Calculus Continuity Derivatives

Single and multivariable functions Limits and continuity Derivatives Applications of derivatives Lagrange’s method Implicit functions
Calculus
Functions and Derivatives
Nguyen Van Hoi
University of Information Technology
July 25, 2022
Nguyen Van Hoi University of Information Technology 1 / 62

Overview
1 Single and multivariable functions
2 Limits and continuity
3 Derivatives
4 Applications of derivatives
5 Lagrange’s method
6 Implicit functions

Single and multivariable functions
A function f : R ⊃ D → R that assigns to each x ∈ D exactly one element f (x) ∈ R.

▶ D : domain of f .
▶ f (x) : value of f at x.
▶ R = {f (x) | x ∈ D} : range of f .
▶ x: independent variable; f (x): dependent variable.
The graph of f is the set of ordered pairs
{(x, f (x)) | x ∈ D}.
Intuitively, it consists of all points (x, y ) in the xy −plane with y = f (x) ∈ R and x ∈ D.


➬ f assigns any (x, y ) ∈ D a unique

number f (x, y ) ∈ R.
➬ D : domain of f .
➬ A range of f :
{f (x, y ) | (x, y ) ∈ D}.
Figure 1: Pictorial illustration of a two-variables ➬ x, y : independent variables.
function.
➬ z = f (x, y ) : dependent variable

Evaluate f (2, 3) and sketch its domain and range if

√
x +y +1
f (x, y ) = , f (x, y ) = xLn(y 2 − x).
x −1
Figure 2:
D = {(x, y ) | x + y + 1 ≥ 0, x ̸= 1}. Figure 3: D = {(x, y ) | x < y 2 }.

Graph of f is the set of three-numbers (x, y , z) ∈ R3 with z = f (x, y ) and (x, y ) ∈ D.
Figure 4: Graph of a function f .

Limits and continuity

The table below illustrates a behavior of f : R → R : x 7→ f (x) = x 2 − x + 2 near 2.
☞ When x is close to 2, f (x) is close to 4.

☞ Saying ”the limit of the function f (x) = x 2 − x + 2 as x approaches 2 is equal to 4”.

sin x
☞ Let’s consider f (x) = which is not defined at x = 0. BUT
x
sin x
☞ Saying ”the limit of f (x) = as x
x
approaches 0 is equal to 1”.

Suppose f (x) is defined at every x near a (except possibly for a itself). Then we write
lim f (x) = L or f (x) → L as x →a

x→a
if we can make f (x) arbitrarily close to L (as close as we like) by taking x to be sufficiently
close to a but not equal to a.

The limit always exists?

☞ If x → 0 on right i.e. x > 0, h(x) → 1.
1 if x > 0 ☞ If x → 0 on left i.e. x < 0, h(x) → 0.
h(x) =
0 if x < 0. ☞ Therefore, limit does not exists at x = 0.

One-sided limits
say the left-hand (resp. hand-right) limit of f is equal to L if we can make the value f (x)
arbitrarily close to L by taking x to be sufficiently close to a and x < a (resp. x > a).
☞ We observe that
lim f (x) = L if and only if lim f (x) = L and lim f (x) = L.

x→a x→a− x→a+

☞ Find a function such thatlimx→2 f (x) = 5 and f (2) = 3.

☞ Find a function such that limx→1− f (x) = 3 and limx→1+ f (x) = 7.
☞ Using the graph below to state
lim f (x); lim f (x); lim f (x); f (2); lim f (x); f (4).
x→2− x→2+ x→2 x→4

Limit laws
Suppose c is a constant, and limx→a f (x) and limx→a g (x) exist. Then
▶ limx→a c = c.
▶ limx→a x = a.
▶ limx→a (f (x) + g (x)) = limx→a f (x) + limx→a g (x).
▶ limx→a (f (x) − g (x)) = limx→a f (x) − limx→a g (x).
▶ limx→a cf (x) = c limx→a f (x).
▶ limx→a (f (x)g (x)) = limx→a f (x) limx→a g (x).
f (x) limx→a f (x)
▶ limx→a = if limx→a g (x) ̸= 0.
g (x) limx→a g (x)

The squeeze theorem

If f (x) ≥ g (x) ≥ h(x) when x is near a (except possibly at a) and
lim f (x) = lim h(x) = L. Then lim g (x) = L.

x→a x→a x→a
☞ Evaluate limx→0 (x 2 sin x1 ).
☞ Note −1 ≤ sin x1 ≤ 1, then
1
−1.x 2 ≤ x 2 . sin ≤ 1.x 2 .
x
☞ limx→0 (−x 2 ) = limx→0 (x 2 ) = 0.
☞ limx→0 (x 2 sin x1 ) = 0.

