and i·~ma~i~.d~·· i·;··~~·· ·h···:··- . ... . . . . .... . . . . ...

·
of the polarity of the c_ ..
tha.t it alwa;.... ·k. . . :.. . . . . . . . ...
Operation .. D . signal source. · s . eeps the e;i~~ . ~.......... .. : ...... ..... .T.~9.~~i~1?.t.~... ■ 1039
unng the . . r base Ju . ·· ..............................
base junction is incre . Positive half nction forward *biased regardless
· . . ased Th -cycle
the base. Th!s causes an inc. · . . erefore n-. of the *"' sign 1 h
- .. , ·•,ore el . . a , t e fo d .
-greater voltage drop rease 1n coll · ectrons flow fr rwar bias across the emitter- ,I
. acros h- ector om the · ·
cycle of the signal th s t e Collector 1 cun-_ent. The increa emitter to the collector via
urrent ·detrea . . , ~ forward bias ac oad. resistance R . sed collec~or current produces a
c. . . . . se~. This results in . ~oss enutter-base - c . Ho:wever, dunng the negative half-
an amphfieq.. outpu.t IS .obtained the decreased output ~u~ction _is decreased. Therefore, collector
0
'. . ~: · . across the load. age (m the opposite direction). Hence,
ie '

is
Signal
.T
t -
-
jE

II
Re Output
1.
le
· 1,1 I
.·.,:Vea Vee

_ , . ' ,. Fig. ·34~ 7 . . . Fig..J4.8

- ." Ailaly·s is :?t c.oli~~~.or.-cufre~ts~ Whe11no sj~at is applied, the ipput c;ircuit is forward biased
by the battery VBB·· . Therefore,' a d.c._collector currenf'!f :flows in the collector· circuit. This is called
zero $igrzal col/ector c;u"irent: When the·-$ign~l volta'ge is appli~c(.the forward bias ~n· the emitter
0

basej~~ti_on .hlc~~a~es· or"·.4~c~~~ses d.ependj6g upon ~h~th~~ the signal is positive or negatfve.
Duriri.g~the,:po~i!_ive·lialf-~16.l e ·of th_e_.sign.al, the forward bias on emitter-base junction is increased,
causing ·tota( colfecto'r .c~rrJnt ic-to. inct~ase.. Reverse will happen _for·_the ·negative half-cycle of
the _s_i~al. . > · · . · -. •_ .. .. : _. . • . · ,

-:F.i.g~:'34:8·:-show~ µie~fa_pl;l~◊-f-fota1. ,.?PlJ.~';!?.E...~1:!rr~nt ie_.versus ti~e: From,, the graph, it; is

••· -. .. .. . - . _ _. _·. -.- . t· c·o·n" sists of two components, namely , ·
c 1ear that. total collector curren . . ... · : _ .
' , :.. - ·, · --- --. - ·: t 1 ··( zero··signal col.lector current) due to bias battery VBB· This
(1) The d c · ·collector . cth collector . . m
· crrcutt - the· absence. of s1gna
- 1.
· . · _ .. . .-~ cu,:ren
,:. -
.
is the ·c urrent that flows m e
. · t ·1· · due to signal.
, . · . . _
.
I
(ii) The a.c. coJlector curren c · · .
· .. · ent · i = i . + 1c · ·
:. Total collector curr , C C . . ;ross collector load Re due to the a.c. component ic,
Th.e useful output i~ the ':0 l!ag;-=;n: is to ensure that_the emitter-base junction is forward
1
Th~ pnmose ..of'iero signal c~llect<:> , : • h . ymbols usually employed for currents ~d voltages
1 - ,._elow gives t ~ s
I I
. __,. .t' .-
biased at all times. The tab e v
in tran~istor appl1cations. - .· · · . . _ _ _
· . · .· ., neghtive half-cycle of the signal, the ermtter-base Junction
--------:--, c--~--~-~d d- then during . -
* i' · - not provt e • tr nsistor action.
If d.c. bias vo ta~e is Th-1 will upset the ,a . ls because these are convenient for testing amplifi~rs.
will be reverse biased. \an
use sjne wave s~gnausic ~tc.) with which we work are generally complex
** Throughout the bqok, we st igoals (e.g, speec '~ourier series analysis tells us that such c0mplex signals
- b lised tha s }lowever, -
But 1t must · e' tea to a sine wave. f rious frequencies. \
having little resemblance ' f sine waves o v:i
sumo
may be expressed as a ·• .
 h n-···o····lo gy ····
T----e---c---
tric a..t-------
·-
-····· ........ ·························· To ta l
c tiVB E/ BC .

0 4 0 • _Q f?) f!._··-----------·· -- -- .r-- In st an ta neous a.

c. d. c.
-- · pa rt icula
1_________ ------ '£
IE
le
s. f'Jo. ic
Em itter curren t ic le
J.
t ia
_/ Collector curren ib
la
2. -
JBase current
r- J.
/ Collector-emitter
voltage
V
Ct!
VCE Ve £

r 4.
IEmitter-base voltage . I
Veb
VEB
VEB

I 5.
A n a ly s is
13. T ra n s is to
r L o a d L in e te rm in e th e co llector current for
ired to de
or ci rc uit an al ys is,' it is generally requ to pl ot th e ou tp ut characteristics
In th~ 'transist vo lta ge .
s· O ne o f th ~- methods
ca n be us ed
vo lt ag e. H ow ev er, a more
m 1tte r em it te r
various collector-e cu rr ent at an y desired
collector-
ob le m s. A s explai ned
co ll ec to r lv e su ch pr
and determine ·th e used to so
kn ow n as lo
_ ad line m et ho d can be us ed in the analysis of
transistor
conven ie nt m et~o d, fr eq ue nt ly
sy and is
th is se ct io n, th is method is quite ea
later in
ns . ci rc ui t sh ow n in Fi g. 34 .9 (i ) where
. ~pplicatio mon emitter npn tr
ansistor
tp ut ch aracteristics
C on si de r a co m ci rc ui t. T he ou
d.c." loa·d line. d. c. conditions prev
ail in the
ie d. T
_ he re fo re ,
. no signal is appl
ow n in Fig. 34.9 (i i) .
o f this ci rc ui t ar e sh
lt ag e Ve £ at an y time is given by ; ... (i )
ctor-emitter vo
The value. o f colle 1
V e£ = Vee - c R c
Ie (m A)

