 –3 9 27 Σxi fi 432
7 6 42 –2 4 24 x = = =9 ( N fi )
N 48
8 9 72 –1 1 9
9 13 117 0 0 0 Standard deviation
10 8 80 1 1 8
11 5 55 2 4 20 Σfidi 2 124
s= = = 2.58
12 4 48 3 9 36 N 48
N = 48 Σx i fi = 432 Σdi = 0 2
Σfidi = 124 s  1.6
(ii)Assumed Mean method

Let x 1, x 2 , x 3 , ... x n be the given data with frequencies f1, f2 , f3 , ... fn respectively.
Let x be their mean and A be the assumed mean.
di = x i − A
2
Σfidi2  Σf d 
Standard deviation, s = −  i i 
N  N 
Example 8.12 The marks scored by the students in a slip test are given below. Find the
standard deviation of their marks.
x 4 6 8 10 12
f 7 3 5 9 5
Solution Let the assumed mean, A = 8
Standard deviation
xi fi di = x i − A fi di fidi 2
2
Σfidi 2  Σf d 
4 7 –4 –28 112 s= −  i i 
6 3 –2 –6 12 N  N 
8 5 0 0 0 2
240  4  240 × 29 − 16
10 9 2 18 36 = −  =
12 5 4 20 80 29  29  29 × 29
N = 29 6944
Σfidi = 4 Σfidi 2 = 240 s= ⇒ s  2.87
29 × 29
Calculation of Standard deviation for continuous frequency distribution
(i) Mean method
Σf (x − x )
2
Standard deviation s = i i
where, x i = Middle value of the i th class.
N
fi = Frequency of the i th class.

(ii) Shortcut method (or) Step deviation method
To make the calculation simple, we provide the following formula. Let A be the assumed
mean, x i be the middle value of the ith class and c is the width of the class interval.
xi − A
di =
c
2
Σfidi2  Σfidi 
s =c× −  
N  N 
Example 8.13 Marks of the students in a particular subject of a class are given below.
Marks 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70
Number of students 8 12 17 14 9 7 4
Solution Let the assumed mean, A = 35, c = 10
Mid value
Marks
(x i )
fi di = xi–A di = x i − A fidi fidi 2
c
0-10 5 8 -30 –3 –24 72
10-20 15 12 -20 –2 –24 48
20-30 25 17 -10 –1 –17 17
30-40 35 14 0 0 0 0
40-50 45 9 10 1 9 9
50-60 55 7 20 2 14 28
60-70 65 4 30 3 12 36
N = 71 Σfidi = −30 Σfidi 2 = 210
2
Σfidi2  Σfidi 
Standard deviation s = c × −  
N  N 
2
210  30  210 900
s = 10 × − −  = 10 × −
71  71   71 5041
= 10 × 2.779 ; s  16.67
Thinking Corner
1. The standard deviation of a data is 2.8, if 5 is added to all the data values then the
new standard deviation is ___.
2. If S is the standard deviation of values p, q, r then standard deviation of p–3, q–3,
r–3 is ___.
Example 8.14 The mean and standard deviation of 15 observations are found to be 10 and 5
respectively. On rechecking it was found that one of the observation with value 8 was incorrect.
Calculate the correct mean and standard deviation if the correct observation value was 23?
Σx
Solution n = 15 , x = 10 , s = 5 ; x = ; Sx = 15 × 10 = 150
n
Wrong observation value = 8, Correct observation value = 23.
Correct total = 150 − 8 + 23 = 165

165
Correct mean x = = 11
15
2
Σx 2  Σx 
Standard deviation s = −  
n  n 
Σx 2
− (10)
2
Incorrect value of s = 5 =
15
2
Σx Sx 2
25 = − 100 ⇒ = 125
15 15
Incorrect value of Sx 2 = 1875
Correct value of Sx 2 = 1875 − 82 + 232 = 2340
2340
− (11)
2
Correct standard deviation s =
15
s = 156 − 121 = 35 s  5.9
Exercise 8.1
1. F
ind the range and coefficient of range of the following data.
(i) 63, 89, 98, 125, 79, 108, 117, 68
(ii) 43.5, 13.6, 18.9, 38.4, 61.4, 29.8
2. If the range and the smallest value of a set of data are 36.8 and 13.4 respectively, then
find the largest value.
3. Calculate the range of the following data.
Income 400-450 450-500 500-550 550-600 600-650
Number of workers 8 12 30 21 6
4. A teacher asked the students to complete 60 pages of a record note book. Eight
students have completed only 32, 35, 37, 30, 33, 36, 35 and 37 pages. Find the
standard deviation of the pages completed by them.
5. Find the variance and standard deviation of the wages of 9 workers given below:
₹310, ₹290, ₹320, ₹280, ₹300, ₹290, ₹320, ₹310, ₹280.
6. A wall clock strikes the bell once at 1 o’ clock, 2 times at 2 o’ clock, 3 times at 3 o’
clock and so on. How many times will it strike in a particular day. Find the standard
deviation of the number of strikes the bell make a day.
7. Find the standard deviation of first 21 natural numbers.
8. If the standard deviation of a data is 4.5 and if each value of the data is decreased by
5, then find the new standard deviation.
9. If the standard deviation of a data is 3.6 and each value of the data is divided by 3,
then find the new variance and new standard deviation.
10. The rainfall recorded in various places of five districts in a week are given below.
Rainfall (in mm) 45 50 55 60 65 70
Number of places 5 13 4 9 5 4

11. In a study about viral fever, the number of people affected in a town were noted as
Age in years 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70
Number of people affected 3 5 16 18 12 7 4
12. The measurements of the diameters (in cms) of the plates prepared in a factory are
given below. Find its standard deviation.
Diameter (cm) 21-24 25-28 29-32 33-36 37-40 41-44
Number of plates 15 18 20 16 8 7
13. The time taken by 50 students to complete a 100 meter race are given below. Find its
standard deviation.
Time taken (sec) 8.5-9.5 9.5-10.5 10.5-11.5 11.5-12.5 12.5-13.5
Number of students 6 8 17 10 9
14. For a group of 100 candidates the mean and standard deviation of their marks were
found to be 60 and 15 respectively. Later on it was found that the scores 45 and 72
were wrongly entered as 40 and 27. Find the correct mean and standard deviation.
15. The mean and variance of seven observations are 8 and 16 respectively. If five of
these are 2, 4, 10, 12 and 14, then find the remaining two observations.
8.3 Coefficient of Variation
Comparison of two data in terms of measures of central tendencies and dispersions
in some cases will not be meaningful, because the variables in the data may not have same
units of measurement.
For example consider the two data
Weight Price
Mean 8 kg ₹ 85
Standard deviation 1.5 kg ₹ 21.60
Here we cannot compare the standard deviations 1.5kg and ₹21.60. For comparing
two or more data for corresponding changes the relative measure of standard deviation,
called “Coefficient of variation” is used.
Coefficient of variation of a data is obtained by dividing the standard deviation by the
arithmetic mean. It is usually expressed in terms of percentage. This concept is suggested
by one of the most prominent Statistician Karl Pearson.
s
Thus, coefficient of variation of first data (C.V1) = 1 × 100%
x1
s2
coefficient of variation of second data (C.V2) = × 100%
x2
The data with lesser coefficient of variation is more consistent or stable than the other data.
Consider the two data
A 500 900 800 900 700 400 Mean Standard deviation
B 300 540 480 540 420 700
240 A 191.5
420 B 114.9
If we compare the mean and standard deviation of the two data, we think that the two
datas are entirely different. But mean and standard deviation of B are 60% of that of A.
Because of the smaller mean the smaller standard deviation led to the misinterpretation.

s
To compare the dispersion of two data, coefficient of variation = × 100%
x
191.5
The coefficient of variation of A = × 100% = 27.4%
700
114.9
The coefficient of variation of B = × 100% = 27.4%
420
Thus the two data have equal coefficient of variation. Since the data have equal
coefficient of variation values, we can conclude that one data depends on the other. But
the data values of B are exactly 60% of the corresponding data values of A. So they are
very much related. Thus, we get a confusing situation.
To get clear picture of the given data, we can find their coefficient of variation. This
is why we need coefficient of variation.
Progress Check
1. Coefficient of variation is a relative measure of .

2. When the standard deviation is divided by the mean we get .
3. The coefficient of variation depends upon and .
4. If the mean and standard deviation of a data are 8 and 2 respectively then the
coefficient of variation is .
5. When comparing two data, the data with coefficient of variation is
inconsistent.
Example 8.15 The mean of a data is 25.6 and its coefficient of variation is 18.75. Find the
standard deviation.
Solution Mean x = 25.6 , Coefficient of variation, C.V. = 18.75
s
Coefficient of variation, C.V. = × 100%
x
s
18.75 = × 100 ⇒ s = 4.8
25.6
Example 8.16 The following table gives the values of mean and variance of heights and
weights of the 10th standard students of a school.
Height Weight
Mean 155 cm 46.50 kg Which is more varying than the other?
Variance 72.25 cm2 28.09 kg
Solution For comparing two data, first we have to find their coefficient of variations
Mean x 1 = 155cm, variance s12 = 72.25 cm2
Therefore standard deviation s1 = 8.5
s1
Coefficient of variation C .V1 =
× 100%
x1
8.5
C .V1 = × 100% = 5.48% (for heights)
155
Mean x 2 = 46.50 kg, Variance s22 = 28.09 kg2
Standard deviation s2 = 5.3 kg

s2
Coefficient of variation C .V2 = × 100 %
x2
5. 3
C .V2 = × 100 % = 11.40 % (for weights)
46.50
C.V1 = 5.48 % and C.V2 = 11.40 %
Height is more consistent.
Exercise 8.2
1. T he standard deviation and mean of a data are 6.5 and 12.5 respectively. Find the
coefficient of variation.
2. The standard deviation and coefficient of variation of a data are 1.2 and 25.6
respectively. Find the value of mean.
3. If the mean and coefficient of variation of a data are 15 and 48 respectively, then find
the value of standard deviation.
4. If n = 5 , x = 6 , Σx 2 = 765 , then calculate the coefficient of variation.
5. Find the coefficient of variation of 24, 26, 33, 37, 29, 31.
6. T he time taken (in minutes) to complete a homework by 8 students in a day are given
by 38, 40, 47, 44, 46, 43, 49, 53. Find the coefficient of variation.
7. The total marks scored by two students Sathya and Vidhya in 5 subjects are 460 and 480
with standard deviation 4.6 and 2.4 respectively. Who is more consistent in performance?
8. The mean and standard deviation of marks obtained by 40 students of a class in three
subjects Mathematics, Science and Social Science are given below.
Subject Mean SD Which of the three subjects shows
Mathematics 56 12 more consistent and which shows less
Science 65 14 consistent in marks?
Social Science 60 10
8.4 Probability
Few centuries ago, gambling and gaming were considered
to be fashionable and became widely popular among many men.
As the games became more complicated, players were interested
in knowing the chances of winning or losing a game from a
given situation. In 1654, Chevalier de Mere, a French nobleman
with a taste of gambling, wrote a letter to one of the prominent
mathematician of the time, Blaise Pascal, seeking his advice about
how much dividend he would get for a gambling game played by
paying money. Pascal worked this problem mathematically but Blaise Pascal
thought of sharing this problem and see how his good friend and
mathematician Pierre de Fermat could solve. Their subsequent correspondences on the
issue represented the birth of Probability Theory as a new branch of mathematics.
Random Experiment
A random experiment is an experiment in which
(i) The set of all possible outcomes are known (ii)Exact outcome is not known.

