LAB 1: LAB SAFETY AND PRACTICES
Lab Apparatuses:
GLASSWARE
A.) To contain
- Used in containing certain amount of liquid
- 0.5 - 1 % sticks to the sidewall of the cylinder
1. ) Volumetric Flask
- precise volume and temperature
- used to dilute samples precisely
2.) Beaker
- has a cylindrical shape with a flat bottom
- used for stirring, heating liquid
- not used for measuring
3.) Conical Flask
- flat base, conical body and cylindrical neck
- not for accurate measurement
- used for swirling liquid without spilling (titration)
4.) Measuring Cylinder
- used to measure a certain volume of liquid but n
that precise as a pipette or burette
5.) Weighing Bottle
- Used for precise weighing of solids
6.) Test Tubes
- Used for qualitative experiments
1.) To deliver
- Designed to deliver a precise volume
- Designed to contain a little more solution than the indicate
volume due to sticking to the side of the glassware
1.) Pipette
- Used to measure a volume of solution with
extreme precision
- Done using a pro-pipette to such up the solution
2.) Burette
- Delivers a measured volume of solution
- The flow of the liquid is controlled using the
stopcock valve
- Usually used in titration
Other lab apparatuses
1.) Glass Rod
- Used to mixed liquid
- Used to dab at litmus paper with solution to
determine PH
2.) Pestle and Mortar
- Used for grinding and crushing samples into a
powder
- Mortar: bowl, pestle: used for grinding
3.) Evaporation Dish
- Used for evaporation of samples
4.) Wire Gauze
- Placed between the beaker and the tripod
To support the beaker while heating the
solution
5.) Thermometer
- Measures the temperature of the solution
6.) Glass Funnel
- Has a wide mouth and narrow stem
- Used when a solution or a solid needs to be
added to a flask or a burette without spilling
7.) Watch Glass
- Circular concave piece of glass
- Used to cover the mouth of the beaker or to
weigh the solids with the absence of a
weighing bottle
8.) Test Tube Peg
- Used to heat the test tube without burning
oneself
Lab Safety and Practices
1. Handling of Chemicals
- Read the label twice before removing the
reagent
- Warning and precaution
- Safety Data Sheets (SDS): contain
essential info reg. The chemical
2. Do not dispense more than what you need
3. Thoroughly clean lab materials
4. Observe proper disposal of chemicals and
materials
- Separate compatible chemicals (acid and
bases)
5. Spills should be cleaned immediately
(GHS Pictograms and Hazard Classes)
- Globally Harmonized System
Transferring Liquid using a Pipette
1. Used rubber aspirators and never your mouth
 2. Rinse the pipette several times using the liquid t 3. Use a water/steam bath for flammable and volatile
be transferred liquids.
3. Always measure volume at an eye level 4. Always observe precaution in handling.
4. After filling the pipette with desired volume, cove DOCUMENTATION
he top end using your forefinger 1. Use blue or black permanent ink in writing your
5. Drain the remaining liquid to the receiver contain data. Directly write in your report sheet or lab
The tip of the pipette should touch the wall of the notebook.
container to avoid splattering.
WEIGHING 2. If you made mistakes in recording your data, cross
1. Consider the capacity of the electronic balance out with a single line and write the correct entry,
before weighing. then countersign. Do not erase or use correction
2. Mass determination: tapes/pens.
mass of container and sample - mass of empty
container
3. Immediately clean chemical spills.
4. Always use a container when measuring the ma
even for common chemicals.
a.) Top-loading balance
- Typical range: 0-5,000 g / 0- 5 kg
- 0.00 g : 10 mg
- 100 mg => 10 g
USING THE BALANCE
b.) Analytical Balance
Balance - used to measure mass of an object.
- Typical range: 0-200 g
- 0.0000 g
Parts of the Balance:
- 1 mg => 0.0010 g
1. Doors - reduces air currents
- There are shields for wind which can cau
2. Pans - supports material to be weighed
errors
3. Digital Display - functions as power button or tare
➔ The top-loading balance has a typical
range of 0 - 5,000 g or 0 - 5 kg. Its button for some models
precision is up to two decimal places 4. Scoop - used to dispense material
(10 mg). The analytical balance is 5. Weigh boat - holds the material to be weighed
considered as more precise which 6. Brush - for cleaning of pan
measures small amounts of samples ➔ Tare Mass - weight of empty container
compared to top - loading balance. It
has a typical range of 0 - 200 g. The
precision of its measurement is up to How to use:
four decimal places (1 mg). ● Turn the power on and the balance will have quick
calibration steps. The mass will be set to zero.
HEATING
● Get the tare mass of the empty container. Press
1. Laboratory hotplate.
tare to zero the balance. Take note of the tre mass.
2. Use borosilicate glasswares when heating.
● Open the doors of the balance and use the scoop
- Pyrex brand
to add the compound.
- Borosilicate glass contains substantial
● Close the doors for accurate measurement. Read
amounts of silica (SiO₂) and boron oxide
the mass of the compound.
(B₂O3>8%) as glass network formers.
● Add some more compound to meet the needed
mass through reopening the doors and using the
scoop.
● Close the compound then read the mass.
● After taking note of the mass, open the door,
remove the compound and clean the balance pa
briefly using the brush in case.
● Press the power button after using the balance.
➔ Massing of Difference - a technique us
to obtain an accurate mass of a material
that you want to transfer.
- Subtract the final mass from the initial m
to accurately measure the transferred ma
of the substance.
PROPER TECHNIQUES FOR USING A PIPET
➔ Pipets come from wide variety of sizes
➔ Always wear gloves and glasses for safety
● Start by placing the pipette bulb string around yo
wrist and the bulb at the end of the pipette.
● Squeeze the bulb first before placing it at the en
of the pipette. Place the other end of the pipette
into the transfer liquid.
● As you slowly release the pressure of the bulb, t
liquid is drawn up to the pipette. Be careful not t
let the liquid up into the bulb.
● Quickly remove the bulb and place your thumb
over the opening of the top of the pipette to stop
the liquid from draining out of the pipette.
● Slightly remove your finger to allow the liquid to
drain until the bottom of the liquid’s meniscus
reaches the graduated line.
● Once reached the correct volume, remove the
pipette and transfer the liquid to another contain
and don’t let the remaining amount of liquid from
the pipette transfer to the container since it is for
the purpose of accurate measurement.
● Touch the tip of the pipette if there is a liquid on
outer tip of the pipette to the edge of the contain
PROPER DRESS AND PPE
● Wear clothes that cover your entire body just like
long pants and closed shoes.
● Remove jewelry and tie back long hair before
entering the lab.
● Leave all personal belongings outside the lab
except needed materials to avoid further