- - - - II8 = 15 µA
- - - -._ _ _ = 10 µA
,- -- __ .., 8
No

Si~ ,___'_IE....,_....____,,,,, Vee

Vee (ii)
Vaa
(i)
Fig. 34.9
esented
rs t de gr ee eq ua ti o~ an d ca n be re pr
it is a fi the
c ~ d -R e ar e ~. xe d values, therefore, n as de . lo ad line an d de te nn ines
As ~c s is kn ow ts
lm e on ~ e ou tp ut chru:acteristics. Thi
d lo ad lin e, w e ne ed ·tw o end pain
:: /: a ig h t Re- To ad
y given value o f d as un de r :
(c po m ts fo r an
o f the f ~C E - locate
se two points can be d is
st ra ig ht lm ~. T he
t J ·= o th 1
·
or -e m
.
1t te r vo ltag e is m ax im um an
en
ector curr . c . ' en co lect
(,) When. the. coll
equal to VCC l.e . .
Ic R e
Max. Vee = Vee - ( ·· · I == O)
. c
= Ve e - lt ag e ax is as shown in
1s -g i h O B = V ) r- em it te r vo
F·
- Th ves t e first point
B (
cc on the co ll ec to
1
g. 34.9 (i i) .
 Transisto rs ■ 1041
0, tht• c l,11 cctor
, CIIITcnt ts ·
· maximum · .cqu.i, 1
and 1s
I ·.... ,.. ':::I I.
' cc- IR
(' C
0 = ,.cc - / C, R L'
M .
, .. .. ax. I c = I .l ·c I R
1 his ~1Yes the.: second poi c
. . .
, 11 · 8 :'.-. JOtn1ng
. -q ·u '")
..t:-• . = I 'e r JRc) on the collector current axis as shown m
these nttwA (OA
~ 0 points. d c 1, d 1. .
• · · ca me AB 1s constn1ctc d.
14. Opera ting Point
Th ,· ::-cr o ,signal. \'alues o. f 1c and l . - are k . I
lt is called operating po · t b <- E nvwn as t 1e operating point.
. . ... m ccausc the · · . .
\\ hc:n signal 1s applied. It is also d . vanatto_n s of I c and V:cE take place about this pomt
,-n I c - 1·cE characteri stic when
. h
t .
~:e : .
11
q~tesce~t (~ilent? po_int or Q-point because it is the point
ransistor 1s silent z.e. m the absence of the signal.
S uppose ,m e absence
. . of signal
- , th e b ase current 1s. 5 µA . I .
. e
Th-?n l l - an d . ' CE condition s in the circuit must b e represente d
. _
t,~ :-~me r~mt on !R ~ 5 µA characteri stic. But le and VcE
: ~,nd111ons
_ m the c 1rcu1t ._ should also be re presente d b y some A
~,mt 0n the d .c. load hne AB. The point Q where the load line
3.Ild the characteri stic intersect is the only point which satisfies
t-0th these condition s. Therefore , the point Q describes the 0
:;ctual state of affairs in the circuit in the _z ero signal conditions
and is called the operating point. Referring to Fig. 34.10, for
l 3 = 5 µA. the zero signal values are :
VCE = OC volts Fig. 34.10
le' = OD mA
It follows, therefore, that the zero signal values of Jc and VCE (i.e. operating point) are
determine d b y the point where d .c. load line =:1tersects the proper base current curve.

15. Practic al Way of Drawin g CE Circuit

The common emitter circuits drawn_so far can be shown in another convenien t way. Fig.
I

I
34.11 sh o w s the practical way of drawing CE ~ir~uit. In _Fig. 34.11 (i), the practical way of · I
drawing common emitter npn circuit is shown. S1m1larl~, Fig .. 34.11 (ii) shows the practical way [
of drawing common emitter :·mp circuit. In our further d1scuss1on, we shall often use this scheme

of presentati on.
+Vee
-Vee J
le
le

(ii)
(i)
Fig. 34.11
 Ob jec ~iy ~ ___ El~_c::::_
!~!-~.9.-I____T,'?.~-~
_1,Q-!~- ~ - - - - i-- ;~~ Tr an sis to r -~?,_\?,_~-~- - - - - ---- - - - ------------- - - - --------------- - - --
16 . ou tp u . 11 Am ph f1 er
- t rais th stre ngt h of a we ak sig nal and thu s - + Vee
A transts or .fi esFi·ge 4 12 sho -
3 ws the com mo n em itte r
acts as an amplt 1er.e two· wa·ys .
am ! ·
ffie r The re ar -
of tak mg out put fro m- thi s
Ou tpu t
T
.
tranpsist or con nec tion.- Th e out put
. can be tak en eit her acr oss R
.
i~.. .
or across te rTT"linals 1 and 2. In eit her cas e, the ma gni
.
out put is the sam e. Th is is cle ar fro _
_ .
.
tud e .
c
of ---~ : :Cc - 1
m the fol l_o wm g dis cus sio n:
(i) Fir st me tho d. We can
put ting a loa d res ista nce Re in
Ou tpu t = vol tag ~ acr oss Re =
Th is me ¢.o d of tak ing out put fro
tak e _the · out put dir ect ly by
th~ coU ect or ch;·cuit i.e.
ic -Re - ... (i)
Out put
7
ni col lec tor loa d is use d
onl y in sin gle sta ge -of am p~i fica
0

tiQ n: . . - . -. - -
(ii) Se con d me tho d. Th~ ·o utp 2
uf can als o be fak en, acr oss _
ter min als 1 ·an d 2 Le. fro m c~l Fig . 34. 12
l~c tor c-at5,g•·em itj: er:.-eI).d: _g f.::su ppl
y. . ·
·- -Ou tpu t .= V~1.t~ge acr oss -it~rn 0

ihlal&. 1; an d~2· _ · --
- -.-~-V~c ~-\ ilfc ·
. As V cc is. a di~ ect _vo lta ge
ari d carui~~ Pc!SS tlu:ough cap aci
vo~tag~ ic Re wil ~ _a ppe ar asr oss tor . Cc , the ref ore , onl y var yin g
,ter mi nal s l and 2. · . _ · _ .. - _
FrnQ> exps., arid;~~::! :;~\h1t1~!lJij~~Jtii~\1Fii\he same wh
(i)
ou tpu t_ac~ os-s . co lie ct~ -lo ad ~Qr.
ter tn{ paf s~)'
eth.,; w;~~
-~~ti~l'~i;':The~~"i'iiinµ~ "sign ~x~. -(m
. the pha s~ rev ers al. Th e sec bn ·:m ~~ ply ·. i~d ica tes .
o.f
d iiietb,°Qg : )ak}:rig':,outpµt :i~_µ_
;;. Performin<• -_
of~Tra~s_l~tcii~i~ ~-·ifi~r·: :. ~l!c\' in .inu ltjs tag es: of am plif ica tion .

