STEADY-STATE, STEADY-FLOW OPEN SYSTEMS

Consider the above figure. We shall now set up energy balance equation
involving those energy forms, with which we shall be most concerned, an
equation that can be applied to many flow systems. Since there is no change of
stored energy and mass, the conservation law equation is reduced to:

Energy entering system = energy leaving system

P1 + K1 + Ef1 + U1 + Q = P2 + K2 + Ef2 + U2 + W

Where, Ef1 and Ef2 are the flow energy; p1V1 & p2V2 respectively

Therefore Q = ∆U + ∆(pv) + ∆K + ∆P + W

dQ = du + d(pv) + dK + dP + dW

dQ= dh + dK + dP + dW

dQ = du + dpdv + dvdp + dK + dP + dW

APPLICATIONS OF THE STEADY-FLOW EQUATION

As always often, unless the working substance is a liquid (as in a hydroelectric

power plant) or unless there are great changes in altitude, the change of
gravitational potential energy is negligible. If so the steady-flow energy
equation is reduced to:

dQ = dh + dK + dW

In any case, to make energy balances, one must know what the system does and
what energy forms are significant. Consider the turbine below, gas or steam. It
receives a stream of fluid, more or less steadily when the load is constant at
high pressure; the fluid then expands to a low pressure doing work.(the
objective of the system is to produce work). The entering stream contains u 1
and K1; and as a unit mass is pushed across boundary 1, the flow work energy
p1v1 enters the control volume. Since, the fluid passing through the turbine is
certain to be at a different temperature from the surroundings, heat Q is
unavoidable. The delivered work W is the work of the fluid in its passage
through the control volume.

Since ∆P is quite negligible and the overall ∆K is small it is usually ignored,

therefore the energy equation simply reduces to dQ = dh + dW.

PROPERTY RELATIONS FROM ENERGY EQUATIONS

Consider systems made up of fluids. Now we know that dQ = Tds for any
reversible process and dW = pdv for the boundary work of a reversible non-flow
system. Through some mathematical operations we shall establish a relation of
the two equations mentioned above;
 dQ = Tds = du + pdv or ds = du/T + P/T(dv)

similarly, h = u + pv; dh = du + pdv= Tds

dh = du + pdv +vdp or Tds = dh – vdp

since dQ = Tds;

Tds = du + pdv + vdp + dK + dP + dW

-vdp = dK + dP + dW
2

If dP = 0; -∫ vdp = ∆K + W; if both ∆P and ∆K are negligible

1

W = -∫ vdp
1

BOUNDARIES OF THE SYSTEM

Consider the figure below. It is fitting to consider a few locations of boundaries,

and, incidentally to observe the conversion of energy in the form called work.
System 1 is an expansible fluid. With thermodynamic idealizations, we can
determine ideal work for this fluid as it changes state (and perhaps moves into
and out of the cylinder). The actual work delivered is something less than the
ideal work because of friction and other irreversibilities. The actual net- work of
the system for complete cycles of events is the indicated work WI so called
because the measuring instrument used is called an indicator. The indicated
work WI crosses the boundary (the piston face) into system 2, which consists
entirely of mechanical elements bounded by the heavy dashed line. At some
boundary C on the connecting rod the work flux is something less than W I
because of friction at the piston rings and cylinder walls, at the packing glands
and pin at B. The net- work that we are interested is the brake work WB, so
called because it was first measured by a brake that absorb, the shaft output of
the engine. It was called shaft work WB < WI for an engine manufacturing power
as a Diesel engine, because of losses already mentioned plus more frictional
losses at the shaft bearings and crank pin and so on. The mechanical efficiency
of a reciprocating power-delivering engine is nm = WB/WI.

The generator delivers electrical energy Eg usually called combined work Wk or

overall work. The generator efficiency ng = WK/WB.
ENERGY EQUATION FOR FLOW OF INCOMPRESSIBLE FLUIDS

Perhaps some of you are already familiar with the Bernoulli’s equation. Daniel
Bernoulli derived the equation around 1735, whereas the law of conservation of
energy was not accepted until about 1850 almost 100 years later. However, the
energy law throws additional light on the Bernoulli equation to wit; Energy
entering the system = energy leaving the system + stored energy in the system;

Q= ∆u + ∆(pv) + ∆P + ∆K + W

As applied to the above figure which is an open system of an incompressible

fluid flowing steadily in a pipe. With no shafts, W=0; if the flow is frictionless
(viscosity is 0) and Q=0. The change of molecular internal energy ∆u = 0. If we let
v = 1/ϼ the energy relations between boundaries 1 and 2 is;

∆(p/ϼ) + ∆K + ∆P = 0 ft.lb./lb.

P2/ γ 2 – P1/ γ 1 + v22/2g – v12/2g + z2 – z1 = 0 ft.; γ is the specific weight of the fluid
and ϼ the specific volume
ENERGY EQUATION FOR INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOW THROUGH FAN OR PUMP

The total work to drive the fan is called the total head, Hf and is expressed in the
following form: Hf = -W = (p2 – p1)/ γ + (v22 – v12)/2g + EF; Likewise, the work to
drive a pump is –Wp = (p2 – p1)/ γ + (v22 – v12)/2g + z2 – z1 + EF. ft. lbs./lb.

The pump HP can be expressed also as HP = Q x H/3960 x n p, where Q is the

pump capacity in gallons per minute, H is the total head in ft. and np is the pump
efficiency; HP = gallons per minute x 8.33 lbs per gallon x head in feet/33,000 =
pump water HP (WHP); Pump shaft HP = WHP/pump efficiency

CLOSURE

The primary aim of this chapter is to become familiar with energy and energy
balances and perhaps to acquire a handy knowledge of certain concepts. Except
for energy balances the two most important equations in this chapter are the
following:

Tds = Q = du + pdv and Tds = dh - vdp