contamination.
● Wear a lab coat, safety glasses, and gloves for
safety in general lab work. Button your coats and
keep the cuffs tucked into the gloves.
● Wear a chemical apron and chemical resistant
safety goggles if you’re working with splash
hazards, volatile or reactive solutions.
● Change your gloves and wash your hands
frequently especially if you come into contact with
chemicals.
● Thermal and puncture resistant gloves are used
for handling extremely hot or cold materials so
wear it if needed.
SAFETY EQUIPMENTS
● When working in a lab, identify the location of the
safety equipment. It must contain a safety shower
and eyewash station. Both should be tested
weekly to ensure that it’s working and the water is
clean.
● Each lab should have a first aid kit that contains
bandages and antiseptic for minor injuries.
● Evacuation routes should be posted near the exits.
● Test safety equipment regularly to make sure
everything is ready in case of emergency.
If a chemical or flame explosion has occurred:
● Yell for help and immediately go to the
nearest safety shower.
● Remove the saturated clothing.
● Thoroughly drench the affected skin under
the shower.
● Drench your entire body if your clothes and
skin are exposed to flame.
● Have someone call 911.
 Exposure of the Eyes:
● Rinse your eyes in the eyewash station i
your eyes are exposed to hazardous
chemicals. Hold your eyes open and
thoroughly rinse for 10 min.
Fire Blanket:
● Use this to extinguish small flames on wo
benches.
● It can also be used to help someone who
clothing is on fire. Never wra someone
while standing to avoid the flame getting
the neck area.
● Help the person to the floor, wrap them in
the fire blanket and help them roll until th
fire is out.
Fire Extinguishers:
a. Class A: Ordinary Combustibles
- wood
- Cloth
- paper
b. Class B: Organic Solvents and flammabl
liquids
c. Class C: Electrical Equipment
d. Class D: Combustible Metals
➔ Class B and C fires must be smothered with
chemical foam extinguishers. Water will just
make it worse which will cause the fire to spread
➔ Most labs have dry chemical fire extinguishers
which are effective in Class A, B, and C fires.
➔ If the fire is too large to be extinguished, evacua
all personnel immediately and call 911.
➔ Don’t attempt to use the fire extinguishers unles
you are trained to extinguish such as the local fi
department.
Chemical Fume Hood:
A ventilated and enclosed work area to protect you from
harmful toxic vapors.
● Turn on the exhaust fan and make sure the hood
ventilating properly.
● The opening is covered by a window called a sa
that can be raised and lowered which is preferab
opened within 8 or 16 inches.
● Never store chemicals under the hood and always
clean and remove all the materials when finished
working.
SAFE CHEMICAL HANDLING
When Diluting acids or bases:
● Always add the acid or the base to the solvent
such as water and not the other way around since
there might be a violent reaction when the solvent
is the one that is poured to the acid or base. Which
can burn a person.
● Use a break resistant secondary container and
never remove a chemical in the lab by yourself in
transporting it between lab spaces.
● Chemicals should be handled safely and properly
to avoid skin, eye, and inhalation exposure.
● In protecting your eyes, use chemical splash
goggles to fully protect your eyes from chemicals.
It should have a code of Z87.1 which indicates
compliance with the National standard institute.
● Prescription glasses don’t offer adequate eye
protection so you must wear safety glasses,
goggles, or full face shields over your prescription
glasses.
Corrosive Chemicals:
Corrosive chemicals may harm you if they splash
or come into contact with your skin.
● Wearing gloves and a lab coat will not
totally protect your skin. Wear a full length
chemical resistant lab apron when working
with splash hazards.
● When working with specially corrosive
chemicals, use full arm - length rubber
gloves instead of the typical nitro gloves.
Flammable Chemicals:
● It is important to be aware of the
flammability and the explosive potential of
the chemicals that will be used or you’re
going to work with.
● Keep it away from ignition sources such as
bunsen burners or hot plates. Store it
 properly in its designated and grounded
storage cabinet.
● Properly dispose the chemical using
chemical resistant plastic or container.
Disposal should be in accordance with
federal, state, and local institutional
requirements.
LAB ACTIVITY II: ISOTOPES AND ATOMIC MASS
MATTER
Anything that has volume and mass.
➔ Mass - amount of matter in an object
➔ Volume - space being occupied
States of Matter
1. Solids - Has a definite shape and volume
- Particles are packed closely in an arrang
manner.
2. Liquid - Has a definite volume but lacks a defini
Shape
- Particles are not packed as close as in a
solid
3. Gas - lacks both definite shape and volume
- Particles are widely spread
4. Plasma - lacks definite shape and volume
- Particles are electrically charged and are
separated by vast difference (lightning,
aurora)
Classification of Matter acc. To its Purity:
1. Pure Substance
➔ Element - one type of atom
➔ Compound - two or more atoms
2. Mixture
➔ Homogenous - has a uniform compositio
➔ Heterogeneous - non-uniform and irregu
composition
ATOM
Smallest unit of matter. Tiny indivisible particles.
3 Subatomic Particles
1. Neutron - neutrally charged (n0)
2. Electron - negatively charged (e-)
3. Proton - positively charged (p+)
➔ Indicates reactivity towards chemical
reaction. The number of electrons will tell
the specific property of the element or an
atom.
➔ Indicated radioactivity towards nuclear
reaction. Protons and neutrons participate
in nuclear reactions.
➔ Provides identity to the element. Properties
such as the atomic number and the mass
number.
a.) Atomic Number (Z) - Atomic number
expresses the number of electrons in an
atom of an element.
➔ Atomic Number (z) = e- = p+
b.) Mass number (A) - Total number of
protons and neutrons in an atom
- Rounded of value of the tomic mass
➔ Mass Number (A) = p - + n0
Example:
Element Y: p+ = 8, e- = 8, n = 6
➔ Atomic no. = 8
➔ Mass number = 8+6 = 14
Periodic Table of Elements
- Contains all essential info about all the elements
- Arranged according to increasing atomic number
● Atomic Mass - it is the mass of an atom of
an element or average of masses from the
different isotopes of an element.
- Atomic mass: 1.008
- Mass number: 1
● Isotopes - atoms of the same element with
different atomic mass but the same atomic
number
- The number of neutrons changes.
They will differ in the number of
neutrons (subatomic level)
 Atomic Mass (A)= (0.9999)(1.00784amu)+
a.) % Abundance - % composition of an (0.0001)(2.01410 amu)+(0)(3.016)
isotope in nature. = 1.0079 amu/ 1.0080S
➔ Atomic Mass
= (Abundance isotope 1)(Atomic Mass 1) +
(Abundance isotope 2)(Atomic Mass 2) +
(Abundance isotope 3)(Atomic Mass 3)
Example:
LAB III: MOLECULE SHAPE AND POLARITY