· Th e ·pe rfo ~~ ~e: of~ ~~ hsi a:_

_-. -- ~ ·- .' . -
st6 r; am pii fi~ ;~~ p~ nds \ 1po n inp
eff ect ive col lee tor . lqa d/ eur rer ut -~esis~ance; · 6u4>ut , res ista nce
it gai n;-'v olt age .:gain:_~d .poyv-er ,
is uni v~r sal iy _ado pte d, the ref 'gam~,A s _i:o_mrnon em itte r connec
~re;"~ ~:i~ hal L ex,plafu:; tion
-co nne cti on. . . - - - -- •.. - . -. :~-:;-~ ;-:: ~. :~ . :< the se. }el)lip Wi! h 'ref e~e nce _tC> -th is mode of
- \--(i): l~"tiQt I"e$ista~~-e~; ft -i~::.th'1,:riit
- .. ·:·-- - j ~=- ·- :J:: ,, i . -
(q ·of snjal_ r ~chcinge Ir( bdse-e~ittef. voltt;igi (ll.VaE)
res ult i~g change :in ;bas°e currej to the
. it~- fM8)} :i(c{Jrfsianf -collector-em
_: . .--- -_:·- ,- ::- .-- :•tiv;~ ittet voltage i:;..-_ _ . ·
~
a< - - - - •
: lnp\.lt -~esi.s:tance, .-R; 6.1-- ---
.'7','. ;
• • • - - - - - ; -
•

:- B -
. <s· ____
· Th e val ue of inp~t res ista nce
lS :\:i:uit~:JJ)lall b,ecau~e

·1
cir cui t is alw ays forw,ard bia sed the -· inp ut ~-- _. -r- -- -- -- -i
. It ran ge.s 'from n fQr sm :s-oo
all low :: le
p~ we red tra nsi sto rs · to as iow
In f~ t, · inp ut res ista nce is -the 5 ,as- n
for hig h -po ~er ed _"t ran sis tor s: -
opp osi tio n _off ere d by the -bas e-~
jun cti on to the sig nal iloy.r. Fig mit ter Vee· .. ·_ - R1n
. 34. 13 sho ws the -ge ner al for m.
am pli fier . J'h e inp ut V-Oltag~ of an
:fBE ~3:uses .an inp ut Gu
rrent 1 . '--_;.;,.A_m_p_lif-ie_r_...
8
Inp ut ~es ist~ ~e · R . = 6.VBE- • =
VBE
'-1 Ms · 1B - Fig . 34. 13
Th u~ if the inp ut res ista nce of
is 1 -v, the n, an am pli fie r is 500 Q _and the
_sig nal vol t~g e at ·~y inStant
V -
Ba se cur ren t, i b = 1 = 2 -m A
500 0
 ce;;e tl

.------ - -- ---
- (ii) Output t"esistan ,
· . Ce., Jt . . 1043
- - - - ■ -- --
...:sf' 'lnng
--- -- Transistors
change in coll
, ..,.> ~ ector is the ra,.,~ ,r . .
•iv oJ chan . ___
. C1l.rrem (Mc) at co ge l1l collector-eminer volzage (~ J·cr) to 1he
Output resistance R ~v _ltSlant base currmr i.e.
, 0::::: ~ -
M .
- The output characten ti· c
. s cs reveal ·that
1·o collector-emitter vottag· collector
e. Therefore O - . currem changes verv slightly ~;th the change
the order - of several hundred kil , utput reslStance
. O-Ohms Th . of a ......, ..~:- - 1·fi .
....=LOr amp 1 er 1s very high- of
that _coUector-base .}Unction is reverse bi .
e physical explanation of high output resistance is
(iii) Effective collector lo d. l . ased.
-.. a t lS the tot0 I load
In case of .single stage .. as seen by the a.t. collector current.
Re and Ro · · -· amplifiers
as sho~ iJ;i Fig. 34.14 (i):
the eff~. u · b. ·
. ""-UYe co e_ctor load lS a parallel com manon 0
f

Effective A R-· =-R II R _ Re xRo

collector Io..~
. ~ AC C o - ---____;:::_. = *R
-_ . . - ·. · Re+ Ro C

It follows, therefore, ~t _for a single stage amplifier, effective load is equal to collector
load Re . · · - ··.
·. H~wever, in a m~ti.stage amplifier (i._e. having more than one amplification stage), the input
resistance R; of the nex! stage also ·comes into picture as shown in Fig. 34.14 (ii). Therefore,
effective ·collector load becom~_~e1 --~mbination of R0 R0 and Ri i.e.
. Effective coll~tor l ~ RAc -= Re_\! R0 II Ri .