Example : 1. Tossing a coin. 2. Rolling a die. 3. Selecting a card from a pack of 52 cards.
Sample space
The set of all possible outcomes in a random experiment is called
a sample space. It is generally denoted by S.
Example : When we roll a die, the possible outcomes are the
face numbers 1,2,3,4,5,6 of the die. Therefore the sample space is
S = {1,2,3,4,5,6} Fig. 8.2
Sample point Each element of a sample space is called a sample point.
8.4.1 Tree diagram
Tree diagram allow us to see visually all possible outcomes of an random experiment. Each
branch in a tree diagram represent a possible outcome.
Illustration
1
2 (i) When we throw a die, then from the tree diagram (Fig.8.3),
3 the sample space can be written as S = {1,2,3,4,5,6}
4 H
Fig. 8.3 5 H
6 T
(ii) When we toss two coins, then from the tree diagram (Fig.8.4), H
T
the sample space can be written as S={HH,HT,TH,TT} Fig. 8.4 T
Progress Check
1. An experiment in which a particular outcome cannot be predicted is called _______.
2. The set of all possible outcomes is called _______.
Example 8.17 Express the sample space for rolling two dice using tree diagram.
Solution When we roll two dice, since each die contain 6 faces marked with 1,2,3,4,5,6
the tree diagram will look like
1
Hence, the sample space can be written as
2
1 3
4 S= {(1,1),(1,2),(1,3),(1,4),(1,5),(1,6)
5
6
1
2
2 3 (2,1),(2,2),(2,3),(2,4),(2,5),(2,6)
4
5
6
1
2
3 3
4 (3,1),(3,2),(3,3),(3,4),(3,5),(3,6)
5
6
1
2
4 3 (4,1),(4,2),(4,3),(4,4),(4,5),(4,6)
4
5
6
1
2
5 3 (5,1),(5,2),(5,3),(5,4),(5,5),(5,6)
4
5
6
1
2
3
6 4 (6,1),(6,2),(6,3),(6,4),(6,5),(6,6)}
5
6

Event : In a random experiment, each possible outcome is called an
event. Thus, an event will be a subset of the sample space.
Example : Getting two heads when we toss two coins is an event.
Trial : Performing an experiment once is called a trial.
Example : When we toss a coin thrice, then each toss of a coin is a trial.
Events Explanation Example

Equally likely Two or more events are said to be Head and tail are equally likely
events equally likely if each one of them events in tossing a coin.
has an equal chance of occurring.
Certain events In an experiment, the event When we roll a die, the event of
which surely occur is called getting any natural number from
certain event. one to six is a certain event.
Impossible events In an experiment if an event When we toss two coins, the
has no scope to occur then it is event of getting three heads is
called an impossible event. an impossible event.
Mutually Two or more events are said to When we roll a die the events of
exclusive events be mutually exclusive if they getting odd numbers and even
don’t have common sample numbers are mutually exclusive
points. i.e., events A, B are said events.
to be mutually exclusive if
A∩B = f.
Exhaustive events The collection of events whose When we toss a coin twice, the
union is the whole sample space collection of events of getting
are called exhaustive events. two heads, exactly one head, no
head are exhaustive events.
Complementary The complement of an event A is When we roll a die, the event
events the event representing collection ‘rolling a 5 or 6’ and the event
of sample points not in A. It is of rolling a 1, 2, 3 or 4 are
denoted A¢ or Ac or A complementary events.
The event A and its complement
A¢ are mutually exclusive and
exhaustive.
Note
Elementary event: If an event E In 1713, Bernoulli was the first to

consists of only one outcome then it recognise the wide-range applicability of
is called an elementary event. probability in fields outside gambling

8.4.2 Probability of an Event
In a random experiment, let S be the sample space and E Í S . Then if E is an event,
the probability of occurrence of E is defined as
Number of outcomes favourable to occurence of E n (E )
P (E ) = =
Number of all posssible outcomes n (S )
This way of defining the probability is applicable only to finite sample spaces. So in
this chapter, we will be dealing problems only with finite sample spaces.
Note
n(E )
¾¾ P (E ) =
n(S )
n(S )
¾¾ P (S ) = = 1 . The probability of sure event is 1.
n(S )
n(f) 0
¾¾ P (f) = = = 0 . The probability of impossible event is 0.
n(s) n(s )
¾¾ Since E is a subset of S and f is a subset of any set,

f ÍE ÍS
P (f) £ P (E ) £ P (S)
0 ≤ P (E ) ≤ 1
Therefore, the probability value always lies from 0 to 1.
¾¾ The complement event of E is E .
m
Let P (E ) = (where m is the number of favourable outcomes of E and n is
n
the total number of possible outcomes).
Number of outcomes unfavourable to occurance of E
P (E ) =
Number of all possible outcomes
n −m m le
P (E ) = = 1− r ab
ou –m
n n
n fav n ble
u ra
P (E ) = 1 − P(E) v ou
fa m
¾¾ P(E) + P(E) =1
Progress Check
Which of the following values cannot be a probability of an event?

(a) –0.0001 (b) 0.5 (c) 1.001 (d) 1
1- 5 3 +1
(e) 20% (f) 0.253 (g) (h)
2 4

Example 8.18 A bag contains 5 blue balls and 4 green balls. A ball is drawn at random
from the bag. Find the probability that the ball drawn is (i) blue (ii) not blue.
Solution Total number of possible outcomes n(S) = 5 + 4 = 9
(i) Let A be the event of getting a blue ball.
Number of favourable outcomes for the event A. Therefore, n(A) = 5
n(A) 5
Probability that the ball drawn is blue. Therefore, P (A) = =
n(S ) 9
5 4
(ii) A will be the event of not getting a blue ball. So P ( A) = 1 − P ( A) = 1 −
=
9 9
Example 8.19 Two dice are rolled. Find the probability that the sum of outcomes is
(i) equal to 4 (ii) greater than 10 (iii) less than 13
Solution When we roll two dice, the sample space is given by
S = { (1,1),(1,2),(1,3),(1,4),(1,5),(1,6)
(2,1),(2,2),(2,3),(2,4),(2,5),(2,6)
(3,1),(3,2),(3,3),(3,4),(3,5),(3,6)
(4,1),(4,2),(4,3),(4,4),(4,5),(4,6)
(5,1),(5,2),(5,3),(5,4),(5,5),(5,6)
(6,1),(6,2),(6,3),(6,4),(6,5),(6,6) }; n (S ) = 36
(i) Let A be the event of getting the sum of outcome values equal to 4.
Then A = {(1,3),(2,2),(3,1)}; n(A) = 3 .
n(A) 3 1
Probability of getting the sum of outcomes equal to 4 is P (A) = = =
n(S ) 36 12
(ii) Let B be the event of getting the sum of outcome values greater than 10.
Then B = {(5,6),(6,5),(6,6)}; n(B ) = 3
n(B ) 3 1
Probability of getting the sum of outcomes greater than 10 is P (B ) = = =
n(S ) 36 12
(iii) Let C be the event of getting the sum of outcomes less than 13. Here all the
outcomes have the sum value less than 13. Hence C = S .
Therefore, n(C ) = n(S ) = 36
n(C ) 36
Probability of getting the total value less than 13 is P (C ) = = = 1.
n(S ) 36
Example 8.20 Two coins are tossed together. What is the probability of getting different
faces on the coins?
Solution When two coins are tossed together, the sample space is
S = {HH , HT ,TH ,TT } ; n(S ) = 4
Let A be the event of getting different faces on the coins.
A = {HT ,TH } ; n(A) = 2
n(A) 2 1
Probability of getting different faces on the coins is P (A) = = =
n(S ) 4 2

Example 8.21 From a well shuffled pack Suits of Spade Heart Clavor Diamond
of 52 cards, one card is drawn at random. playing
cards
Find the probability of getting (i) red card A A A A
(ii) heart card (iii) red king (iv) face card 2 2 2 2
(v) number card 3 3 3 3
4 4 4 4
Solution n(S ) = 52
Cards of each suit

5 5 5 5
(i) Let A be the event of getting a red 6 6 6 6
card. 7 7 7 7
8 8 8 8
n(A) = 26 9 9 9 9
10 10 10 10
Probability of getting a red card is
J J J J
26 1 Q Q Q Q
P (A) = =
52 2 K K K K
(ii) Let B be the event of getting a heart Set of
card. playing cards 13 13 13 13
in each suit
n(B ) = 13 Fig 8.5
Probability of getting a heart card is
n(B ) 13 1
P (B ) = = =
n(S ) 52 4
(iii) Let C be the event of getting a red king card. A red king card can be either a
diamond king or a heart king.
n(C ) = 2
Probability of getting a red king card is
n(C ) 2 1
P (C ) = = =
n(S ) 52 26
(iv) Let D be the event of getting a face card. The face cards are Jack (J), Queen (Q),
and King (K).
n(D ) = 4 × 3 = 12
Probability of getting a face card is
n(D ) 12 3
P (D ) = = =
n(S ) 52 13
(v) Let E be the event of getting a number card. The number cards are
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10.
n(E ) = 4 × 9 = 36
Probability of getting a number card is
n(E ) 36 9
P (E ) = = =
n(S ) 52 13