Exercises
Evaluate the following limits and justify each step

√
2 t2 + 9 − 3
lim (2x − 3x + 4) (1a) lim (1e)
x→5 x→0 t2
3 2
lim (5x − 3x + x − 6)
x→3
(1b) lim (x − 3x)(x 2 + 5x + 3)
4
(1f)
x→−1
x 2 − 6x + 5 (−5 + h)2 − 25
lim , (1c) lim , (1g)
x→5 x −5 h→0 h
√
x 2 − 4x 9+h−3
lim 2 (1d) lim . (1h)
x→4 x − 3z − 4 h→0 h

If for every ϵ > 0 there exists δ > 0 such that

q
|f (x, y ) − L| ≤ ϵ, ∀(x, y ) ∈ D, s.t (x − a)2 + (y − b)2 ≤ δ, (2)
we say f has a limit at (a, b) and write
lim f (x, y ) = L f (x, y ) → L as (x, y ) → (a, b). (3)

(x,y )→(a,b)

Limit’s laws
Suppose lim(x,y )→(a,b) f (a, y ) = L and lim(x,y )→(a,b) g (a, y ) = M, then
➬ First,
lim x = a, lim y = b, lim c = c, c: constant.

(x,y )→(a,b) (x,y )→(a,b) (x,y )→(a,b)
➬ lim(x,y )→(a,b) f (a, y ) ± lim(x,y )→(a,b) g (a, y ) = L ± M.

➬ lim(x,y )→(a,b) (kf (x, y )) = kL.
➬ lim(x,y )→(a,b) f (x, y )g (a, y ) = LM.
f (x, y ) L
➬ lim(x,y ) = provided M ̸= 0.
g (x, y ) M
➬ If f is a function of x only i.e., f (x, y ) = f (x), then
lim(x,y )→(a,b) f (x, y ) = limx→a f (x)

➬ Find lim(x,y )→(1,2) (x 2 y + 2xy ).

Combining the rules mentioned above allows us to do the following
lim (x 2 y + 2xy ) = lim x 2y + lim 2xy

(x,y )→(1,2) (x,y )→(1,2) (x,y )→(1,2)
= lim x2 lim y +2 lim x lim y

(x,y )→(1,2) (x,y )→(1,2) (x,y )→(1,2) (x,y )→(1,2)
= 12 ∗ 2 + 2 ∗ 1 ∗ 2 = 6.
xy
➬ Find lim(x,y )→(1,1) x+y .
Combining the rules mentioned above allows us to do the following
xy lim(x,y )→(1,1) xy
lim =
(x,y )→(1,1) x + y lim(x,y )→(1,1) (x + y )
lim(x,y )→(1,1) x lim(x,y )→(1,1) y 1.1 1
= = = .
lim(x,y )→(1,1) x + lim(x,y →(1,1) y ) 1+1 2

x 2 − xy
➬ Find lim(x,y )→(0,0) √ √ .
x− y
We cannot plug in the point as we get 00 an indeterminate form. Since this is a fraction
that involves a radical, we multiply by the conjugate
√ √
x 2 − xy (x 2 − xy )( x − y )
lim √ √ = lim √ √ √ √
(x,y )→(0,0) x − y (x,y )→(0,0) ( x − y )( x + y )
√ √
x(x − y )( x − y )
= lim
(x,y )→(0,0) x −y
√ √
x( x − y )
= lim
(x,y )→(0,0) 1
=0.

x3 − y3
➬ Find lim(x,y )→(0,0)
x 2 + xy + y 2
We cannot plug in the point as we get 0 in the denominator. We try to rewrite the
fraction to see if we can simplify
x3 − y3 (x − y )(x 2 + xy + y 2 )
lim = lim
(x,y )→(0,0) x 2 + xy + y 2 (x,y )→(0,0) x 2 + xy + y 2
(x − y )
= lim
(x,y )→(0,0) 1
=0.

x2 − y2 x2 − y2
Let f (x, y ) = . Show that lim (x,y )→(0,0) 2 does not exist.
x2 + y2 x + y2