. .=
**R.
- C
·1 1 "R ~ Re
~'i - .
Re+~~
:· - . .. :. . . . . . aii (25 Q.to 500 Q). therefore, effective load is reduced.
As input·resIStanCe Rn s qwte sm . . . - .
. _+Vee_

~--"""'.'--,i •· I r

t~
• I :

Rot\ • I •
i
'Ao First . Stage .
:
I
I
;
:

·. ~,,. Second Stage

Single Stage Two Stage

(ii)

(i) ·_ 34.14 Fi
·g. current (Af ) to the change in base
. . . of change in collector c
. . . It is the raflO . . .
t gain - ·
(iv) curr~n . . . . --~....,:i ro R
e R can be neglected as COJ..Llp<"...... o-
current (Ms) ,_ · · R therefore, c
. ral tiJne5 C'
.
R is seve
ut resistance o ~ == Re
• As OUtp. , . R ,::= I)_
.tC ''O

. ed-
arreadY explaUl
** Rc \i Ro=Rc_as ,
 T ch no lo Q··Y ...
. E/ ec tri c~ 1. . ~ ·· · ·
Qbjt3.ct1\,18.. ... .. . ···· ·· -~
1044.
C t ·rr e t b
at m pu cu n ecom
es ·
n·t Ova in, (3 == Ms • · .
m
di ca te s th
c ur re
. 50 0 Th e cu rre nt ga in . .
to · .
fir~m 20 . ge (ti .V e£ ) to th e ch an ge m mpur
. e of {3 ran ge ~ · . . t ut vo lta
Th e \ a lu !le cto r c1rcu1t. . . ch an ge m ou p
is the ra tio of .
f3 tim es in the co . ft .
(d Vo lta ge ga rn .
i. e . A = .6Vc££
,v lra ge (.1 Vs£ ) ,. .6 V8
Vo lta ge ga m,.
x Ef fe ct i~ e lo ad .
C ha ng e in ou tp ut cu rre nt
= Ch an ge in in pu t cu rre nt
x In pu t re s1 sta n~e

= M c x RA c _ ~x RAC
= Mc xR Ac
R;
MB X R; MB .R;
inp ut
Re x R; · wh er e R 1• is th e
, !-A c= .
Re-
.
Ho we ve r, fo r mu lti_stag
e, ~Af = . Re + R,
fo r sin gle sta ge ,. _
. . .
. we r i.e.
resistance of the ne xt sta
ge
of ou tp ut sig na l po we r to f he in pu t sig na l po
(w) Po we r gain. It is th e ratio cx RAc
- (M c) 2x RAc -( M c) xM. M xRl.
. - . Af
Po we r ga m, AP - 2
( M B) X Ri ' . . B B

ga in . x Vo. lta.ge ._·ga in

==:: . Cu rre nt . .
. . ~- . . . . _·

(M c) x' RAc =J32 XRA

C
A ·= . Ri
Also , Po we r ga in , P (M s)~ . - R; .

u ra ti on P_e>ints
18 ~ C ut of f an d S at it wh ile J::ig. 34
.
.1 5 (ii ) sh ow s th e ou tp ut ch ar ac ter is~
. . cs ~

tra ns ist or cir cu -. ·

Fi g . 34 .15 (i) sh ow s CE · · · .
lin e. . - .. t of f
alo ng wi th the d.c. lo ad e int ers ec ts .th e I = O cu rv e i~ kn ow n as cu
in t whe r~ tlie lo ad lin 8 lcE o) ex ists.
(i) Cu t of f. Th e po
lle cto r cu rre nt (f e. co tle cto r' lea ka ge cu rre nt ist or
At thi s point , 18 = e an
d on ly sm all co
r re ma in s fo rw ar d ·bi as ed an d no rm al tra ns
itt er ju nc tio n no lon ge ,
At cu t of f, the ba se -em r vo lta ge is _ne arl y ~q ua l to . V cc -
i.e .
_ctor :.e n;u tte
ac tion is lost. Th e eolle .
.. VCE (cu t off)" = _Ve e
le. (m A)
le

