2022 1MA2 07A Integration Techniques - Notes (Student)

National Junior College Mathematics Department
National Junior College

2022 – 2023 H2 Mathematics
Topic 07A Integration Techniques Notes
As introduced in O-level, integration is the reverse process of differentiation. In this

chapter, we will reinforce the techniques learnt in O-level (knowledge of O-level
calculus is thus assumed) and learn new techniques of the A-level syllabus. This
would lay the foundation for us to explore the concepts in the next topic:
Applications of Integration.
§1 Integration as the Reverse of Differentiation (Anti-differentiation)
Key Question:
☐ What is the relationship between differentiation and integration?
1.1 Indefinite Integrals

Let us activate our prior knowledge by attempting the
following question.
Find
n
(i)  x dx , where n  1 ;
1
(ii)  x dx ;
x
(iii)  e dx ;
(iv)  sin x dx ;
(v)  cos x dx ;
2
(vi)  sec x dx .
If two functions F(x) and f(x) are related such that
d
 F( x)   f ( x) , then f(x) is the derivative of F(x), and
dx
F(x) is an anti-derivative of f(x) or an integral of f(x).
d 2
Consider
dx
 x   2x .
2x is the derivative of x 2 and
x 2 is an anti-derivative (or integral) of 2x.
d 2
Consider
dx
 x  7  2x .
2x is the derivative of x 2  7 and
x 2  7 is an anti-derivative (or integral) of 2x.
Observe that the integral of f(x) is not unique, i.e., there

is more than one possible integral of f(x).
2022 – 2023 / H2 Maths / Integration Techniques / Notes Page 1 of 35

In general, for any constant c,

d d d d
 F( x)  c    F( x)    c    F( x)   0  f ( x) .
dx dx dx dx
The process of finding the possible integrals of f(x) is

called integration, and we write
integrate with respect constant of integration
to which variable or arbitrary constant
integral sign
 x  dx  F  x   c
 f
function to integrate,
also known as integrand
The indefinite integral of f ( x ) is written as  f ( x ) dx . It

is read as “integrate f ( x ) with respect to x”.
In the next section, we will see definite integrals that are

b
written as a
f ( x) dx .
1.2 Some Properties of Indefinite Integrals
(a)  k f ( x) dx = k  f ( x ) dx , for any constant k

(b)  [ f ( x)  g( x)] dx =  f ( x) dx   g( x) dx
(c)  f ( x) dx = f ( x )  c
The methods of integration that will be covered in this

topic are:
(i) integration by recognising standard forms (in §3);
(ii) integration by substitution (in §5);
(iii) integration by parts (in §6).
In the case of (i), when integrands are NOT recognisable

in standard forms, we may apply the following (not
exhaustive) to re-express the integrands in standard forms
(in §4):
 Trigonometric results
 Long division
 Partial fraction decomposition of rational functions
 Completing the square

§2 Evaluating Definite Integrals
Key Questions:
☐ How do we evaluate definite integrals?
☐ How do we evaluate definite integrals in exact form?
☐ How do we use a graphing calculator to evaluate definite integrals?
☐ When can we use a graphing calculator to evaluate definite integrals?
In §1, we saw that for indefinite integrals,

 f ( x) dx  F( x)  c,
where F(x) is an anti-derivative of f(x).
Extending the above concept, we have that for a definite

integral with f(x) as a continuous function, and the lower
and upper limits are x = a and x = b respectively,
b b
 f ( x )dx   F( x ) a  F(b)  F( a ). --- (*)
a
This is essentially the difference in values of its anti-

derivative evaluated at the lower and upper limits of the
integral.
For instance,
2 2
 2 x dx   x 2   22  02  4.
0 0
0 0
 2 x dx   x 2   02  22  4.
2 2
Important To Note:
You may use a GC to (i) A definite integral is evaluated to give a fixed
evaluate definite value and NOT an expression in x. This is different
integrals only. Refer from an indefinite integral.
to Example 2.1.
b a
(ii)  f ( x) dx    f ( x) dx.
a b
b c b
(iii)  f ( x) dx   f ( x) dx   f ( x) dx,
a a c
where a  c  b .
Question To Ponder:
Can you verify the above results (ii) and (iii)?
Hint: Use (*).
Example 2.1
2π
3
Evaluate  π sin x dx .
4