➬Approach (0, 0) along the x−axis i.e., y = 0 and hence f (x, 0) = x 2 /x 2 = 1 for all
x ̸= 0, so
f (x, y ) → 1.
➬ Approach (0, 0) along the y −axis i.e., x = 0, then f (0, y ) = −y 2 /y 2 = 1, so
f (x, y ) → 1
Since it has two different limits along two different lines, limit does not exist.

xy
Show that lim(x,y )→(0,0) does not exist.
x2 + y2
➬ Approach (0, 0) along x−axis i.e.,

xy
y = 0, we obtain 2 → 0.
x + y2
➬ Approach (0, 0) along a line y = x,
xy 1
→ .
x2 + y2 2
➬ Therefore, limit does not exist.

Continuity
➬A single variable function of f is continuous at x = a iff
lim f (x) = f (a). (4)

x→a
➬ In the same manner, a function of f of two variables is called continuous at (a, b) if
lim f (x, y ) = f (a, b). (5)

(x,y )→(a,b)
We say f is continuous on D if f is continuous at every point in D.

Remark: the intuition meaning of continuity is that the surface of the graph of a
function does not have a hole or break.

Continuity’s laws
1. The sum, difference, and product of continuous functions is a continuous function.
2. The quotient of two continuous functions is continuous as long as the
denominator is not 0.
3. Polynomial functions are continuous, for instance,
f (x, y ) = x 3 + x 2 y + 4xy 2 + y 3 + 1.
4. A rational function is continuous on its domain, for instance,

2xy
f (x, y ) = .
x2 −1
5. If f (x, y ) is continuous and g (x) is defined and continuous on the range of f ,
then g (f (x, y ) is also continuous.

➬ Is f (x, y ) = x 2 y + 3x 3 y 4 − 2x − 3y continuous at (0, 0)? Where is it continuous?

Hint: f (x, y ) is a polynomial.
x −y +1
➬ Where is f (x, y ) = 2 continuous?
x + y2
Hint: f is the quotient of the two continuous functions, and its denominator is not 0.
x
➬ Find where sin( ) is continuous?
y
x
Hint: sin x is continuous on R, and is continuous on R2 /{y = 0}.
y

Derivative of single variable functions
∆y
The slope = .
∆x
☞ If ∆x → 0, then ∆y ∆x → v .
☞ Velocity shows how faster the
rocket moves at the time x.

☞ Suppose the motion of the

rocket is ”smooth”.
☞ If ∆x → 0, then v is defined as
the slope of the tangent d to the
curve at x.

Suppose f is a function over (a, b) and x ∈ (a, b), the derivative of f at x, denoted by
f ′ (x), is
f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim (6)
h→0 h
if the limit exists. In such a case, f is differentiable at x.

Some rules
☞ Suppose f and g are functions defined on (a, b), they are differentiable at x, then
(f ± g )′ (x) = f ′ (x) ± g ′ (x) (7)

′ ′ ′
(fg ) (x) = f (x)g (x). (8)
☞ If f is differentiable a x and g is differentiable at f (x), then g (f (x)) is differentiable

at x and
(g (f ))′ (x) = g ′ (f (x))f ′ (x). (9)

Derivative of multivariable functions: Partial derivatives

Indeed, if f is a function of two variables, its partial derivatives are the functions fx and
fy defined by
f (x + h, y ) − f (x, y ) f (x, y + h) − f (x, y )

fx (x, y ) = lim fy (x, y ) = lim . (10)
h→0 h h→0 h
Others notation, if z = f (x, y )
∂f ∂ ∂z
fx (x, y ) = fx = = f (x, y ) = = f1 = D1 f = Dx f (11)
∂x ∂x ∂x
∂f ∂ ∂z
fy (x, y ) = fx = = f (x, y ) = = f2 = D 2 f = D y f . (12)
∂y ∂y ∂y
➬ They represent the rate of change of f w.r.t x (resp. y when y (resp. x) is fixed.