Example 8.22 What is the probability that a leap year selected at random will contain 53
saturdays.
Solution A leap year has 366 days. So it has 52 full weeks and 2 days. 52 Saturdays must
be in 52 full weeks.
The possible chances for the remaining two days will be the sample space.
S = {Sun-Mon, Mon-Tue, Tue-Wed, Wed-Thu, Thu-Fri, Fri-Sat, Sat-Sun}

n(S ) = 7 Thinking Corner
Let A be the event of getting 53rd Saturday. What will be the probability that a non-
Then A = {Fri-Sat, Sat-Sun}; n(A) = 2 leap year will have 53 Saturdays?
n(A) 2
Probability of getting 53 Saturdays in a leap year is P (A) = =
n(S ) 7
Example 8.23 A die is rolled and a coin is tossed simultaneously. Find the probability
that the die shows an odd number and the coin shows a head.
Coin
Solution Sample space Die H
1
S = {1H,1T,2H,2T,3H,3T,4H,4T,5H,5T,6H,6T}; T
H
n(S ) = 12 2 T
Let A be the event of getting an odd number and a head. 3
H
T
Outcomes
A = {1H, 3H, 5H}; n(A) = 3 4
H
T
n(A) 3 1

P (A) = = = 5
H
n(S ) 12 4 T
6
H
T
Activity 3 Activity 4
There are three routes R1, R2 and R3 Collect the details and find the probabilities of
from Madhu’s home to her place of (i) selecting a boy from your class.
(ii) selecting a girl from your class.
work. There are four parking lots P1,
(iii) selecting a student from tenth standard
P2 , P3 , P4 and three entrances B1, B2 , B3
in your school.
into the office building. There are two (iv) selecting a boy from tenth standard in
elevators E1 and E2 to her floor. Using your school.
the tree diagram explain how many ways (v) selecting a girl from tenth standard in
can she reach her office? your school.
Example 8.24 A bag contains 6 green balls, some black and red balls. Number of black
balls is as twice as the number of red balls. Probability of getting a green ball is thrice the
probability of getting a red ball. Find (i) number of black balls (ii) total number of balls.
Solution Number of green balls is n(G ) = 6
Let number of red balls is n(R) = x
Therefore, number of black balls is n(B ) = 2x
Total number of balls n(S ) = 6 + x + 2x = 6 + 3x
It is given that, P (G ) = 3 × P (R)

6 x
= 3×
6 + 3x 6 + 3x
3x = 6 gives, x = 2
(i) Number of black balls = 2 × 2 = 4
(ii) Total number of balls = 6 + (3 × 2) = 12
Example 8.25 A game of chance consists of spinning an arrow which is equally likely to
come to rest pointing to one of the numbers 1, 2, 3, …12. What is the probability that it
will point to (i) 7 (ii) a prime number (iii) a composite number? 11 12 1
10
Solution Sample space S = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12}; n(S) = 12 2
9 3
(i) Let A be the event of resting in 7. n(A)=1
8 4
n(A) 1

P (A) = = 7 6
5
n(S ) 12
Fig. 8.6
(ii) Let B be the event that the arrow will come to rest in a prime number.
B = {2,3,5,7,11}; n(B ) = 5
n(B ) 5
P (B ) = =
n(S ) 12
(iii) Let C be the event that arrow will come to rest in a composite number.
C = {4,6,8,9,10,12}; n(C ) =6
Thinking Corner
n(C ) 6 1

P (C ) = = = What is the complement
n(S ) 12 2
event of an impossible event?
Exercise 8.3
1. W rite the sample space for tossing three coins using tree diagram.
2. Write the sample space for selecting two balls at a time from a bag containing 6 balls
numbered 1 to 6 (using tree diagram).
3. If A is an event of a random experiment such that P(A) : P (A) =17:15 and n(S)=640
then find (i) P (A) (ii) n(A).
4. A coin is tossed thrice. What is the probability of getting two consecutive tails?
5. At a fete, cards bearing numbers 1 to 1000, one number on one card are put in a box.
Each player selects one card at random and that card is not replaced. If the selected
card has a perfect square number greater than 500, the player wins a prize. What is the
probability that (i) the first player wins a prize (ii) the second player wins a prize, if the
first has won?
6. A bag contains 12 blue balls and x red balls. If one ball is drawn at random (i) what is the
probability that it will be a red ball? (ii) If 8 more red balls are put in the bag, and if the
probability of drawing a red ball will be twice that of the probability in (i), then find x.
7. Two unbiased dice are rolled once. Find the probability of getting
(i) a doublet (equal numbers on both dice) (ii) the product as a prime number
(iii) the sum as a prime number (iv) the sum as 1

8. Three fair coins are tossed together. Find the probability of getting
(i) all heads (ii) atleast one tail
(iii) atmost one head (iv) atmost two tails
9. A bag contains 5 red balls, 6 white balls, 7 green balls, 8 black balls. One ball is drawn
at random from the bag. Find the probability that the ball drawn is
(i) white (ii) black or red
(iii) not white (iv) neither white nor black
10. In a box there are 20 non-defective and some defective bulbs. If the probability that
3
a bulb selected at random from the box found to be defective is then, find the
8
number of defective bulbs.
11. The king and queen of diamonds, queen and jack of hearts, jack and king of spades are
removed from a deck of 52 playing cards and then well shuffled. Now one card is drawn
at random from the remaining cards. Determine the probability that the card is
(i) a clavor (ii) a queen of red card (iii) a king of black card
4 feet
12. Some boys are playing a game, in which the stone thrown by them
landing in a circular region (given in the figure) is considered as
3 feet
win and landing other than the circular region is considered as 1 feet
loss. What is the probability to win the game? (π = 3.14)

13. Two customers Priya and Amuthan are visiting a particular shop in the same week
(Monday to Saturday). Each is equally likely to visit the shop on any one day as on another
day. What is the probability that both will visit the shop on
(i) the same day (ii) different days (iii) consecutive days?
14. In a game, the entry fee is ₹150. The game consists of tossing a coin 3 times. Dhana bought
a ticket for entry . If one or two heads show, she gets her entry fee back. If she throws 3
heads, she receives double the entry fees. Otherwise she will lose. Find the probability
that she (i) gets double entry fee (ii) just gets her entry fee (iii) loses the entry fee.
8.5 Algebra of Events
In a random experiment, let S be the sample space. Let A Í S and B Í S be the
events in S. We say that
(i) (A Ç B ) is an event that (ii) (A È B ) is an event that (iii) A is an event that
occurs only when both occurs when either one occurs only when A
A and B occurs. of A or B occurs. doesn’t occur.
S S S
A B A B
A
A
AÇB AÈB
Fig. 8.7(a) Fig. 8.7(c)
Fig. 8.7(b)

Note
� A ∩ A = f
� A ∪ A = S
� If A, B are mutually exclusive events, then P (A ∪ B ) = P (A) + P (B )
� P (Union of mutually exclusive events) = ∑ ( Probability of events)
Thorem 1
If A and B are two events associated with a random experiment, then prove that
S
(i) P (A Ç B ) = P(only A) = P (A) − P (A ∩ B ) A B
(ii) P (A Ç B ) = P(only B) = P (B ) − P (A ∩ B )
Proof
(i) By Distributive property of sets,
1. (A ∩ B ) ∪ (A ∩ B ) = A ∩ (B ∪ B ) = A ∩ S = A AÇB
2. (A ∩ B ) ∩ (A ∩ B ) = A ∩ (B ∩ B ) = A ∩ f = f Fig. 8.8
Therefore, the events A Ç B and A Ç B are mutually exclusive whose union is A.

Therefore, P (A) = P (A ∩ B ) ∪ (A ∩ B )
P (A) = P (A ∩ B ) + P (A ∩ B )
S
Therefore, P (A ∩ B ) = P (A) − P (A ∩ B ) A B
That is, P (A Ç B ) =P(only A) = P (A) − P (A ∩ B )

(ii) By Distributive property of sets,
1. (A ∩ B ) ∪ (A ∩ B ) = (A ∪ A) ∩ B = S ∩ B = B
Fig. 8.9
2. (A Ç B ) Ç (A Ç B ) = (A ∩ A) ∩ B = f ∩ B = f AÇB
Therefore, the events A Ç B and A Ç B are mutually exclusive whose union is B.

P (B ) = P (A ∩ B ) ∪ (A ∩ B )
P (B ) = P (A ∩ B ) + P (A ∩ B )
Therefore, P (A Ç B ) = P (B ) − P (A ∩ B )
That is, P (A Ç B ) = P(only B) = P (B ) − P (A ∩ B )
Progress Check
1. P(only A)= ________. 2. P (A ∩ B ) = ________.

3. A Ç B and A Ç B are _______ events.
4. P (A ∩ B ) = ________.
5. If A and B are mutually exclusive events then P (A ∩ B ) = _______.
6. If P (A ∩ B ) = 0.3, P (A  B ) = 0.45 then P(B) =_______.

8.6 Addition Theorem of Probability
(i) If A and B are any two events then
P (A ∪ B ) = P (A) + P (B ) − P (A ∩ B )
(ii) If A,B and C are any three events then
P (A ∪ B ∪ C ) = P (A) + P (B ) + P (C ) − P (A ∩ B ) − P (B ∩ C )
−P (A ∩ C ) + P (A ∩ B ∩ C )
Proof
(i) Let A and B be any two events of a random experiment with sample space S.
From the Venn diagram, we have the events only A, A Ç B and only B are mutually
exclusive and their union is A È B
Therefore, P (A È B ) = P[ (only A) ∪(A ∩ B ) ∪ (only B) ]
= P(only A) +P (A ∩ B ) + P(only B)
= [P (A) − P (A ∩ B )] + P (A ∩ B ) + [P (B ) − P (A ∩ B )]
P (A È B ) = P (A) + P (B ) − P (A ∩ B )
(ii) Let A, B, C are any three events of a random experiment with sample space S.
S
Let D = B ∪ C A B
P (A È B È C ) = P (A ∪ D )
= P (A) + P (D ) − P (A ∩ D )
= P (A) + P (B ∪ C ) − P[A ∩ (B ∪ C )]
only A AÇB only B
= P (A) + P (B) + P (C ) − P (B ∩ C ) − P[(A ∩ B ) ∪ (A ∩ C )] Fig. 8.10
= P (A) + P (B ) + P (C ) − P (B ∩ C ) − P (A ∩ B ) − P (A ∩ C ) + P[(A ∩ B ) ∩ (A ∩ C )]
P (A È B È C ) = P (A) + P (B ) + P (C ) − P (A ∩ B ) − P (B ∩ C )
−P (C ∩ A) + P (A ∩ B ∩ C )
Activity 5
The addition theorem of probability can be written easily using the following way.
P (A È B ) = S1 − S 2
P (A È B È C ) = S1 − S 2 + S 3
Where S1 ® Sum of probability of events taken one at a time.
S 2 ® Sum of probability of events taken two at a time.
S 3 ® Sum of probability of events taken three at a time.
P (A È B ) = P (A) + P (B ) −P (A ∩ B )
S1 S2
P (A È B È C ) =
P (A) + P (B ) + P (C ) −(P (A ∩ B ) + P (B ∩ C ) + P (A ∩ C )) +P (A ∩ B ∩ C )
S1 S 2 S 3
Find the probability of P (A È B È C È D ) using the above way. Can you find a
pattern for the number of terms in the formula?