Electrons - Electron shells (lightweight compared to Example for Ionic Bond: Na and Cl
nucleus)
- Participate or involved in bonding
- Valence electrons (outermost elec.)
- Electron= proton=atomic number

Atomic Orbital:
- 2(n)^2: max. Number of electrons that an energ
level can accommodate
Ex: first energy level (N=1) (2(1)^2 = 2)
➔ Na: [z = 11, e- = 11] valence electron = 1
Ex: Fluorine (F)
➔ Cl: [z = 17, e- = 17] valence electron = 7
[z=9, e-=9] valence electrons = 7
(attraction with one valence electron is not that
(N = 1)--- 2e- (F=2)
high so it can easily be donated)
(N=2)---- 8e- (F=7)
➔ Charges
- Valence electrons = outer most evergy level
Gained 1 electron (-1), Lost 1 electron (+1)
- Na+ (cation), Cl- (anion)
Bonding - atoms form bonds to create molecules
Two types of Bonds:
Example for Covalent Bond: F and F
1. Ionic Bonds - bonds formed by donating
electrons (metal & non-metals)
2. Covalent Bonds - bonds formed by sharing
electrons (between two non-metals)
➔ Metalloids: B, Si, As, Te, At, Og
➔ Right side of metalloids - Non-metals
➔ Left side of metalloids - Metals