Ia = le .(sa t)
~'.'--------

= Ve e
1
I.
Ia = 0

1\_ t - - - - - - - ~ = > ~ ;- -~V-- = ~ -- -+ - Vee (voftS

I )
V~ e (sat ) ::: kne e
(i)
(iz)
Fi g. 34 .15
 ■.. . ..1 0 4 5 ii
.... .. ..
.... T ra n s is to rs ...... . . . ){
~.. T h e ----01. ~ . ... "••--·· e re th - ......... lt·:··n·---e----·--. ·-··········-········
, . .. ............... ....
-·•-........... ... ............. .. ... .................. ····· .......
sa tu -
(;n S ~ tu ra ti o ~ Pa s n t w h e lo ad c u rv e is ca ll ed
th i . e h e rs e ~ ts th e 18 = 18 (.w,i rr en t. A t sa tu ra ti o n ,
. \r
., ri.1f l . r-
s p o m t, th tnaximum ;~ ll ec to r cu
lo e c u rr e n t is re v er s b . _ so 1s th e co tr an si st o r ac ti o n is lost.
u n c ti o n n o
:.:,1kctor- ba se-
.i n g e r re m ai n s e tasec) an d
n o rm al
v.
1c (,\'Qt) :::: S .£ . .' r;t'Cli == V. -
vk,,t•,·
I> C E( sa t) - ·
. ''C .. cr ea se b ec au se co ll ec to r-
e t . a n 1 m
lf b a se. c u rr . n is & re a
te r th
B( sa ,)t th en
co ll ec to r cu rr en t ca n n o t
. ~ n -b ia s d
ti o n 1s n o Io g e r re v e rs e e reg io n .
~-1,e ,un c
·· · T h e . e · -.
u t ff
.
ti o n is k n o w n a s a.ct iv . .
A c ti v e r e g io n . re g io n b et w ee n c 0 an d sa tu ·ra . as e- e m it te r Ju n ct io n
(i ir ) . . • se d w h il e b
. . o ll e c to r- b a se Ju n ct io n re m ai n s re v er se b ia g io n . We
th e a c ti v e re g io n , c
u tl
. ·
n ct io n n o rm al ly in th is re
111
· fc a rd b .1ased. C o n se q st o r will fu
r.:rnam s o nv st o r te n ) ', tb e tratanitsi ·m th e ac ti•v e Fegion
g to th e tr a n si 0 e n su re th o p er at es ·
prov id e b ia s in
. t
g o f T r.a n S IS o r
. · " er
o w e r R a t in io n is k nown as pow
19. P - ,.· - ; . ithrJut d es tr u ct
a x im u m p o w e r th a t a t ranszSt o r c a n h a n d le w ·
Tire m a n si st o r. · th e re v er se b ia se d
e tr · p o w· e r is d is si p at ed a t
'r a ti n g o f th 1 st all th en · by ;
si st o r is in o p e ra ti
o n , a m o e
p o w e r d is si pation} is g iv
tr a n m ax im u m
. ll·wh e n ba . .
h e p o w e r ra ti n g (o r r- b as e v o lt ag
e
e Ju n c ti o n . T t x C o ll ec to
ct o r- a s ll e c to r cu rr en
*c o ~ tU ) = C o
P D (m
= _l e x Vea
P D. (m tU )
= le- x VcE == VceJ
e ry sm al l, Vc8 n g is QOt
a£ · S in c e V 8 ~ is v
re d th at it s p o w e r ra ti p o se
V c8 . + V
it sh o u ld b e
en su
ex am p le , su p
[ ·-· VC E = a ci rc u it , e h e a t: F o r
e c ti n g tr a n si
st o r in to ex ce ss iv e c o ll e c to r
\V h il e c o n n o r m
_ a y b e d es tr o y ed d u e si st o r is 3 0 0 m W: I f th
a n si st .o f a tr an
e iw is e th e tr r d is si p at io n )
e x c e e d e d o th im u m p o w e y ;
p o w e r ra ti n g (o r m a x V e~ a ll o w e d is g iv en b
the a x im u m
rn A , th e n m
c u rr e n t is 3 0 ) ~ le· x
VcE (max)
·. P D {m ar
V C E (m ~ )
30 mA x
300 mW=
mW = IO V
or = 3 0 0m A c e e d s th is
VC E (m ar ) . · 30
w ed is IO V. If VcE e x
V c i al lo
or
. r-. 1c
= 3 0 ' mA th;
m a x im.u m
·
ex ce ss
.
iv e h ea t. .
.
.
• tl ia t .1 .o r y e d d u e to
T h is m e a n s•
ro
· 1.11 b e ·d e st ·
st o r w
UESTIONS
a n si
va lu e, th e tr E R Q
N S W
SHORT A ftr a n si st or as an amp
li fi er?
g
n in . o in th is
--'fi · th e p ro p e rfu n c ti o F
· o r it s· p ro p e r fu n ct io n
d' . t. nd
.· c o n if lo n o r n n e c te d-i n C E ar ra n g em en p e rl y fo rw a rd ' b ia se d · a
. th b a si c ~ o in p . ro ·.
_ al w ay s re m a .
Q· 1· W h a t is e is alm0 st
si st o r i:. e m it te r Ju
8:1way~
c c ti o n sh o u ld
n Iw ay s re m a in p ro p er ly re v e rs e b ia se d.
· -
A n s. A• tr a n t, u a se -_ _ Id v do p ed ? . e m it te r
a rr a n g e m e n - n o n sh .o u a a d e th in a n d li g h. t( . . rn
.
e rs su p p li e d b y th e
se :1un.a c . rm e maJor 1, ty e a
c o ll e c to r-:-b a O
if tr a ndsl Sr toh tl y d o p e d so th at th p a ss o n _to th e co ll ec to r..
em ·
a n d m o st o f th
.
. 2 . W h y is th e /Jase a n Jg ·. b · · · n . e~ JE = = le ).
Q a d e th in to 0 u t o~- as e 3uncti~ (i
T h e b a se -is bm'n e in th e b a se·r e g·
th
as &-. e cs~ ec si st or ). F o r this re as on p er ,
ow
A ·
sa rn e· cu rr en t
n s. 1 ab o u t th e ,o r I tr an
d o n o t c o-m _ .. d u c ts to r an d 0 . 7 V
co n
·r te r J·unct1on 11 (0 ·3 V. ,o .
" G e .....,nsis
r · ib le.
u....
h e b as e- em 1 sm a ju n ct io n IS n eg h g
T • ·t te r
JS v er y
H o w ev er , VaEth e b as e- em •
·
d is si p at ed a t
 Ete c tr tc a l }.~C
1 046 • O bje c ti ve .0r::''?.1.?..Q.Y... ····· ····· · ·· :···· ···
pl if yi ng ca pa bi li ························: · ···:··. ········· ·······. .
. ·· . , r. r am
n . .\. 11 1i11r is th , · .. l 1,· 1o r rc.,·1101v,1ble. ty o f a tr an si st or ··..........
--..: k, ., . ' Jo
A n!-. In ;1 tnm:-1. I . w ea k in . . \ cu rr en t is in . . ? ·
pu t s 1g na tr od uc ed in th e lo
:-h,r, l ,1,;
· t!lk cn fr om t \ . \ - h re si st an ce ou . . .
w re st. st an ce in .
pu t ci rc . .
nn d ou11,ut •~ , c ug tp ut C lr cm t. T hi s pr op er
f th e in ·pu t s1. gn 1 uI Te nt fr om a lo . . ty o f th e tr an si st orUl t
tm ns er a c w re si st an ce ci. rc . . . t
th e key fa ct or rc. si bl c fo r am pl if yi ui t to a hi gh re si st an ce ci · o
H? n· is co lle ct or on.
sp ng c~ pa bi li. ty o f
o f . . a tr an si.st or . rc ui t••
ls
4 a tr an si st or m ad e
Q . · O u. rin g tr w id er th an em it.
A ns . an si st or op er at io n, te r an d ba se ?
is m ad e la rg er to
m os t o f th e he at
is pr od uc ed at th ~ , ·. •
di ss ip at e he at . e co ll ec to r ju nc ti
Q . _ If th e em itt on . T he coUector
5 er o fa tr an si st or
A ns . D ur in g no co nn ec te d in C B m od e .
rm al op er at io n o is op en ; w il l the, ·
f tr an si st or , th e re be an y co ll ec to
to ta l co ll ec to r. cu ~ current?
rr en t is gi ve n·by
I~ = a. JE +. J. le ;
H er e, a.IE is th e pa ak ag e
rt o f t~ e-emit te r
/le ak ag e is du cu rr en t w hi ~h re · .. ·_-·:.,.(i)
e to th e m ov em ac he s th e _co ll ec
en t o f to r te rm in al ~ 4.
of it be in g re ve rs
~ bi as ed . It is cl
m in or it y ca rr ie rs
ac ro ss ba se -c ol le ,.\, h.~:ccrirr~~t
a sm al l le ak ag e cu ea r fr om eq . (i ) th at w ct or JU nc tio n-~ri ~~ ci ~n t
rr en t st il l fl ow s he n IE = 0 (i .e . em
as IC BO , m ea ni in th e co ll ec to r: it te r ci rc ui t is open
ng co ll ec to r- ba se ci rc ui t. T hi s_ le ak ),
Q . 6 . W hy ar e ·tr c ~ e n t w it h em ag e cu rr en t is ab
an si st or s m os tl y it te r op en . T hu s_ bt ev ii ti d
A ns . T he tr an si
st or s ar e m os tl y
co nn ec te d in C E
ar ra ng em en t? ·
, w he n _IE. ~ O;, le ' cd~kb:·.·
co nn ec te d in C E _.
(i ) H ig h cu rr ar ra ng em en t_dµ e to
hi gh . en t ga in : A s ~ th e fo ll ow in g re
is ve ry la rg e so as on s ,
th e c ~ e n t ga in
. in C E ar ia ng ~m e~
(i i) H ig h vo lt t i~ ve
ag e an d p ow er
ga in
. . .. - .ry ·
ar e th e hi gh es t in : D ue to hi gh cu rr en t C •