Example 8.26 If P(A) = 0.37 , P(B) = 0.42 , P (A ∩ B ) = 0.09 then find P (A È B ) .
Solution P(A) = 0.37 , P(B) = 0.42 , P (A ∩ B ) = 0.09
P (A È B ) = P (A) + P (B ) − P (A ∩ B )
P (A È B ) = 0.37 + 0.42 − 0.09 = 0.7
Example 8.27 What is the probability of drawing either a king or a queen in a single draw
from a well shuffled pack of 52 cards?
Solution Total number of cards = 52
Number of king cards = 4 Thinking Corner
4
Probability of drawing a king card = P (A ∪ B ) + P (A ∩ B ) is .
52
Number of queen cards = 4
4
Probability of drawing a queen card =
52
Both the events of drawing a king and a queen are mutually exclusive
⇒ P (A ∪ B ) = P (A) + P (B )
4 4 2
\ Probability of drawing either a king or a queen = + =
52 52 13
Example 8.28 Two dice are rolled together. Find the probability of getting a doublet or
sum of faces as 4.
Solution When two dice are rolled together, there will be 6×6 = 36 outcomes. Let S be
the sample space. Then n(S ) = 36
Let A be the event of getting a doublet and B be the event of getting face sum 4.
Then A = {(1,1),(2,2),(3,3),(4,4),(5,5),(6,6)}
B = {(1,3),(2,2),(3,1)}
\ A Ç B = {(2,2)}
Then, n(A) = 6 , n(B ) = 3 , n(A ∩ B ) = 1 .
n(A) 6
P (A) = =
n(S ) 36
n(B ) 3
P (B ) = =
n(S ) 36
n(A ∩ B ) 1
P (A Ç B ) = =
n(S ) 36
\ P (getting a doublet or a total of 4) = P (A È B )
P (A È B ) = P (A) + P (B ) − P (A ∩ B )
6 3 1 8 2
= + − = =
36 36 36 36 9
2
Hence, the required probability is .
9

1 1 1
Example 8.29 If A and B are two events such that P (A) = , P (B ) = and P(A and B)= ,
4 2 8
find (i) P (A or B) (ii) P(not A and not B).
Solution (i) P (A or B) = P (A È B )
= P (A) + P (B ) − P (A ∩ B )
1 1 1 5
P (A or B) = + − =
4 2 8 8
(ii) P (not A and not B) = P (A∩ B )
= P (A ∪ B )
= 1 − P (A ∪ B )
5 3
P(not A and not B) = 1 − =
8 8
Example 8.30 A card is drawn from a pack of 52 cards. Find the probability of getting a
king or a heart or a red card.
Solution Total number of cards = 52; n(S ) =52 Suits of
playing
Spade Heart Clavor Diamond
cards
Let A be the event of getting a king card. n (A) =4 A A A A
2 2 2 2
n(A) 4
P (A) = = 3 3 3 3
n(S ) 52 4 4 4 4
Let B be the event of getting a heart card. n (B ) =13

Cards of each suit
5 5 5 5
6 6 6 6
n(B ) 13 7 7 7 7
P (B ) = = 8 8 8 8
n(S ) 52 9 9 9 9
Let C be the event of getting a red card. n (C ) =26 10 10 10 10
J J J J
P (C ) = n(C ) = 26 Q Q Q Q
n(S ) 52 K K K K
Set of
1 playing cards 13 13 13 13
P (A Ç B ) = P (getting heart king) = in each suit
52
13
P (B Ç C ) = P (getting red and heart)) =
52
2
P (A Ç C ) = P (getting red king) =
52
1
P (A Ç B Ç C ) = P (getting heart, king which is red) =
52
Therefore, required probability is
P (A È B È C ) = P (A) + P (B ) + P (C ) − P (A ∩ B ) − P (B ∩ C ) −P (C ∩ A) + P (A ∩ B ∩ C )
4 13 26 1 13 2 1 28 7
= + + − − − + = =
52 52 52 52 52 52 52 52 13
Example 8.31 In a class of 50 students, 28 opted for NCC, 30 opted for NSS and 18 opted
both NCC and NSS. One of the students is selected at random. Find the probability that
(i) The student opted for NCC but not NSS.

(ii) The student opted for NSS but not NCC.
(iii) The student opted for exactly one of them.
Solution Total number of students n(S ) = 50 .
Let A and B be the events of students opted for NCC and NSS respectively.
n(A) = 28 , n(B ) = 30 , n(A ∩ B ) = 18

n(A) 28
P (A) = =
n(S ) 50
n(B ) 30
P (B ) = =
n(S ) 50
n(A ∩ B ) 18
P (A Ç B ) = =
n(S ) 50
(i) Probability of the students opted for NCC but not NSS
28 18 1
P (A Ç B ) = P (A) − P (A ∩ B ) = − =
50 50 5
(ii) P
robability of the students opted for NSS but not NCC.
30 18 6
P (A Ç B ) = P (B ) − P (A ∩ B ) = − =
50 50 25
(iii) P
robability of the students opted for exactly one of them
= P[(A ∩ B ) ∪ (A ∩ B )]
1 6 11
= P (A ∩ B ) + P (A ∩ B ) = + =
5 25 25
(Note that (A Ç B ),(A Ç B ) are mutually exclusive events)
Example 8.32 A and B are two candidates seeking admission to IIT. The probability that
A getting selected is 0.5 and the probability that both A and B getting selected is 0.3.
Prove that the probability of B being selected is atmost 0.8.
Solution P (A) = 0.5 , P (A ∩ B ) = 0.3
We have P (A È B ) £ 1
P (A) + P (B) − P (A ∩ B ) £ 1
0.5 + P (B ) − 0.3 £ 1
P (B ) ≤ 1 − 0.2
P (B ) £ 0.8
Therefore, probability of B getting selected is atmost 0.8.

Exercise 8.4
2 2 1
1. I f P (A) =
, P (B ) = , P (A ∪ B ) = then find P (A Ç B ) .
3 5 3
2. A and B are two events such that, P (A) = 0.42, P (B ) = 0.48 , and P (A ∩ B ) = 0.16 .
Find (i) P (not A) (ii) P (not B)
, ,(iii) P (A or B)
,
3. If A and B are two mutually exclusive events of a random experiment and

P(not A) = 0.45, P (A È B ) =0.65, then find P (B ) .
4. T he probability that atleast one of A and B occur is 0.6. If A and B occur
simultaneously with probability 0.2, then find P (A) + P (B ) .
5. T
he probability of happening of an event A is 0.5 and that of B is 0.3. If A and B are
mutually exclusive events, then find the probability that neither A nor B happen.
6. T
wo dice are rolled once. Find the probability of getting an even number on the first
die or a total of face sum 8.
7. F
rom a well-shuffled pack of 52 cards, a card is drawn at random. Find the probability
of it being either a red king or a black queen.
8. A
box contains cards numbered 3, 5, 7, 9, … 35, 37. A card is drawn at random
from the box. Find the probability that the drawn card have either multiples of 7 or
a prime number.
9. Three unbiased coins are tossed once. Find the probability of getting atmost 2 tails
or atleast 2 heads.
3
10. The probability that a person will get an electrification contract is and the
5 5
probability that he will not get plumbing contract is . The probability of getting
5 8
atleast one contract is . What is the probability that he will get both?
7
11. In a town of 8000 people, 1300 are over 50 years and 3000 are females. It is known
that 30% of the females are over 50 years. What is the probability that a chosen
individual from the town is either a female or over 50 years?
12. A coin is tossed thrice. Find the probability of getting exactly two heads or atleast
one tail or two consecutive heads.
13. If A, B, C are any three events such that probability of B is twice as that of probability
1
of A and probability of C is thrice as that of probability of A and if P (A ∩ B ) = ,
6
1 1 9 1
P (B ∩ C ) = , P (A ∩ C ) = , P (A ∪ B ∪ C ) = , P (A ∩ B ∩ C ) = , then find
4 8 10 15
P (A), P (B ) and P (C ) ?
14. In a class of 35, students are numbered from 1 to 35. The ratio of boys to girls is 4:3.
The roll numbers of students begin with boys and end with girls. Find the probability
that a student selected is either a boy with prime roll number or a girl with composite
roll number or an even roll number.

Exercise 8.5
1. W hich of the following is not a measure of dispersion?

(A) Range (B) Standard deviation
(C) Arithmetic mean (D) Variance
2. The range of the data 8, 8, 8, 8, 8. . . 8 is
(A) 0 (B) 1 (C) 8 (D) 3
3. T he sum of all deviations of the data from its mean is
(A) Always positive (B) always negative (C) zero (D) non-zero integer
4. The mean of 100 observations is 40 and their standard deviation is 3. The sum of
squares of all observations is
(A) 40000 (B) 160900 (C) 160000 (D) 30000
5. V
ariance of first 20 natural numbers is
(A) 32.25 (B) 44.25 (C) 33.25 (D) 30
6. T
he standard deviation of a data is 3. If each value is multiplied by 5 then the new
variance is
(A) 3 (B) 15 (C) 5 (D) 225
7. If the standard deviation of x, y, z is p then the standard deviation of 3x + 5 , 3y + 5 ,
3z + 5 is
(A) 3p + 5 (B) 3p (C) p + 5 (D) 9p + 15
8. I f the mean and coefficient of variation of a data are 4 and 87.5% then the standard
deviation is
(A) 3.5 (B) 3 (C) 4.5 (D) 2.5
9. W
hich of the following is incorrect?
(A) P (A) > 1 (B) 0 £ P (A) £ 1 (C) P(f) = 0 (D) P (A) + P (A) = 1
10. The probability a red marble selected at random from a jar containing p red, q blue
and r green marbles is
q p p +q p +r
(A) (B) (C) (D)
p +q +r p +q +r p +q +r p +q +r
11. A page is selected at random from a book. The probability that the digit at units place
of the page number chosen is less than 7 is
3 7 3 7
(A) (B)
(C) (D)
10 10 9 9
x
12. The probability of getting a job for a person is . If the probability of not getting the
3
2
job is then the value of x is
3
(A) 2 (B) 1 (C) 3 (D) 1.5