The rule for finding partial derivatives

1. To find fx , regard y as a constant and differentiate with respect to x.
2. To find fy , regard x as a constant and differentiate with respect to y .
x ∂f ∂f
➬ If f (x, y ) = sin , find and .
1+y ∂x ∂y
∂f x ∂ x x 1
= cos · = cos .
∂x 1+y ∂x 1 + y 1+y 1+y
∂f x ∂ x x x
= cos · = cos · .
∂x 1+y ∂y 1 + y 1+y (1 + y )2

Derivative of multivariable functions: Differentiable

The corresponding increment of f is defined by
∆z = f (x0 + ∆x, y0 + ∆y ) − f (x0 , y0 ). (13)
We say f is differentiable at (x0 , y0 ) if ∆f can be expressed in the form
∆f = A(x0 , y0 )∆x + B(x0 , y0 )∆y + ε1 ∆x + ε2 ∆y , (14)
where ε1 and ε2 → 0 as (∆x, ∆y ) → (0.0).
Theorem
If the partial derivatives fx and fy exist near (x0 , y0 ) and are continuous at (x0 , y0 ),
then f is differentiable at (x0 , y0 ) and
∆f = fx (x0 , y0 )∆x + fy (x0 , y0 )∆y + ε1 ∆x + ε2 ∆y , (15)

Derivative of multivariable functions: Directional derivatives

f (x0 + h, y0 ) − f (x0 , y0 ) f (x0 , y0 + h) − f (x0 , y0 )

fx (x0 , y0 ) = lim , fy (x0 , y0 ) = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
represent the rate of change of z in the x−axis and y −axis directions respectively.
Similarly, the rate of change of z in an arbitrary unit direction u =< a, b > at (x0 , y0 ) is
f (x0 + ha, y0 + hb) − f (x0 , y0 )

Du f (x0 , y0 ) = lim . (16)
h→0 h
Theorem
If f is a differentiable function of x and y , then f has a directional derivative in the
direction of any unit vector u =< a, b > and
Du f (x0 , y0 ) = ∇f (x0 , y0 ) · u = fx (x0 , y0 )a + fy (X0 , y0 )b. (17)
The vector ∇f (x0 , y0 ) =< fx (x0 , y0 ), fy ((x0 , y0 ) > is gradient of f at (x0 , y0 ).

Find the directional derivative Du f (x, y ) and the gradient ∇f (x, y ) if

π π
1. f (x, y ) = x 3 − 3xy + 4y 2 and u =< cos , sin > and u =< 1, −1 >
6 6
2. f (x, y ) = sin x + e xy
3. f (x, y ) = xx 2 y 3 − 4y and u =< 2, −1 >.

High-order derivatives
➬ fxy (x0 , y0 ) = fyx (x0 , y0 ) if they are continuous at (x0 , y0 ).

Derivatives of composite functions
Let g : R2 ⊃ D : (x, y ) 7→ (v (x, y ), u(x, y )) and f : O → R : (v , u) 7→ f (v , u).

∂f ∂f ∂v ∂v ∂u ∂u
If and are continuous over 0 and if , and , exist. Then
∂v ∂y ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
∂f ∂f ∂v ∂f ∂u
= + . (18)
∂x ∂v ∂x ∂u ∂x
∂f ∂f ∂v ∂f ∂u
= + . (19)
∂y ∂v ∂y ∂u ∂y

Differentials
➬ For a differentiable function y = f (x), the differential dx is defined as an independent

variable; and can be given the value of any real number (but too small). The differential
of y is then defined as
dy = f ′ (x)dx (20)
➬ If z = f (x, y ), we define the differentials dx and dy to be independent variables.

Then the differential dz, also called the total differential, is defined by
dz = fx dx + fy dy . (21)

Maximum and minimum values: single variable function

Definition
c is a number belonging the domain D of f , then f (c) is
1. absolute maximum value of f on D if f (c) ≥ f (x) for all in x ∈ D.
2. absolute minimum value of f on D if f (c) ≤ f (x) for all in x ∈ D.
3. local maximum value of f if f (c) ≥ f (x) when x nears c.
4. local minimum value of f if f (c) ≤ f (x) when x nears c.
Theorem
If f is continuous on a closed interval [a, b], then it attains an absolute maximum value
f (c) and an absolute minimum value f (d) at some numbers c and d in [a, b].
Theorem
If f has a local maximum or minimum at c, and if f ′ (c) exists, then f ′ (c) = 0.


The closed interval method
To find the absolute maximum and minimum values of a continuous function on a closed
interval I ”
1. Find the values of at the critical numbers of in I .
2. Find the values of at the endpoints of the interval.
3. The largest of the values from Steps 1 and 2 is the absolute maximum value; the
smallest of these values is the absolute minimum value.
✂ Find the absolute maximum and absolute minimum
1. f (x) = −x 2 + 3x − 2 over [1, 3].
2
2. f (x) = x 2 − 3x 3 over [0, 2].