C E .ar ra ng em en ga i,n ,.th e· vo lt ag e

(. iii ) M od er at t as co m pa re d to an d po._.;er-~a.111
e ou tp u t to in p C C an d_CB ~ an
im pe da nc e to in u t im pe d~ nc e ge m en ts. · J· ...
pu t im pe da nc e is ra ti o. ln CE ar ra
sm al l (a bo ut 50 ). ng em en t, th e ra ti o ~f'outp~t
on e fo r co up li ng T hi s m ak es th is· _
Q . ; . W hy do be tw ee n va ri ou a.trangeroenfide.al
es a tr an si st or po s tr an si st or st ag es : .
A ns . lt is be ca ss es s lo w in pu t re _· ·
us e th e in pu t ci rc si st an ce ·an d hi gh · ·~.
ui t is fo rw _a rd bi ou tp ut re si st ~n ce
Q . S . W hy is as ed an d th e ou tp ut ? · . -. -·
\\ m or e th an a. ci rc ui
A n s. C on si de ? t is r~ ve rs e bi as e~
ri ng th e d. c. va lu :.
es , th e re la ti on s .
. I fo r ~ an d a. ar e gi ve
~ = _£ _ I n by ;
an d · a. = ~
. · .
. IB .
A.s I is m uc h sm IE
8 al le r th an I ~ ha
O n th e ot he r ha O s a ve ry _lar ge va lu
nd , IE is co m pa ra e. · . ·
m uc h gr ea te r th an bl e to I c an d as su ·. · .. · ·__ .· .
o. . ch o. ha s a ·is .
Q . 9. W ha t is p • sm al l va lu e. Tb cr ef ?r e,
th e or ig in o f th
e na m e tr an si st 13 .
A ns . A tr an su or ?
.to r tr an sJ...er s a s1.
m ea ns th e si gn al gn a\ from. a \ ow re . . .. . _
.. . :
tr an sf er pr op er cy of th e de si st an ce to a hi gh re si st an ce . T . . . ..:.. c:.'
in th e sa m e ge ne vi ce w hi le •i st or ' cl as si he -p r~ fix . •.tr... ..-
Q . \0 . W hy is
ra \ fa m ily w it h re
si st or s. fi es it as a- so lid_ele. eiit _'
le ak ag e cu rr en
t la rg er· in C E ar Jll '
A .n s. T he re sp ec ti ve ex pr ra r, ge m en t th an ·
es si on s' fo r co lle ct in C B ar ra ng em en t?
F 9r C B or cu n: en t in .C B_- an
le = aJ E+ Ic d C E- ar ra ng em en
. F or C E ao ts ar e:
. le = ~ Ia + (~
\t is cl ea r fr om th + l) Ic ao ·
e ab ov e ex.press1o . th , · . .
th an in C B ar ra
ng em en t.
ns at le ak ag e cu rr en t in C E- . . . " · .. ~
ar ra ng em en t is 13 tu. es lafg
n ·
•
 .
..-·•·1...1 ~ . How .is it p o;;;ble .
.............................
• r· po
.....
fi·····················
····
0
······_-• ...:...:...........
We,- g a i
.......
·
occ
·

·arrangemen•;
·

. ... .... ....,....u.r....:....'.-....·... ....·........· ...:............-..... :.:............... · ....T....ra........n....s....is..- to........rs.,......... ._......:.........1....0.. ...4..:....7......
· ■

ss
I
. n it y ?
· '!1 C,B · , .n 10
t g a m a is le
l th a n u • · . ·
: · · . ,, . when c u r r e n
·P o w e : .
.
a in .::::. ·V o lt a •. ·.. .- x- .C. . , ·,·.
JJJS , t' g g e ga in
A lt h . gh a < I b u t, the' ~
, n!~ in th e . ut,uctren1t_lgain· fo a d re si stance that is
o u . , c4n
. u t· re• s is z :r tp
. · - ·: . . .ou voit~g:~ : ? ~-- through
a
e inp o w e r g a in in
a CB
larger th a n th ta
·. . c e .r e s u lt in
g.in
d; th e re fo re , ·p
n t. . . ' _ gain an .
arrangeme , • _ _ _ _; ·
ld b e lh ~ e f/'e ~ r ·;~ . : .
e, o ~ b a s · ,.
e n t zif
,
· · s,s t0r w e re o p e a te d w it h
. r
wc : u 1
.. h~ v a lu u rr
· e .c•. · ·,· a tr a n .
}, 12. Wh_at c o ll e c_to r z. nter.cha g ed ?· ·~ · .
e m it te r a
s
n d
is t h· . ·. < , · ·:. . . n
·.,- te r is ·heavil
~: ':~
inject a 1
o; ;i;:;:::,~:71~~!;:: .