Solution:
Method 1: Using a graphing calculator
Step 1:
Check that your
calculator is in
RADIAN mode
(For all Calculus
topics, angles are
to be evaluated
in radians).
Step 2:
Press “ALPHA”
+ “WINDOW”
to open the
short-cut menu
comprising the
integration
command. Select
“4” to invoke
this command.
Step 3:
You should
observe the
screenshot on the
right after
pressing “4”.
Key in the
required limits of
the integral as
well as the
integrand itself.
Step 4:
Press “Enter” to
evaluate the
definite integral.
Method 2: Using an analytical method

2π 2π
 π
3
sin x dx    cos x  π3
4 4
2π π
  cos  cos
3 4
2 1

2
Tip:
When you use an analytical method, you can verify the
accuracy of your answer by checking with a GC.

Important To Note:
The GC method is required and/or preferred in the
following cases:
 the question does not ask for an exact value,
 the question specifies a degree of accuracy, e.g. “3
decimal places.”
 the integral cannot be obtained analytically, e.g.
1
x2
e
0
dx .
The analytical method is required when
 exact value is required,
 question specifies that calculator/graphing
calculator cannot be used, or
 question specifies an integration technique to be
used, e.g. “use the substitution
u = x2...” and “using integration by parts, show
that...”.
§3 Integration by Recognising Standard Forms
Key Question:
☐ How do we integrate expressions of the following standard forms?
n f ( x)
 f ( x )  f ( x )  , where n  1 , and
f ( x)
 f   x  ef  x 
 f ( x )cos  f ( x)  , f ( x )sin  f ( x)  and f ( x )sec2  f ( x) 
f ( x) f ( x)
 2 2
and
a   f ( x)  a 2   f ( x) 
2
1
 2 2
and 2 1 2
x a a x
n  f ( x )
3.1  f ( x )  f ( x )  dx , for n   1 , and 
 f ( x)
dx
Differentiation Integration
When n   1, When n   1, we have:

n
d 
dx 
n 1
 f ( x)     n  1 f ( x)  f ( x) dx
n 1
n  f ( x )  c
  n  1 f ( x )  f ( x ) 
n
  f ( x)  f ( x)  dx
The integration n 1
results for each of the

 f ( x)   c,
standard forms are n 1
highlighted in c
yellow. where c  and n  1.
n 1

d  f ( x )
 ln  f ( x )    dx  ln f ( x )  c
dx   f ( x)
f ( x )
 , where f ( x)  0 [Refer to Appendix A for
f ( x)
proof.]
Example 3.1.1
Find
(a) x (1  x ) dx, (b)  1 dx.
 
 2x  1
Solution:
1 3
2 32 2 52
(a)  x (1  x ) dx   x 2  x 2 dx  x  x c
3 5
f ( x ) (b)  1 dx  1  2 1
dx  ln 2 x  1  c
of the form  f ( x) dx  
 2x 1 2  (2 x  1) 2
Example 3.1.2
Find
1 1
(a)  2
d x, (b) 
 3
d x.
 ( x  3)  7  4x
Integrands for both Solution:

(a) and (b) can be  1
expressed as (a)  2
dx   1.( x  3)2 dx
n
 ( x  3)
f ( x)  f ( x)  . ( x  3) 2 1
 c
( 2  1)
Notice when f ( x ) is
1
a constant, we can  c
( x  3)
“introduce” this
constant by
1
multiplying it to the  1 1 
(b)  3 dx     4  (7  4 x) 3 dx
existing integrand to  7  4x 4
n
create f ( x)  f ( x) 2
1 (7  4 x) 3
and then dividing by  c
that same constant. 4  2 
 