Maximum and minimum values: multivariable functions
➬ (a, b): local minimum (resp.

maximum) if f (a, b) ≤ f (x, y ) for
(x, y ) near (a, b).
➬ (a, b): absolute minimum (resp.
maximum) if f (a, b) ≥ f (x, y ) for
all (x, y ) belonging to the domain
of f .
➬ The first-order necessary
condition: (a, b) is either a local
minimum or maximum then
∇f (a, b) = 0.

Sufficient condition: Suppose the second partial derivatives of f are continuous around
(a, b), and suppose that ∇f (a, b) = 0 (i.e., (a, b) is a critical point of f ). Let

fxx fxy
D = = fxx fyy − fxy2 . (22)
fxy fyy
1. If D > 0 and fxx (a, b) > 0, then is a local minimum.

2. If D > 0 and fxx (a, b) < 0, then is a local maximum.
3. If D < 0, then is not a local maximum or minimum. In such a case, (a, b) is
called a saddle point.
Examples: (1) Find the local maximum and minimum values and saddle points of
f (x, y ) = x 4 + y 4 − 4xy + 1.
(2) Find the shortest distance from (1, 0, −2) to the plane x + 2y + 4 = 4.

Find the absolute maximum and minimum values of the function f (x, y ) = x 2 −2xy +2y
on the rectangle D = {(x, y ) | 0 ≤ x ≤ 3, 0 ≤ y ≤ 2} .
Step 1: finds critical points and value of f at these points
fx = 2x − 2y = 0, fy = −2x + 2 = 0.
Then the critical point is (1, 1) and f (1, 1) = 1.
Step 2 -3: find the extreme values of f on D and compare the values from 1 and 2.

Lagrange’s method
➬ Find extreme of f (x, y ) s.t

g (x, y ) = k.
➬ Lagrange’s method: if (x0 , y0 ) is
an extreme point and
∇g (x0 , y0 ) ̸= 0, then
∇f (x0 , y0 ) = λ∇g (x0 , y0 ) (23)
for some λ.
➬ Similarly, if (x0 , y0 , z0 ) is a extreme of f (x, y , z) subject to g (x, y , z) = k and suppose
∇g (x0 , yy , z0 ) ̸= 0 then
∇f (x0 , y0 , z0 ) = λ∇g (x0 , y0 , z0 ) (24)
for some
Nguyenλ.
Van Hoi University of Information Technology 51 / 62
Example: Find the extreme values of the function f (x, y ) = x 2 + 2y 2 on the circle
x 2 + y 2 = 1.
➬ step 1: solve
∇f (x, y ) = λ∇g (x, y ) (25)

g (x, y ) = k (26)
for x, y , λ
➬ step 2: evaluate f at these points
above:
+ The largest one is maximum
+ The smallest is minimum.

Maximizing directional derivatives

➬ f is differentiable, then it has a directional in any unit vector. In which of these
directions does f change fastest?
Answer: The maximum value of the directional derivative Du f (x, y ) is ∇f (x) and it
occurs when u has the same direction as ∇f (x).

➬ ∇f (x0 , y0 ) gives the direction of fastest increase of f at (x0 , y0 ). ➬ Moreover,

∇f (x0 , y0 ) is perpendicular to the level curve f (x, y ) = k that passes through (x0 , y0 ).

Mean value theorem
Theorem
Let f be a continuous over [a, b] and differential over (a, b) such that f (a) = f (b).
Then, there exists at least one c ∈ (a, b) such that f ′ (c) = 0.
☞ For each of the following functions, verify that they satisfies the criteria stated in
Rolle’s theorem and find all value c in the given interval for which f ′ (c) = 0.
▶ f (x) = x 2 + 2x over [−2, 0].
▶ f (x) = x 3 − 4x over [−2, 2].
Theorem
Let f be continuous over the closed interval [a, b] and differential over (a, b). Then
there exists at least one point c ∈ (a, b) such that
f (b) − f (a)
f ′ (c) = .
b−a

Hospital’s rule
If limx→a f (x) = L1 and limx→a g (x) = L2 ̸= 0, then
f (x) L1
lim = .
x→a g (x) L2
But what happens if limx→a f (x) = limx→a g (x) = 0. We call this one of the indeter-
minate forms, of type 00 . Let’s reveal how to deal with such problem:
L’Hopital’s rule. Suppose f , g are differential functions over an open interval containing
a, except possibly at a.
▶ If limx→a f (x) = limx→a g (x) = 0, f (x) f ′ (x)