13. Kamalam went to play a lucky draw contest. 135 tickets of the lucky draw were sold.
1
If the probability of Kamalam winning is , then the number of tickets bought by
9
Kamalam is
(A) 5 (B) 10 (C) 15 (D) 20
14. If a letter is chosen at random from the English alphabets {a,b,...,z}, then the
probability that the letter chosen precedes x
12 1 23 3
(A) (B) (C)
(D)
13 13 26 26
15. A purse contains 10 notes of ₹2000, 15 notes of ₹500, and 25 notes of ₹200. One note
is drawn at random. What is the probability that the note is either a ₹500 note or
₹200 note?
1 3 2 4
(A) (B) (C) (D)
5 10 3 5
Unit Exercise - 8
1. The mean of the following frequency distribution is 62.8 and the sum of all frequencies
is 50. Compute the missing frequencies f1 and f2 .
Class Interval 0-20 20-40 40-60 60-80 80-100 100-120
Frequency 5 f1 10 f2 7 8
2. The diameter of circles (in mm) drawn in a design are given below.
Diameters 33-36 37-40 41-44 45-48 49-52
Number of circles 15 17 21 22 25
Calculate the standard deviation.
3. The frequency distribution is given below.
x k 2k 3k 4k 5k 6k
f 2 1 1 1 1 1
In the table, k is a positive integer, has a varience of 160. Determine the value of k.
4. The standard deviation of some temperature data in degree celsius (oC) is 5. If the
data were converted into degree Farenheit (oF) then what is the variance?
2
5. If for a distribution, ∑ (x − 5) = 3, ∑ (x − 5) = 43, and total number of observations
is 18, find the mean and standard deviation.
6. P
rices of peanut packets in various places of two cities are given below. In which city,
prices were more stable?
Prices in city A 20 22 19 23 16
Prices in city B 10 20 18 12 15
7. I f the range and coefficient of range of the data are 20 and 0.2 respectively, then find
the largest and smallest values of the data.

8. I f two dice are rolled, then find the probability of getting the product of face value 6
or the difference of face values 5.
9. In a two children family, find the probability that there is at least one girl in a family.
10. A bag contains 5 white and some black balls. If the probability of drawing a black ball
from the bag is twice the probability of drawing a white ball then find the number
of black balls.
11. The probability that a student will pass the final examination in both English
and Tamil is 0.5 and the probability of passing neither is 0.1. If the probability of
passing the English examination is 0.75, what is the probability of passing the Tamil
examination?
12. The King, Queen and Jack of the suit spade are removed from a deck of 52 cards. One
card is selected from the remaining cards. Find the probability of getting (i) a diamond
(ii) a queen (iii) a spade (iv) a heart card bearing the number 5.
Points to Remember
zz Range = L–S (L - Largest value, S - Smallest value)
n
L −S ∑ (x i
− x )2
zz Coefficient of range = ; Variance s 2 = i =1
L +S n
Σ (x i − x )
2
zz Standard deviation s =
n
zz Standard deviation (ungrouped data)
2
Σx i2  Σx  Σdi 2
(i) Direct method s = −  i  (ii) Mean method s =
n  n  n
2
Σdi2  Σd 
(iii) Assumed mean method s = −  i 
n  n 
2
Σdi2  Σdi 
(iv) Step deviation method s = c × −  
n  n 
n2 − 1
zz Standard deviation of first n natural numbers s =
12
zz Standard deviation (grouped data)
2
Σ fidi2 Σ fidi2  Σ f d 
 i i
(i) Mean method s = (ii)Assumed mean method s = −  
N N  N 
2
Σ fd  Σ f d  2
 i i
(iii) Step deviation method s = C × − 
i i

N  N 
s
zz Coefficient of variation C.V = × 100%
x
zz If the C.V. value is less, then the observations of corresponding data are consistent.
If the C.V. value is more then the observations of corresponding are inconsistent.

zz In a random experiment, the set of all outcomes are known but exact outcome is
not known.
zz The set of all possible outcomes is called sample space.
zz A, B are said to be mutually exclusive events if A ∩ B = f

n(E )
zz Probability of event E is P (E ) =
n(S )
(i) The probability of sure event is 1 and the probability of impossible event is 0.
(ii) 0 £ P (E ) £ 1 ; (iii) P (E ) = 1 − P (E )
zz If A and B are mutually exclusive events then P (A ∪ B ) = P (A) + P (B ) .
zz (i) P (A Ç B ) = P (onlyA) = P (A) – P (A Ç B )
(ii) P (A Ç B ) = P (onlyB) = P (B ) – P (A Ç B )
zz P (A È B ) = P (A) + P (B ) – P (A Ç B ) , for any two events A, B.
zz For any three events A, B, C
P (A È B È C ) = P (A) + P (B ) + P (C ) − P (A ∩ B ) − P (B ∩ C )
−P (C ∩ A) + P (A ∩ B ∩ C )
ICT CORNER
ICT 8.1
“Probability” will open. Select the work sheet “ Probability Addition law ”
Step 2: In the given worksheet you can change the question by clicking on “New Problem”. Move the slider to
see the steps.
ICT 8.2
“Probability” will open. Select the work sheet “ Addition law Mutually Exclusive”
Step 2: In the given worksheet you can change the question by clicking on “New Problem”. Click on the check
boxes to see the respective answer.


ANSWERS
Exercise 1.1
1.(i) A × B = {(2, 1),(2, −4),(−2, 1),(−2, −4),(3, 1),(3, −4)}
A × A = {(2, 2),(2, −2),(2, 3),(−2, 2),(−2, −2),(−2, 3),(3, 2),(3, −2), (3, 3)}
B × A = {(1, 2),(1, −2),(1, 3),(−4, 2),(−4, −2),(−4, 3)}
(ii) A × B = {(p, p)(p, q )(q, p)(q, q )} ; A × A = {(p, p),(p, q ),(q, p),(q, q )} ;
B × A = {(p, p),(p, q ),(q, p),(q, q )}
(iii) A × B = { } ; A × A = {(m, m ),(m, n ),(n, m ),(n, n )} ; B × A = { }
2. A × B = {(1, 2),(1, 3),(1, 5),(1, 7),(2, 2),(2, 3),(2, 5),(2, 7),(3, 2), (3, 3),(3, 5),(3, 7)}
B × A = {(2, 1),(2, 2),(2, 3),(3, 1),(3, 2),(3, 3),(5, 1),(5, 2),(5, 3), (7, 1),(7, 2),(7, 3)}
3. A = {3, 4} B = {−2, 0, 3} 5. true
Exercise 1.2
1.(i) Not a relation (ii) Not a relation (iii) Relation (iv) Not a relation
2. {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} , {1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36} 3. {0,1,2,3,4,5}, {3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
4. (i)(a) (b)
2 1 (c) {(2, 1),(4, 2)}
3 2
4 3
5 4
1 1
(ii)(a) 2 2 (b) (c) {(1, 4),(2, 5),(3, 6),(4, 7),(5, 8),(6, 9)}
3 3
4 4
5 5
6 6
7 7
8 8
9 9
5. {(10000, A ),(10000, A ),(10000, A ),(10000, A ), Salary Employees

1 2 3 4 A1
(10000, A5 ),(25000,C 1 ),(25000,C 2 ),(25000,C 3 ), A2
` 10000 A3
(25000,C 4 ),(50000, M 1 ),(50000, M 2 ),(50000, M 3 ), A4
A5
` 25000
(100000, E1 ),(100000, E2 )} C1
C2
C3
` 50000 C4
M1
M2
` 100000 M3
E1
E2
335
Answers_X_EM.indd 335 16-12-2020 03:52:04 PM

Exercise 1.3
1. {1, 2, 3, 4,...} , {1,2,3,4,...}, {2, 4, 6, 8,...} , yes. 2. yes
3.(i) 12 (ii) 4a 2 − 10a + 6 (iii) 0 (iv) x 2 − 7x + 12
4.(i) (a) 9 (b) 6 (c) 6 (d) 0
(ii) 9.5 (iii) (a) {x / 0 ≤ x ≤ 10, x ∈ R} (b) {x / 0 ≤ x ≤ 9, x ∈ R}
3 1
(iv) 5 5. 2 6.(i) -2 (ii) (iii) 3 (iv)
2 2
7. 4x 3 − 96x 2 + 576x 8. 1 9. 500t
1 0.(i) Yes (ii) 0.9,24.5 (iii) 60.5 inches (iv) 32 cms
Exercise 1.4
1.(i) Not a function (ii) function (iii) Not a function (iv) function
2.(i) {(2,0),(4,1),(6,2),(10,4),(12,5)}
(ii) x 2 4 6 10 12 (iv)
f(x) 0 1 2 4 5

A f B
(iii)
2 0
4 1
6 2
10 4
12 5
9
3.(i) A f B
1
2 (ii) x 1 2 3 4 5 (iii)
2
3 3 f(x) 2 2 2 3 4
4
5 4
6.(i) {1, 8, 27, 64} (ii) one-one and into function

7.(i) Bijective function (ii) Not bijective function 8. a = –1 or 1, b = 1
9.(i) 5 (ii) 2 (iii) -2.5 (iv) 1
-9
10.(i) 2 (ii) 10 (iii) 178 (iv) 17
11. Yes 12.(i) 32°F (ii) 82.4°F (iii) 14°F
(iv) 100°C (v) −40°
Exercise 1.5
2 8
1.(i) x 2 - 6, (x - 6)2 ; not equal (ii) 2
, 2 - 1 ; not equal
2x - 1 x
3-x 9-x
(iii) , ; not equal (iv) x - 1, x - 1 ; equal (v) 4x 2 + 8x + 3, 4x 2 ; not equal
3 3
-5
2.(i) -5 (ii) 4. a = ±2
3
{ } {
5. y | y = 2x 2 + 1, x ∈  ; y | y = (2x + 1)2 , x ∈  } 6.(i) x 4 - 2x 2
2
(ii) x 4 − 2x 2  − 1 7. f is one-one, g is not one-one, f  g is not one-one 9. -4x - 1
 