Note that this cannot 3
be done if f ( x ) is not 3 2
a constant.   (7  4 x) 3  c
8
Important To Note:
(i) Integrals are generally NOT unique, each
depending on the constant. For example, we can
integrate 2 x  1 in two ways:

Method 1:
1
n
of the form  f ( x )  f ( x )  dx  (2 x  1) dx  2  2(2 x  1) dx
2
1  2 x  1
 c
2 2
1
 x2  x   c
4
We need to be Method 2:
familiar with the
standard forms (as   2x  1 dx  2 x dx  1 dx
required in our 2 x2
syllabus) in order to  x  c
2
identify f ( x ) and
 x 2  x  c
f ( x ) in the
Both are correct since c  14  c.
integrands and apply
the relevant
integration results (ii) f ( x ) may be generalised to functions consisting
according to the of polynomial of higher degrees, trigonometric,
standard form exponential or logarithmic terms. In such cases,
recognised. f ( x ) must be present in the integrand before
applying the result.
Example 3.1.3
Find
 3x 2 2
(a)  dx, (b)  sec x tan x dx .
 1  x3
Solution:
(a) Let f ( x)  1  x3  f ( x)  3x2.
1
n
of the form  f ( x )  f ( x )  dx
 3x 2  2
 3 2

 d x   3 x 1  x dx
 1  x3
1
1  x3  2 1
  c  2 1  x3  c
 
1
 1
2
2
(b) Let f ( x)  tan x  f ( x)  sec x.
n
of the form  f ( x )  f ( x )  dx 2
 sec x tan x dx
tan 2 x sec 2 x  1 sec2 x  1
 c  c  c  
2 2 2  2
Alternatively,
Let f ( x)  sec x  f ( x)  sec x tan x.
n
of the form  f ( x )  f ( x )  dx
 sec x tan x dx    sec x tan x  sec x  dx
2
sec2 x
 c
2

Example 3.1.4
Find
x2
(a)  3 dx , (b) e
2x
(1  e 2 x ) 5 dx.
 x 1
Solution:
x2 1  3x2
f ( x ) (a)  3 d x   dx
of the form  f ( x) dx  x 1 3  x3  1
1
 ln x 3  1  c
3
1 5
n
(b)  e (1  e ) dx     2e 2 x 1  e 2 x  dx
2x 2x 5
of the form  f ( x )  f ( x )  dx 2
1 1 6
   1  e 2 x    c
2 6 
1 6
  1  e 2 x   c
12
Example 3.1.5
By expressing each of the following integrals in the form
 f ( x)
 dx, find
 f ( x)
(a)  tan x dx, (b)  sec x dx
(c)  cot x dx, (d)  cos ec x dx.
Solution:
 sin x
(a)  tan x dx   cos x dx
 sin x
f ( x)  
 dx
of the form  f ( x) dx
 cos x
  ln cos x  c  ln sec x  c
  sec x  tan x 
(b)  sec x dx   sec x  sec x  tan x  dx
f ( x )
sec2 x  sec x tan x

of the form  f ( x) dx
 dx
 tan x  sec x
 ln tan x  sec x  c
(c)  cos x
of the form
f ( x )
 f ( x) dx  cot x dx   sin x dx  ln sin x  c
  cos ec x  cot x 
(d)  cos ec x dx   cos ec x  cos ec x  cot x  dx
f ( x )   cos ec2 x  cos ec x cot x
of the form  dx   dx
f ( x) cot x  cos ec x

  ln cot x  cos ec x  c

Important To Note:
(i) The results in Example 3.1.5 can be found in MF26
(Page 4 under Integrals). Below are results
extracted from MF26.
Note that the modulus is not included for

integration results involving “ln” in MF26. Instead,
a range of values of x is given to make the required
expression within the “ln” positive. Hence, we
need to remember to include the modulus
yourself (as seen in the solutions for Example
3.1.5), unless the values of x fall within the given
range as above.
(ii) Some integrands require manipulation before we