● Metals can donate electrons, forms positive

charge (cation)
● Non-metals - can accept electrons, forms
negative charge (anion) ➔ F: [z = 9, e- = 9] valence electron = 7
➔ Both lack 1 electron (VE=7)
 ➔ Lone pair to bonding pair (LP - BP)
Lewis Structure (Lewis - Dot Diagram) ➔ Bonding pairs to bonding pairs (BP - BP)
- Easier way to represent atoms with how they bond Repulsion forces are higher between lone pair to
- Dots: Number of valence electrons lone pair

Geometries
Mother Geometries:

Example: F and F

Exceptions to the Octet Rule:

- S, P, Arg, Xe (Follows expanded octet rule)

Molecular Shapes and Geometry

➔ Lone Pairs - Non-bonding electrons
➔ Na: [z = 11, e- = 11] valence electron = 1
➔ Repulsion forces - Forces by which bodies rep
one another (opposite charges attract, same
Daughter Geometries:
charges repel)

Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Theory

(VSEPR)
- A model used to predict the geometry of individu
molecules from the number of electron pairs
surrounging the central atom.
- Minimized repulsive forces between bonding &
non-bonding electrons
- Repulsion levels (Highest to lowest)
➔ Lone pair to lone pair (LP - LP)
 (picture) Water: H1 — O — H2
(picture)
Importance of Molecular Shape: - Geometry: Bent
- All properties of a molecule depend on its - EN Diff:
molecular shape (boiling point, melting point) O and H1 = 3.5 - 2.1 = 1.4
- It determines how a molecule interacts and reac O and H2 = 3.5 - 2.1 = 1.4
to other molecules - Net pull: upwards
- It will affect the polarity and the polarity will affec - Bonds are polar
the attraction between molecules

POLARITY
- It is the distribution of electrical charge over the
atoms joined by the bond.
- Arises from the uneven distribution of electrons
Two components:
a. Bond Polarity
b. Ionic Polarity (charges)
c. Covalent (uneven distribution of electrons)

Bond Polarity
Electronegativity Difference (EN)
- Basis whether the bond is polar or non-polar
- EN < 0.5 (non-polar)
- EN = 0.5 - 2.0 (polar)
- EN > 2.0 (ionic)
➔ Non - polar bond - equal/ even distribut
➔ Polar Bond - Uneven distribution
Example:
F -F , EN = 4.0 - 4.0 = 0 (NP)
C - O , EN = 3.5 - 2.5 = 1 (P)
Molecular Polarity
- Molecule Shape
- Bond Polarity
- The polarity will depend on the net pull of
electrons

Example: O = C = O
- Geometry: linear
- Bond Polarity:
EN = 3.5 - 2.5 = 1.0 (Polar)
- Electrons will tend to be attracted to 0 at
- Uneven pull of electrons (bond dipole)