Exercise 1.6
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
(C) (C) (A) (B) (C) (D) (C) (A) (C) (C) (A) (D) (C) (B) (D)
Unit exercise-1
1. 1,2 and -5 ,1 2. {-1, 0, 1} , {(-1, -1),(-1, 1),(0, -1),(0, 0),(1, -1),(1, 0),(1, 1)}
3. (i)4 (ii) 2 (iii) a
4. {(9, 3),(10, 5),(11, 11),(12, 3),(13, 13),(14, 7),(15, 5),(16, 2), (17, 17)} , {2,3,5,7,11,13,17}
-5
5. –1≤ x ≤1 9.(i) (ii) 2(x + 1) 10.(i) R - {9}
6
(ii) R (iii) [2, ¥) (iv) R
Exercise 2.1
1. 2, 5, 8, 11, … 2. 25, 7 6.(i) 4 (ii) 51
(iii) 144 (iv) 6 7. 174 8. 2,-1 9. 6
Exercise 2.2
1. Even number 2. No value 3. 10101 4. 9, 3
5. 2,3,5,7 and 3,4,2,1 6. 2040, 34 7. 999720 8. 3647 9. 2520
Exercise 2.3
1.(i) 7 (ii) 5 (iii) 2 (iv) 7 (v) 2
2. 3 3. 2,8,14,… 4. 8, 19, 30, … 5. 11 a.m
6. 8 a.m 7. Friday 9. 2 10. 6 a.m, Monday
Exercise 2.4
4 5 6
1.(i) 216,648,1944 (ii) -7 , -11 , -15 (iii) , , 2.(i) -1 ,6,25,62
25 36 49
n -1
(ii) 2, -6 ,12, -20 (iii) -4 , 2, 12, 26 3.(i) n 2 + 1 (ii)
n
15 13 63 225
(iii) 5n - 2 4.(i) , (ii) -12 , –117 5. , 6. 1,1,3,7,17,41
4 3 11 31
Exercise 2.5
1.(i) A.P (ii) not an A.P (iii) A.P (iv) A.P
3 5 7
(v) not an A.P 2.(i) 5, 11, 17, … (ii) 7, 2, -3 , … (iii) , , , …
4 4 4
3.(i) -1 , 2 (ii) -3, -7 4. -83 5. 15
6. 93, 99 8. 4 9. 3,17,31 10. 78
11. 2,9,16 12. 5:7 13. −3° C, 0° C, 3° C, 6° C, 9° C 14. 31 years
Exercise 2.6
1.(i) 3240 (ii) 999 (iii) 721 2. 20 3. 1540
5. 612.5 6.50625 7. 168448 8.(i) ₹ 45750 (ii) ₹ 5750 9. 20 months
6
10.(i) 42 (ii) 2130 12. (24a − 13b)
a +b
Exercise 2.7
1.(i) G.P (ii) not a G.P (iii) G.P (iv) G.P (v) G.P
(vi) not a G.P (vii) G.P 2.(i) 6,18,54 (ii) 2 ,2, 2 2
ANSWERS 337

(iii) 1000,400,160 3. 1 4. -18 5.(i) 12 (ii) 7 6. 5 ´(311 )
9 9
7. 3072 9. , 3, 2 (or) 2, 3, 10. ₹ 76577 11. ₹ 23820, ₹ 24040
2 2
Exercise 2.8
  3  
n   1  
n
25   1024  
1.(i) 1 − −   (ii) 1 −    2. 1820 3. 12
8   5  3  4 
      n 
 1
4 1 −   

 10  
27 1 4  
4.(i) (ii) 63 5. 6.(i) n −
2 n 4 9 81
10(10 - 1) n
(ii) - 7. 3069 8. ₹ 174760 9. 41
27 3 333
Exercise 2.9
1.(i) 1830 (ii) 1584 (iii) 3003 (iv) 1240 (v) 3256
(vi) 42075 (vii) 1296 2. 105625 3. 210
4. 15 5. 9 6. 4615 cm 2 7.(i) 4n 3 + 3n 2 (ii) 2240
Exercise 2.10
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
(C) (A) (B) (C) (D) (A) (D) (C) (A) (C) (C) (D) (B) (B) (C)
Unit exercise-2
2.(i) 35 litres (ii) 5 (iii) 3 3. 1 6. -78
8. ₹1200 9. 2, 6 , 3 2 , … 10. ₹27636
Exercise 3.1
1 1 1
1.(i) 2, -1 , 4 (ii) , , (iii) 35, 30, 25
2 3 4
2.(i) infinitely many solution (ii) no solution (iii) unique solution
3. 24 years, 51 years, 84 years 4. 137 5. 7, 3, 2
Exercise 3.2
1.(i) x + 2x − 3
2
(ii) x + 1 2
(iii) x (x 2 + 4x + 4) (iv) 3(x 2 + 1)
2.(i) 8x 3y 2 (ii) –36a3b2c (iii) -48m 2n 2 (iv) (p − 1)(p − 2)(p + 2)
(v) 4(x + 3)(2x + 1) (x - 3) (vi) 23 x 2 (2x − 3y )3 (4x 2 + 6xy + 9y 2 )
Exercise 3.3
1.(i) 7xy, 105x y 2 2
(ii) (x + 1) , (x − 1)(x + 1)(x 2 + x + 1)(x 2 − x + 1)
(iii) x (x + y ) , xy(x + y ) 2.(i) (a + 6) (a - 2) (a - 3) (ii) x (x − 3a )2 (x 2 + 3ax + 9a 2 )
3.(i) 4x 2 (x - 1) (ii) x 2 − xy + y 2 4 . (i) (a + 2)(a − 7) (ii) (x 2 − y 2 )(x 2 + xy + y 2 )
Exercise 3.4
x -1 x -9 9 p +5
1.(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
x x -2 x -1 2p(p − 4)
2.(i) -5 , 5 (ii) 2, 3 (iii) 1 (iv) 0, -3 , 2

Exercise 3.5
3x 3z 3t 2 3x - 4y x 2 + xy + y 2
1.(i) (ii) p + 4 (iii) 2.(i) (ii)
5y 3 4 2x - 5 3(x + 2y )
b−4 3y 4(2t - 1) 4
3.(i) -5 (ii) (iii) (iv) 4. 5. x 2 + 4x + 4
b +2 x -3 3 9
Exercise 3.6
2
2x 2x + 2x − 7 2(x - 2) 1−x
1.(i) (ii) (iii) x 2 + xy + y 2 2.(i) (ii)
x -2 (x + 3)(x − 2) x -4 1+x
2x 3 + 1 x +1 (4x 2 − 1)
3. 4. 2 5. 7. 2 hrs 24 minutes 8. 30 kgs, 20 kgs
(x 2 + 2)2 x − 2x + 4 2(4x 2 + 1)
Exercise 3.7
y 4z 6 7x + 2 11 (a + b)4 (x + y )4
1.(i) 2 ( ii) 4 (iii) 2.(i) 2x + 5
x2 4x − 1 9 (a − b)6
1
(ii) 3x − 4y + 5z (iii) (x − 2)(7x + 1)(4x − 1) (iv) (4x + 3)(3x + 2)(x + 2)
6
Exercise 3.8
1. (i) x 2 − 6x + 3 (ii) 2x 2 - 7x - 3 (iii) 4x 2 + 1 (iv) 11x 2 - 9x - 12
2.(i) 49, -42 (ii) 144, 264 3.(i) 30, 9 (ii) 24, -32
Exercise 3.9
1.(i) x + 9x + 20 = 0 (ii) 3x − 5x + 12 = 0 (iii) 2x 2 + 3x − 2 = 0
2 2
1 10 1 -4
(iv) x 2 + (2 − a )2 x + (a + 5)2 = 0 2.(i) -3 , -28 (ii) -3 , 0 (iii) - , - (iv) ,
3 3 3 3
Exercise 3.10
1 9 -5 1 1
1.(i) - ,2 (ii) -2, (iii) -2 ,9 (iv) - 2, (v) , 2. 6
4 2 2 4 4
Exercise 3.11
2 2 1 3+ 3 3- 3
1.(i) , (ii) -1 , 3 2.(i) 2, (ii) ,
3 3 2 2 2
23 a + b a -b
(iii) -1 , (iv) , 3. 3.75 seconds
3 6 6
Exercise 3.12
1
1. 5, - 2. 1.5 m 3. 45 km/hr 4. 20 years, 10 years
5
5. Yes, 12 m, 16 m 6. 72 7. 28 m, 42 m 8. 2 m 9. 7 cm
Exercise 3.13
1.(i) Real and unequal (ii) Real and unequal (iii) Not real
1
(iv) Real and equal (v) Real and equal 2.(i) 2, 3 (ii) 1,
9
Exercise 3.14
2
(α + β ) − 2αβ α+β
1.(i) (ii) (iii) 9αβ − 3(α + β ) + 1
3αβ (αβ )2
ANSWERS 339

(α + β )2 − 2αβ + 3(α + β ) 7 29 13
(iv) 2.(i) (ii) (iii)
αβ 5 10 6
3.(i) x 2 − 44x + 16 = 0 (ii) x 2 − 3x − 1 = 0 (iii) x 2 − 24x − 64 = 0
4. -15 , 15 5. -24 ,24 6. -36
Exercise 3.15
1. `6500, `1250 2. y=8, x=4 3. y=4.5, x=15, 4. y=18 minutes, 10 pipes
5. 360, `30 6. `90, 10 hrs
Exercise 3.16
1.(i) Real and unequal roots (ii) Real and equal roots (iii) No real roots
(iv) Real and unequal roots (v) Real and equal roots (vi) Real and unequal roots
2. –3, 4 3. No real roots 4. -1
5. -4 , 1 6. -2 ,7 7. –1, 3 8. –2, 3
Exercise 3.17
3
1.(i) 16 (ii) 4 ´ 4 (iii) 7 , , 5, 0, -11 , 1
2
2. 1 ´ 18 , 2 ´ 9 , 3 ´ 6 , 6 ´ 3 , 9 ´ 2 , 18 ´ 1 and 1 ´ 6 , 2 ´ 3 , 3 ´ 2 , 6 ´ 1
8 64 
 9 
1 3 5

 3 3  5 1 3

  125  
0 2 4 64 4 −7 8
3.(i)   (ii)  9  4.  
   3 3   
1 1 3  64 125  3 9 2
 72 
3 3 
− 7 5 − 3 

5.   7.(i) 3,12,3 (ii) 4,2,0 or 2,4,0 (iii) 2,4,3
  3 −2 5 
Exercise 3.18
 0   2 0 
 5     7
 −17 −37 −63 −15 −45
3.  3 9 ,  3