can recognise their standard form(s), as seen in the
examples so far. We will see in §4 that when
simple manipulation is insufficient, we may need
to apply the following (not exhaustive) to re-
express the integrands in standard forms:
 Long division
 Partial fraction decomposition of rational
functions
f ( x)
3.2  f ( x ) e dx
d f (x)
dx
 e   f ( x ) e f ( x )  f ( x)e
f ( x)
dx  e f ( x )  c
Example 3.2.1
Find
3 x 5 5 x2 3
(a)  e dx , (b)  7 xe d x,
cos x cos3 x
(c)   sin x  e d x, (d)   sin 3x  e dx.
Solution:
of the form  f   x  ef  x  dx 1 1
(a) e
3 x5
dx  3  e3 x  5 dx  e 3 x 5  c
3 3

f  x
of the form  f   x  e dx 5 x 2 3 7 5 x2 3 7 5 x2 3
(b)  7 xe dx  10  10 x  e dx  10 e  c
cos x cos x cos x
of the form  f   x  ef  x  dx (c)   sin x  e dx      sin x  e dx  e  c
cos3 x 1
(d)   sin 3 x  e dx    3sin 3 x  ecos3 x dx
of the form  f   x  ef  x  dx 3
1
  e cos3 x  c
3
Question To Ponder:
Can we find  ecos x dx by simply “multiplying  sin x to
ecos x and dividing  sin x to create f ( x)ef ( x ) ?
3.3  f ( x )cos  f ( x) dx,  f ( x )sin  f ( x) dx

and  f ( x )sec  f ( x )  dx
2
d
dx 
 sin  f ( x )    f ( x) cos  f ( x )  dx
 f ( x ) cos  f ( x )   sin  f ( x )   c
d
 cos  f ( x )  
 f ( x) sin  f ( x )  dx
dx     f ( x )sin  f ( x)  dx
  f ( x ) sin  f ( x ) 
  cos  f ( x)   c
d 2
dx 
 tan  f ( x )   f ( x)sec  f ( x)  dx
 f ( x ) sec 2  f ( x )   tan  f ( x)   c
Example 3.3.1
Find
2
(a)  6 sec x dx, (b)  2 sin(3 x  1) dx.
Solution:
of the form  f ( x )sec 2  f ( x )  d x 2 2
(a)  6 sec x dx  6 1 sec x dx  6 tan x  c
(b) Let f ( x)  3 x  1  f ( x )  3.
of the form  f ( x ) sin  f ( x)  dx 2
 2 sin(3x  1) dx  3   3 sin(3 x  1) dx
2
  cos(3 x  1)  c
3
Example 3.3.2
Find
(a) 3 4
 2 x sin( x  1) dx, (b) e
x
cos  e x  dx.

Solution:
4 3
(a) Let f ( x)  x  1  f ( x)  4 x .
2
 2 x sin( x  1) dx  4   4 x  sin( x  1) dx
3 4 3 4
of the form  f ( x ) sin  f ( x )  dx
1
  cos( x 4  1)  c
2
x x
(b) Let f ( x)  e  f ( x)  e .
of the form  f ( x ) cos  f ( x )  dx
  e  cos  e  dx  sin  e   c
x x x
 f ( x )  f ( x )
3.4  2 2
dx and 
 dx
 a   f ( x)  a 2   f ( x )
2
 af ( x)
 2 2
dx
 a   f ( x) 
 f ( x) 
d  1  f ( x )    tan 1  c
tan    a 
The highlighted d x   a 
integration results a f ( x )  f ( x )
 2 ,  2 2
dx
are generalised and a  f ( x)
2
 a   f ( x) 
may be more useful
where a denotes a 1  f ( x) 
than the ones  tan 1  c
positive constant. a  a 
provided in MF26.
When f ( x )  x , we have
Hint: You may use
implicit  1 dx
 2
differentiation to get  a  x2
the above result. 1 x
 tan 1    c.
a a
The result for this special
case is given in MF26.
 f ( x )
d  1  f ( x )    dx
sin  2
d x 
  a 2   f ( x) 
 a 
f ( x )  f ( x) 
 ,  sin 1  c
a 2  f ( x) 
2
 a 
where a denotes a
When f ( x )  x , we have
positive constant.
 1
 dx
 a2  x2
Hint: You may use
x
implicit  sin 1    c.
differentiation to get a
the above results. The result for this special
case is given in MF26.