,4.ns. I n a •tr
a n
o r,_.t .e e m it · ~ · , ;, ~ d'?P.~.sfJo
irifo)he O
1:'a 'i
:=~~ ettJ•bin~ei'a!e I
current W1se· · -: ,
s ) ·
o_r e le c tr o n e b a se curre·,nt.
·. . . .
th e e m i~ e r p p e n to
.
1 •
. • ,
s e
.
o f t ... a d e th ic k ?
ba a
c u r r e n t- if..b . . . a _r~nszstqr is m
holes will ta
ke
}. 1~. Wh
Ans. I f
a
th
t_
e
-p la c e · in th
w
b
z
a
ll
s e
h a
- .. . defthick' ·.- . l ".~': . .
is t
·
~ p a s e .re
n 'a
g
. .

io
..

n .~ :~
, · : ..
ta , e .
-.· ~ , , ·ua~
5
:~~er
.· :
e c
·-
o
u
f
rr
~ombi!1a~iocnrease.
e n t
. , ·. ~ . .
w d l m
s o f ·ele
.
c tr o n s a n d

.
.
-
..
o th e r
•

I
r-load Re. In
I
·· .. ·
d :l in e r epr e s e n t?
· ·
• : -

· •

. •

., •

ll
•

e c to
es.. ..a q.c_. i •
.
·. .
/9 .q •
,, •

.· i1 _an~;. fc:E for the giv alue o fR .

' • f ,

e n c o ·.
J. 14. Wh.a t do e n ts a ll th e j:.>o. .ss.ib. le···.d ·:.c ·' ;V~~I'ues O ·_ c m
/.r ' ,'
•

v
,I'
~
n
;