1  4.(i) −39 −11 −26 (ii)  
       15 −27 −60
2 2 2 2
5.(i) 4, -10 , 12 (ii) -10 , 14, 10 6. 4,6 7. 4 8. -1 , 5 and -2, 4
Exercise 3.19
1. 3 ´ 3 , 4 ´ 2 , 4 ´ 2 , 4 ´ 1 , 1 ´ 3 2. p ´ r , not defined 3. 7,10
12 19 −10 −4
  ,   , AB ¹ BA
4. 
10 3   24 25 
Exercise 3.20
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
(D) (A) (B) (A) (B) (C) (D) (B) (C) (C) (B) (A) (B) (D) (B) (B) (D) (B) (C) (A)
Unit exercise-3
1. 6,2,1 2. 42,78,30 3. 153 4. (ky + x )(k 2x 2 − y 2 ) 5 . x 2 + 2x + 1 6. (i) x a - 2
7. (p + q + r )
2
5
(ii) −x + 8. 11 hrs, 22 hrs, 33 hrs 9. 17x 2 − 18x + 19 10. 3
2 2qr
11. 14 km/hr 12. 120 m,40 m 13. 14 minutes 14. 25 15.(i) x 2 − 6x + 11 = 0

9  750 1500 2250  8000 16000 24000
(ii) 3x 2 − 2x + 1 = 0 16. 3, 17.(i)   (ii)  
40000 24000 8000 
4 3750 2250 750   
 122 71 
 
18. sin q 19. 8, 4 20. 
−58 −34
Exercise 4.1
1.(i) Not similar (ii) Similar,2.5 2. 3.3 m 3. 42 m
15 36
5. , 6. 5.6 cm, 3.25 cm 8. 2.8 cm 9. 2 m
13 13
Exercise 4.2
1.(i) 6.43 cm (ii) 1 2. 60 cm 5. 4 cm, 4 cm
8.(i) Not a bisector (ii) Bisector 12. 2.1 cm
Exercise 4.3
1. 30 m 2. 1 mile 3. 21.74 m 4. 12 cm, 5 cm
5. 10 m, 24 m, 26 m 6. 0.8 m
Exercise 4.4
1. 7 cm 2. 2 cm 3. 7 cm, 5 cm, 3 cm 4. 30° 5. 130°
20
6. cm 7. 10 cm 8. 4.8 cm 10. 2 cm 13. 8.7 cm 14. 10.3 cm 15. 4 cm 16. 6.3 cm
3
Exercise 4.5
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
(C) (B) (D) (A) (D) (A) (B) (C) (A) (D) (B) (B) (B) (D) (A)
Unit exercise-4
12 10 4
2. cm, cm 5. 20 13 km 7. 10 m 8. shadow = × (distance) 10. 6 units
5 3 11
Exercise 5.1
1.(i) 24 sq. units (ii) 11.5 sq. units 2.(i) collinear (ii) collinear
1
3.(i) 44 (ii) 13 4.(i) 0 (ii) or -1 5.(i) 35 sq. units (ii) 34 sq. units
2
6. -5 7. 2, -1 8. 24 sq. units, area(DABC ) = 4 × area(∆PQR) 9. 122 sq.units
10. 10 cans 11.(i) 3.75 sq. units (ii) 3 sq. units (iii) 13.88 sq. units
Exercise 5.2
1
1.(i) undefined (ii) 0 2.(i) 0° (ii) 45° 3.(i) (ii) -cot q
5
17
4. 3 6. 7 7. 8. 4 9.(i) yes (ii) yes 11. 5, 2
2
Exercise 5.3
5
1.(i) 2y + 3 = 0 (ii) 2x − 5 = 0 2. 1, 45° ,
2
3 +3 3+3 3
3. x − 3y − 3 3 = 0 4 . , 5. -5 6. x − y − 16 = 0
2 −2
7.(i) 16x − 15y − 22 = 0 (ii) 4x − 9y + 19 = 0 8 . 15x − 11y + 46 = 0
9. x + 4y − 14 = 0 , 3x + 5y –28 = 0 10. 5x + 4y − 3 = 0
11. (i) 1 (ii) 7.5 seconds (iii) 10 seconds
ANSWERS 341

12.(i) 3x − 2y − 12 = 0 (ii) 3x − 20y + 15 = 0 13.(i) 2, -3
(ii) -3, - 4 1 4.(i) 5x + 2y + 3 = 0 (ii) x + y + 4 = 0
Exercise 5.4
1.(i) 0 (ii) undefined 2.(i) 0.7 (ii) 0
3.(i) Parallel (ii) Perpendicular 4. 4 5. 3x + 4y + 7 = 0
6. 2x + 5y − 2 = 0 7. 2x + 5y + 6 = 0 , 5x + y − 48 = 0 8. 5x − 3y − 8 = 0
9. 13x + 5y − 18 = 0 10. 49x + 28y − 156 = 0 11. 31x + 15y + 30 = 0
12. 4x + 13y − 9 = 0
Exercise 5.5
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
(B) (A) (B) (C) (C) (D) (B) (B) (A) (C) (C) (A) (B) (B) (B)
Unit exercise-5
 7 13 
1. Rhombus 2.  ,  3. 0 sq.units 4. -5 6. 2x − 3y − 6 = 0, 3x − 2y + 6 = 0
 2 2 
7. 1340 litres 8. (-1, -4) 9. 13x + 13y − 6 = 0 10. 119x + 102y − 125 = 0
Exercise 6.2
1. 30° 2. 24 m 3. 3.66 m 4. 1.5 m 5.(i) 7 m (ii) 16.39 m 6. 10 m
Exercise 6.3
1. 150 m 2. 50 m 3. 32.93 m 4. 2078.4 m 6. 30 Feet / m
Exercise 6.4
1. 35.52 m 2. 69.28 m, 160 m 4. 150 m, yes
5.(i) 264 m (ii) 198 m (iii) 114.31 m 6.(i) 2.91 km (ii) 6.93 km
Exercise 6.5
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
(B) (D) (B) (A) (B) (B) (A) (C) (B) (D) (B) (B) (D) (B) (A)
Unit exercise-6
5. 29.28 m/s 6. 1.97 seconds (approx) 7.(i) 24.58 km(approx)
(ii) 17.21 km (approx) (iii) 21.41 km (approx) (iv) 23.78 km (approx)
8. 200 m 9. 39.19 m
Exercise 7.1
1. 25 cm, 35 cm 2. 7 m, 35 m 3. 2992 sq.cm
4. CSA of the cone when rotated about PQ is larger. 5. 18.25 m
6. 28 caps 7. 5 :9 8. 5 6.25% 9. ₹ 302.72 10. ₹ 1357.72
Exercise 7.2
1. 4.67 m 2. 1 cm 3. 652190 cm 3 4. 63 minutes (approx)
5. 100.58 6. 5:7 7. 64:343 9. 4186.29 cm 3 10. ₹ 418.36
Exercise 7.3
1. 1642.67 cm 3
2. 66 cm 3
3. 2.46 cm 3 4. 905.14 cm 3
5. 77.78 mm3 6. 332.5 cm 2 7.(i) 4pr 2 sq. units
(ii) 4pr 2 sq. units (iii) 1:1

Exercise 7.4
h
1. 36 cm 2. 2 hrs 3. 2 4. 6 cm 5. 1812000 cm 3 /1812 litre 6. 1.33 cm
3x
7. 1 cm 8. 100%
Exercise 7.5
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
(D) (A) (A) (B) (C) (B) (B) (C) (C) (A) (D) (A) (A) (B) (D)
Unit exercise-7
1
1. 48000 words 2. 27 minutes (approx.) 3. pr 3 cu.units 4. 782.57 sq.cm
3
5. 450 coins 6. 4.8 cm 7. ₹ 6800 8. 2 cm 9. 17 cm 10. 2794.18 cm 3
Exercise 8.1
1.(i) 62; 0.33 (ii) 47.8; 0.64 2. 50.2 3. 250 4. 2.34
5. 222.22, 14.91 6. 6.9 7. 6.05 8. 4.5 9. 1.2, 1.44 10. 7.76 11. 14.6
12. 6 13. 1.24 14. 60.5, 14.61 15. 6 and 8
Exercise 8.2
1. 52% 2. 4.69 3. 7.2 4. 180.28% 5. 14.4% 6. 10.07% 7. Vidhya 8. Social, Science
Exercise 8.3
1. {HHH , HHT , HTH , HTT ,THH ,THT ,TTH ,TTT }
2. {(1, 2),(1, 3),(1, 4),(1, 5),(1, 6), (2, 1),(2, 3),(2, 4),(2, 5),(2, 6), (3, 1),(3, 2),(3, 4),(3, 5),(3, 6),
(4, 1),(4, 2),(4, 3),(4, 5), (4, 6), (5, 1),(5, 2),(5, 3),(5, 4),(5, 6),(6, 1),(6, 2),(6, 3),(6, 4),(6, 5)}
15 3 9 8 1
3. (i) (ii) 340 4. 5. (i) (ii) 6. (i) (ii) x = 4
32 8 1000 999 4
1 1 5 1 7 1 7
7.(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) 0 8. (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
6 6 12 8 8 2 8
3 1 10 6
9.(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
13 2 13 13
13 1 157 1 5 5
10. 12 11.(i) (ii) 0 (iii) 12. 13. (i) (ii) (iii)
46 46 600 6 6 18
1 3 1
14. (i) (ii) (iii)
8 4 8
Exercise 8.4
11
1. 2. (i) 0.58 (ii) 0.52 (iii) 0.74 3. 0.1 4. 1.2 5. 0.2
15
5 1 5 7 73 17 11 11 11 29
6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 1 13. , , 14.
9 13 6 8 280 40 48 24 16 35
Exercise 8.5
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
(C) (A) (C) (B) (C) (D) (B) (A) (A) (B) (B) (B) (C) (C) (D)
Unit exercise-8
1. 8,12 2. 5.55 3. 7 4. 81 5. 5.17, 1.53 6. City A 7. 60, 40
1 3 13 13 3 10 1
8. 9. 10. 10 11. 1 2. (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
9 4 20 49 49 49 49
ANSWERS 343