▶ or limx→a f (x) = limx→a g (x) = ±∞, ⇒ lim = lim ′ .
x→a g (x) x→a g (x)
▶ or limx→a f (x) = 0, limx→a g (x) = ∞,

✂ Evaluate each of the following limits by applying L’Hôpital’s rule.

x2 − 9
1. limx→3 .
x −3
1 − cos x
2. limx→0 .
x
x
3. limx→0 .
tan x
x −π
4. limx→π .
sin π
✂ Evaluate each of the following limits by applying L’Hôpital’s rule.
3x + 5
1. limx→∞ .
2x + 1
ln x
2. limx→∞ .
5x

Implicit functions: single variable functions
dy
➬ Find the slope of the tangent line to the circle i.e., =?
dx

Problem-solving strategy
➬ Take the derivative of both sides of the equation:
d 2 d dy
(x + y 2 ) = (25) 2x + 2y = 0.
dx dx dx
➬ Rewrite the equation so that all terms containing dy dx are on the left and others are
on the right
dy
y = −x.
dx
dy
➬ Factor out = on the left and then solve for it by dividing both sides of the equation
dx
by appropriate algebraic expression
dy x
=− .
dx y
dy
☞ Find at (x, y ) = ( 23 , 32 ) if x 3 + y 3 − 3xy = 0; and x 3 sin y + y = 4x + 3.
dx
Implicit functions: multivariable functions

Consider an implicit function z = f (x, y ) defined by
F (x, y , z) = 0. (27)
Derivative both sides, one gets
F x + Fz z x = 0 (28)
Fy + Fz zy = 0. (29)
With Fz ̸= 0, then
Fx Fy
zx = − , zy = − . (30)
Fz Fz

Taylor’s formula

Calculus Continuity Derivatives

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Single and multivariable functions Limits and continuity Derivatives Applications of derivatives Lagrange’s method Implicit functions

Nguyen Van Hoi

University of Information Technology

July 25, 2022

Nguyen Van Hoi University of Information Technology 1 / 62

1 Single and multivariable functions

2 Limits and continuity

Nguyen Van Hoi University of Information Technology 2 / 62

Single and multivariable functions

A function f : R ⊃ D → R that assigns to each x ∈ D exactly one element f (x) ∈ R.

The graph of f is the set of ordered pairs

{(x, f (x)) | x ∈ D}.

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➬ f assigns any (x, y ) ∈ D a unique

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Evaluate f (2, 3) and sketch its domain and range if

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Graph of f is the set of three-numbers (x, y , z) ∈ R3 with z = f (x, y ) and (x, y ) ∈ D.

Figure 4: Graph of a function f .

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Limits and continuity

☞ When x is close to 2, f (x) is close to 4.

☞ Saying ”the limit of the function f (x) = x 2 − x + 2 as x approaches 2 is equal to 4”.

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lim f (x) = L or f (x) → L as x →a

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The limit always exists?

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lim f (x) = L if and only if lim f (x) = L and lim f (x) = L.

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☞ Find a function such thatlimx→2 f (x) = 5 and f (2) = 3.

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The squeeze theorem

lim f (x) = lim h(x) = L. Then lim g (x) = L.

☞ Evaluate limx→0 (x 2 sin x1 ).

☞ Note −1 ≤ sin x1 ≤ 1, then

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Evaluate the following limits and justify each step

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If for every ϵ > 0 there exists δ > 0 such that

we say f has a limit at (a, b) and write

lim f (x, y ) = L f (x, y ) → L as (x, y ) → (a, b). (3)

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lim x = a, lim y = b, lim c = c, c: constant.

➬ lim(x,y )→(a,b) f (a, y ) ± lim(x,y )→(a,b) g (a, y ) = L ± M.

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➬ Find lim(x,y )→(1,2) (x 2 y + 2xy ).

lim (x 2 y + 2xy ) = lim x 2y + lim 2xy

= lim x2 lim y +2 lim x lim y

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➬ Approach (0, 0) along the y −axis i.e., x = 0, then f (0, y ) = −y 2 /y 2 = 1, so

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➬ Approach (0, 0) along x−axis i.e.,

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➬A single variable function of f is continuous at x = a iff

lim f (x) = f (a). (4)