e
.,-
I

ts fo r:a,nY ,.g iv
. e
Ans~ _It r edp r e s. . · ..,; .,-,
l
· o c u s c; ,f VcE ~ lc po •
· pre~ e
- ~ t
_~ th ~ . . ansistor.
w o r s , . ~ ~e
1
foaaline? · _stics o fthe tr
>.
.
~ ~~ o;~tp . lo~d lme .can be d ra w n b y
n c e o f' c l. e ~ t ~ h ~ c~ ~ ri
z.e.:lmporta ~ o
Q.15. .
W h a t is
.
tf
~ ~ u ~ s b f. I~ :~ ~ :_vdk~~_g v~n .b:Y~Jt
1
~ jp e ~
-~ci 4 ~;J 9~.<f~~e. S ~ c e_q.c e output characteristics,
~ t~
oint)_'on th ..
Ans. T h e d.~in e 1.nfotn?,~!,~qn_1s .·~I~o ax: i~ pomJ ~iid..~~x: Vee p to t!J,e problem. .
The ~a tt c J p o in ts_( vi.l
M cJ:1~cfs61ti!i
o~
-Ioc·a ti ri g tw o e ~ ie ·c. o tj v e .i µ e ~ t 1f ri. . . . .
mhp n p
o c [ g iv e s
· i ~ ,f ~ (m
f- 1~ fi ?':'·f? Jie? .· ·. ·_
tr o n s · wh e re a s
m e th !i Ja ~ 4 ~ e e e le c
. th is
./ tr(jl'!,~#_t~ie fi 'l f' £ f?:1 iozy;1,sq nailil.y by fr b·1 - h n h oIe.s, w e can a v e
h '! duct . • . , t a
6 . W h y a r, e. m o ~ t; ~ fl
t f ·t h e .' c iu. .n.t:<''.co,,,n •. . , . q; ,tto M ,- a !e ~ ~ ! e m o .1 e
Q. 1 •
' n ·t"r-.a...n, s ,s .o .,."~ ·b,.··,v Ji;.,,oles : ·.Sirice·:..~el ,e
/ ·, n ty p t?· ..
a n n p .. ·• ·• · ,- u- ; ,, ,. . . p n.r .. . ,.,
A 1n s . I n : · -;, · >,-:. r_
~ u n 1 Y .
· ~ •· .,:: : · _ ;
o i: -: th a
_ n 1 .n a
s~ o ru .
·
t 1S ;· m _~.J
n si st •. a n s1 o n ly
s ~ e st il l the
•.
ra ,· e. tp tr
tr a n s 1 s to· .r,-:; 1 ti. :o n..JD.'a·n..'~ hrn.n . ~ . -·
't . l{£
e_~ ,f lf
;i//;h·.j/;dcuU.m~tub'
ii lP }
! ;/ P c u u m .t u b ~
c ign~Js., v a ·
h ig h c o n d u . ·.·.<, ·/ <:.·, ~~fr~qu~pcy !. l} m su~:!J ~pp-l1.cat1ons. .
•
a .f fi
. t 1s t~ e l! P fh ~
_
~., .J
~ ·· ,h
~/( .. ·'. ~ -0 ~ [,!A:-,.t:--:;: -ivi11,nro(t•fu
.. n'
5
7
,,
n,c- t!.O,. ,. .
y_is
,.
in p u { '? '- rr e nt h e ld c o n st
a n t?
Q. 1 7 . W h a in p h fi c a f! ~ p -..or~,fb}.ij.gapu.,P s e•trans1s ~o·1r;' •· /:o',)·{I_ t,.·;ansi, st oi,, -.yh .
e input ~urre
nt
~7.r, ..-.·,. :,_ ;;·~-- , .. ,, e s a s th
r a - h a n g re
Ans. F o , . ,,· . ,,, .., . rs;J t l~--
• ...._
h a r a c te n; '•-s;- 1c
.,_-~,
tJ in .~ a i: i,e_. }:ts vacl_uhearac cteristics o f a transisto'r a
d ¢ 'v ic e. _, : -~ .-.: ~
a c ti v e p ,, ,·
in t"
,v
f~ ~
-
,,..
-~
-,.
l! ~ u 1_.--.f · ·· ·• ; ! 15 .~ / 'th~t 'the oti. p.ut . . . n
il e pldti si~t~ re a s o ' , ,, -., ,..."t.. a,.n f . .
Q. 18. W h :: -✓ ~t' · ~sistat1ce.·-o f a ·t·r_&an
•s .o r. ,,i ... s .,, /. .
sz
-.
st o r zn C B and CE
s I t l LI ·r{ a .tran.
_ f .
erit tdna~ra
.
.. ··_
.U
: u r , ·:- ' l:!
u t;curt:" cteristics o f
h e 1 ' n p . ·. .
- -· , ~
:':'se. in g ~~ P:,. ·.'. tpu ,. ''' r c h ·
Ans. T . s e s ·or d ~ c r~ 1 ;; . ilar' there
in c r e a I tt cl b y b o.·J d.: · ,'i in "t h e ,otf. ·· .. ·: . · .
a rr im g e m ents look sim ·
. e ,, ..re·nce b'(tw · . ~ T •n ' · the tw . 0
a lw a y s·. p·.. o ·dif fe · · . ·
S JS tO l . · .
· . zs th e.· .1 ·, ": :·.· . , ' , ~ stics,,c·;fa , , / . ·· tr an
rr angement.
,
Q. 1 9 . W h ·
a t · ? -._ ,
ts . • · : . ~ ·e .. · . : · . . ,,.,.0,t~iiistead
t ri · · IE in C B
·.
a of B ~angem~
n t. T h e
a r r a n·g e m e n. · -·- t:ad:-iaera c e s ~ , . e o f V en m C all)
.•
o u g h tf ie o utpud I. P ' rert . c e ·arra·ngern ement'instead + V8E and V8E is very sm
Ans. .A lt h
a re tw o
. .orta,.n-t n t' is J j; ir f -
iµ tP
e . . i~ V.c E in -C E ~ f , ,: ( :
E ar de
Vei =Ven
d as identical. .
-
p.11t -c u rr ::1 ec g:
(I ) T h ~ in a ~_e o ii iy si igbtlY afrno-u e r ie n t
T h e b u tp u t' v o lt
fe rs . tftey ,c e x c e ss iv e current, a m b
";\ y fo , .d
if · d? result from
( II ~ r C B • t purPC:ses?d a m a g e. . h , t m a y . .
v_olta g e
rn<:> _
5 to b e e ea -- · . replace d ? .
s o th a t fo~ nsz~t~r transistorr.leTahds- p ly b a tt ~ry zs
) . - _, s .a·'tra d rn a g e a , t
-~ n s is to r o r sup
a u s e a t c·a n a·11g th e trans1 ~o ·
,1
Q. 2 0 . E W h a t c iv e b e d w h e T I a ,, · . ✓
s
~ . An . x c e s o r s o J d e fl,u r n e d 0¼ '
s . h
~
te m p e r a tu r e _., s w it c
 · oloQY ............. ............-·•·······..•····.. •· · .............................._
·col Te'?,.t:.0.. . ..... .....-•·········..•· . .......... surges which can produce excess· . ._
. f JeC tr1_..•..• .• ·•····· .ent voltag e . tve
aoJec_nv_e. . ... • ev"" small IJllllS' ould be turned off when a transis tor or th
48 - - .-··" Jafl' 8 ged bY wer 5 w1tch sh . e
. call be this reaso n, the po . .. . .
-10- ------
,ansistor ·11er and base-c ollecto r1unc~zons for a transisto .
.411s- for,Vard
1 bia5· ~orrepJa ced- . ,..
tterY ,s ,fth base-emi
. supplY ba b ·as conditions o e . .&-.
Q. 22.
the an
fYhPI preteas r arnP f.ifier'l· . . . on ts
plifier the base-e mitter Juncti 1orwa. rd bias d
opera .
1
operates as an am , . .e
10 th ta trans1sto r b. d . . .
,40,. In order a .unction is reverse iase .
and base-collector J .
d ·· l ·d· · ·
Q. :zJ. ff'}tat is amplific
. . . h ation? cess where a smaller signal is used to pro uce a arger I enttca l signal
. .
is t e protransistor can do the job of amphf. icat1on .
Atnphficat10nnnected
AD5• ·
A proper1y co .
Q. , When is collector current maximum in a transistor? . ·
24 The collector current in a tranSistor is maxim uin when it is. in satura tion.
Aas.
Q. 25. When is collector current approx imately zero in a transis tor?
Ans. .The collector current in a transistor is approximately zero when it is in cut off. ·
Q. 26. Under what condition is VCE = Vcc in a transis tor?
Ans. In a transisto~, VCE = Vcc in cutoff.
Q. 27. When is VcE minimu m in a transis tor?
· · mm
· mnnmu
Ans• In a transistor, VCE 18 • saturat· ion.
Q. 28. When does a transis tor operat e as a switch ? .
Ans. A transistor behaves as a switch when.iC d. . . . .
Q. • ff?zat are the three main clas ·. if. · ·~ operat e . m cutoff and: satura tion.
29 Th
Ans . . Sf!S .o trans_I:J;tors? . ,
. e three main classes of transis tors are : . .
l~-~ .Se transis
(i) Small signal/ genera;,.r-:-r- : tors ·
.
Power transistors
( zi) .. .
(iii) RF (radfo·f requen · · )-. ·. . . . ._·· . . , ., .
Q. 3-0. A · .• cy transis tors . . .
proper.ly connec
· · ted tr,,.,.,ns.;
- ~orca ..t nd . · . . · •·
-An . . . o <;1mplification. Js tran . . a source . .. , ,
s. No, trans~ r· in .not a sour of energy but is sistor of eneri!;y ?
power from the ce
Q. 31. Wha . supp 1Y and conver ts it . merely an ener . . .. ,. .
I are the three Possib le stai , mto a.c. power which . gy conve rt~r..•It r~e1ves d,c,
Ans
• The three possible states-~f a es ofa transis tor? . . IS added to the signal. .
. . t:rans1st~r are : . . . . ,
(i) C~t off state . . which th . .. . . ..
a . . in
.- ~oxun ately zero. .~ transis tor is . . -
nonco nducti n . ·s
(ti) Active state 1n w . - g z.e . .collec tor curren,t >
· voltage . A 1-.... _. hicb the collecto _
un, Saturatio ~<U.llSlStor acts as an r C\ltrent . . co . .
1s ·, - . ase·
~
( 1 . n state in Whi amplifi er. th ntrolle d b
Q. 32. u= . orb . ch the COile 1 m e active · Y tbe base curren t aQ(l.b . ·
•• nat rs the rel .. ase current . c Ot current has res~te. ..
, I
atzon between collecto .
r
·.
.
curre . ached
- a max·unwn va1ue atid ,s·.
Ans.
. .1E ::::; I B + I ::::; I nt.]c and em· ·. j
. . - ~
c B-+- 1.3 . ltter cu
-1_ · 1 a:::::,le(A..1 rrent/ Einter mso/~ 2 .~
1a~ I-' r 1) . flI
1+~ 1E -

~
.

IC ::::: 13 JB ::::: , ~. , 1•

• ~ I E.
f