MATHEMATICAL TERMS
Algorithm படிமுறை Decompose பிரித்தல்
Alternate segment ஒன்றுவிட்ட துண்டு Diagonal matrix மூலைவிட்ட அணி
Altitude குத்துயரம் Dimensions பரிமாணங்கள்
Angle bisector க�ோண இருசம வெட்டி Discriminant தன்மைக் காட்டி
Angle of depression இறக்கக் க�ோணம் Distributive property பங்கீட்டுப் பண்பு
Angle of elevation ஏற்றக் க�ோணம் Domain மதிப்பகம்
Arithmetic progression கூட்டுத்தொடர் வரிசை Equal matrices சம அணிகள்
Arrow diagram அம்புக்குறி படம் Equiangular சமக�ோணம்
Axis அச்சு Event நிகழ்ச்சி
Axis of symmetry சமச்சீர் அச்சு Frustum இடைக் கண்டம்
Basic proportionality அடிப்படை விகித சமம் Functions சார்புகள்
Bijection இருபுறச் சார்பு Geometric progression பெருக்குத்தொடர் வரிசை
Cartesian product கார்டீசியன் பெருக்கல் Geo-positioning system புவி நிலைப்படுத்தல் அமைப்பு
Circular motion வட்ட இயக்கம் Graphical form வரைபடமுறை
Clinometer சாய்வுமானி Great circle மீப்பெரு வட்டம்
Co-domain துணை மதிப்பகம் Height and distance உயரங்களும் தூரங்களும்
Coefficient of range வீச்சுக் கெழு Hemisphere அரைக் க�ோளம்
Coefficient of variation மாறுபாட்டுக் கெழு Hollow உள்ளீடற்ற
Collinearity நேர்க் க�ோட்டமைவு Horizontal level கிடைமட்ட வரிசை
Column matrix நிரல் அணி Horizontal line test கிடைமட்டக் க�ோட்டுச்
ச�ோதனை
Combined solids இணைந்த திண்மங்கள் Hyperbola அதிபரவளையம்
Common difference ப�ொது வித்தியாசம் Identity function சமனிச் சார்பு
Common ratio ப�ொது விகிதம் Image நிழல் உரு
Completing square
method வர்க்கப் பூர்த்தி முறை Inclination சாய்வுக் க�ோணம்
Composition of functions சார்புகளின் இணக்கம் Inconsistent ஒருங்கமைவற்ற
Concurrency theorem ஒருங்கிசைவுத் தேற்றம் Injection ஒருபுறச் சார்பு
Concurrent ஒருங்கிசையும் Intercept வெட்டுத்துண்டு
Concyclic ஒரேபிரதியிலுள்ள Into function உள்நோக்கிய சார்பு
Congruence ஒருங்கிசைவு Kadhams (unit of distance) காதம்கள் (தூரத்தின் அலகு)
Consistent ஒருங்கமைவுடைய Latitude அட்சரேகை
Constant function மாறிலிச் சார்பு Lemma துணைத் தேற்றம்
Coordinate axes ஆயக்கூறு அச்சு Line of sight பார்வைக் க�ோடு
Counter-clock wise வலமிருந்து இடம் Linear equations நேரிய சமன்பாடுகள்
Curved surface area வளைபரப்பு Linear function நேரிய சார்பு
Glosary _X_EM.indd 344 16-12-2020 03:53:21 PM

Longitude தீர்க்கரேகை Relations த�ொடர்புகள்/ உறவுகள்
Magnitude அளவு Revolutions சுழற்சி
Many-one function பலவற்றிற்கொன்றான சார்பு Right circular cone நேர்வட்டக் கூம்பு
Matrix அணிகள் Right circular cylinder நேர்வட்ட உருளை
Measures of central மைய நிலைப் ப�ோக்கு Row matrix நிரை அணி
tendency அளவைகள்
Measures of dispersion சிதறல் அளவைகள்
Sample point கூறுபுள்ளி
Median நடுக்கோடு
Sample space கூறுவெளி
Modular மட்டு
Scalar matrix திசையிலி அணி
Mutually exclusive events ஒன்றைய�ொன்று விலக்கும் வெட்டுக்கோடு

Secant
நிகழ்ச்சிகள்
Sequence த�ொடர்வரிசை
Negative of a matrix எதிர் அணி
Series த�ொடர்
Non-vertical lines நேர்க் குத்தற்ற க�ோடுகள்
Similar triangle வடிவ�ொத்த முக்கோணம்
Non-zero integer பூச்சியமற்ற முழு
Simultaneous linear
ஒத்த நேரிய சமன்பாடுகள்
Non-zero real number பூச்சியமற்ற மெய் எண் equations
Slant height சாயுயரம்
Null matrix / Zero matrix பூச்சிய அணி
Slope or gradient சாய்வு
Null relation சுழி த�ொடர்பு
Solid திண்மம்
Oblique cylinder சாய்ந்த உருளை
Square matrix சதுர அணி
Oblique frustum சாய்ந்த இடைக் கண்டம்
Standard deviation திட்ட விலக்கம்
One-one function ஒன்றுக்கொன்றான சார்பு Surface area புறப்பரப்பு
Onto function மேல் சார்பு Table form அட்டவணை முறை
Ordered pair வரிசைச் ச�ோடிகள் Tangents த�ொடுக�ோடுகள்
Outcomes விளைவுகள் Theodolite தளமட்டக் க�ோணமாணி
Parabola பரவளையம் Tossed சுண்டப்படுதல்
Parallel planes இணை தளங்கள் Total surface area ம�ொத்தப் பரப்பு
Perpendicular bisector செங்குத்து சமவெட்டி Transpose matrix நிரை நிரல் மாற்று அணி
Point of contact த�ொடுபுள்ளி

Trial முயற்சி
Triangular matrix முக்கோண அணி
Point of intersection வெட்டுப்புள்ளி
Unbiased coins சீரான நாணயங்கள்
Pre-image முன் உரு
Undefined வரையறுக்கப்படாதது
Quadratic equation இருபடிச் சமன்பாடுகள்
Unique solution ஒரேய�ொரு தீர்வு
Quadratic function இருபடிச் சார்பு
Uniqueness தனித் தன்மை
Quadratic polynomials இருபடி பல்லுறுப்புக்
Unit matrix / Identity
க�ோவைகள் அலகு அணி
matrix
Random experiment சமவாய்ப்புச் ச�ோதனை Variance விலக்க வர்க்க சராசரி
Range வீச்சகம் (அ) வீச்சு Vertical angle உச்சிக் க�ோணம்
Rational expression விகிதமுறு க�ோவை Vertical line test குத்துக்கோட்டுச் ச�ோதனை
Real valued function மெய்மதிப்புச் சார்பு பல்லுறுப்புக் க�ோவையின்
Zeros of polynomials
பூச்சியங்கள்
Reciprocal function தலைகீழ்ச் சார்பு
MATHEMATICAL TERMS 345

Secondary Mathematics - Class 10
Text Book Development Team
Reviewers Content Writers

• Dr. R. Ramanujam • Dr. S. Muthukaruppan
Professor, Institute of Mathematical Sciences, Taramani, Chennai. Lecturer, DIET, Machvadi, Pudukkottai.
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GOVERNMENT OF TAMILNADU

A publication under Free Textbook Programme of Government of Tamil Nadu

Department of School Education

Preliminary_X_EM.indd 1 15-12-2020 02:48:34 PM

First Edition - 2019

(Published under new syllabus)

NOT FOR SALE

State Council of Educational

Printing & Publishing

Tamil NaduTextbook and Educational

Preliminary_X_EM.indd 2 15-12-2020 02:48:34 PM

= equal to |||ly similarly

z does not belong to ( implies

1 proper subset of ` therefore

3 subset of or is contained in a since (or) because

M not a subset of or is not contained in - approximately equal to

Al (or) A c complement of A | (or) : such that

∑ summation ! plus or minus

Preliminary_X_EM.indd 3 15-12-2020 02:48:36 PM

Multiple Choice Unit Exercise

Let’s use the QR code in the text books!

Preliminary_X_EM.indd 4 15-12-2020 02:48:37 PM

Preliminary_X_EM.indd 5 15-12-2020 02:48:37 PM

E-book Evaluation DIGI Links

Preliminary_X_EM.indd 6 15-12-2020 02:48:37 PM

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (also known as von Leibniz)

1 Relation and Functions.indd 1 15-12-2020 02:49:56 PM

2 10th Standard Mathematics

1 Relation and Functions.indd 2 15-12-2020 02:49:57 PM

A×B B×A Thinking Corner

For example, let A be the set of numbers in the interval B 3

1. For any two non-empty sets A and B, A ´ B is called as _____.

Relations and Functions 3

1 Relation and Functions.indd 3 15-12-2020 02:49:59 PM

Solution A = {x ∈  | 1 < x < 4} = {2, 3} , B = {x ∈ W | 0 ≤ x < 2} = {0, 1} ,

1 Relation and Functions.indd 4 15-12-2020 02:50:02 PM

Representing A ´ B ´C in the XYZ - space we get a picture as shown in Fig. 1.6.

In general, cartesian product of two non-empty sets provides (0,0,0) (1,0,0)

1 Relation and Functions.indd 5 15-12-2020 02:50:04 PM

4. If A = {5, 6} , B = {4, 5, 6} , C = {5, 6, 7} , Show that A ×A = (B ×B ) ∩ (C ×C ) .

5. Given A={1,2,3}, B = {2,3,5}, C = {3,4} and D = {1,3,5}, check if

6. Let A = {x ∈ W | x < 2} , B = {x ∈  | 1 < x ≤ 4} and C = {3, 5} . Verify that

Relationship Expressing using the Representation as

1 Relation and Functions.indd 6 15-12-2020 02:50:06 PM

Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {a, b, c}.

1 Relation and Functions.indd 7 15-12-2020 02:50:07 PM

(i) We note that, R1 ⊆ A × B . Thus, R1 is a relation from A to B.

8 10th Standard Mathematics

1 Relation and Functions.indd 8 15-12-2020 02:50:08 PM

Relations and Functions 9

1 Relation and Functions.indd 9 15-12-2020 02:50:09 PM

A relation f between two non-empty sets X and Y is called a Function

1 Relation and Functions.indd 10 15-12-2020 02:50:10 PM

1. Relations are subsets of ____. Functions are subsets of ____.

1 Relation and Functions.indd 11 15-12-2020 02:50:11 PM

Functions play very important role in the understanding Note

Example 1.7 A relation f :X →Y is defined by f (x ) = x 2 − 2 where, X = {−2, −1, 0, 3} and Y = R.

∴f = {(−2, 2),(−1, −1),(0, −2),(3, 7)}

12 10th Standard Mathematics

1 Relation and Functions.indd 12 15-12-2020 02:50:12 PM

(iii) R3 = {(–5,a), (1,a), (3,b),(4,c),(1,b)} X R1 Y

find (i)f (1) (ii) f (x+1) (iii) f (x) + f (1)

f (1) = 2(1) – (1)2 = 2 – 1 =1

4. If A = {5, 6} , B = {4, 5, 6} , C = {5, 6, 7} , Show that A ×A = (B ×B ) ∩ (C ×C ) .

1. Relations are subsets of . Functions are subsets of .

f (x+1) = 2(x + 1) – (x + 1)2 =2x + 2 – (x 2 + 2x + 1) = −x 2 + 1

If A = {a, b, c } then f =I A = {(a, a ),(b, b),(c, c)} is an Thinking Corner