The proof for

  1 1  x
dx  tan 1    c , and
 2 2
a x a a
 1 x
  dx  sin 1    c
 a x2 2
a
can be found in Appendix B.
Example 3.4.1
Find
1  1
(a)  dx (b)  dx.
 4  9 x2  4  3x2
Solution:
(a)  1 dx   1
dx
 2  2
 4  9x 2
 2   3x 

of the form  2
f ( x )
dx 1 3
 a   f ( x) 
2
  2 dx
3  2   3 x 2
1 1  3x 
  tan 1    c
3  2  2 
1  3x 
 tan 1    c
6  2 
Alternatively, we may use the result given in

MF26.
 1 dx   1
dx
  4
 4  9 x2  9 9  x 
2
1 1
of the form 
 2 dx 1
 a  x2   2
dx
9   3   x2
2
Notice that the
workings are slighter 1 1  x 
more cumbersome if   2 tan 1  2   c
9 3   3  
you were to use the
result provided in 1  3x 
 tan 1    c
MF26. 6  2 
 1  1
(b)  dx   dx
 4  3x 2  2
 22   3x 
1  3
 f ( x)   dx
of the form  dx 3 2
 2   3x 
2
 a 2   f ( x) 
2

1  3x 
 sin 1  c
3  2 

Alternatively, we may use the result given in

MF26.
 1  1
 dx   dx
2
 4  3x  3 43  x 2
 1 1  1
of the form  dx   dx
 a2  x2 3 2
Notice that the    2

3
x 2
workings are slighter  x 

more cumbersome if 1
 sin 1  c
you were to use the
result provided in
3
  
 23 

MF26. 1  3x 
 sin 1    c
3  2 
3.5  1 dx and 
1
dx
 2 2  2
 x a  a  x2
The results above are extracted from MF26 (Page

4 under Integrals).
Note (again) that the modulus is not included for

integration results involving “ln” in MF26. Instead,
a range of values of x is given to make the required
expression within the “ln” positive. Hence, we
need to remember to include the modulus
yourself, unless the values of x fall within the
given range as above.
The proof for the above results can be found in

Appendix C.
Example 3.5.1
Find
(a)  1 dx , (b)  1
 2  2
d x.
 x 4  2  3x
Solution:
1 1 1
of the form 
 2 dx (a)   2 dx  
 2 dx
 x  a2  x 4  x  22

1 x2
 ln c
2(2) x  2
1 x2
 ln c
4 x2
(b)  1 dx   1
dx
 
 3 3  x 
2 2
 2  3x 2
1 1
1   dx
of the form  dx 3 2
 2
 a  x2    2
3  x2
2
1 1 3 x
  ln c
3 2 23 2
3 x
1 2  3x
 ln c
2 6 2  3x
§4 Methods to Re-express Integrands in Standard Forms
Key Questions:
☐ How do we integrate expressions involving sin 2 x, cos2 x and tan 2 x ?
☐ How do we integrate expressions involving sin  mx  cos  nx  ,
cos  mx  cos  nx  and sin  mx  sin  nx  ?
☐ How do we integrate algebraic fractions that are not of the standard forms
introduced in Sections 3.1, 3.4 and 3.5?
We have seen from the examples in §3 that integrands

usually require manipulation before we can recognise
their standard form(s). We will see in this section that
when simple manipulation is insufficient, we may need
to apply the following (not exhaustive) to re-express the
integrands in standard forms:
 Long division
 Partial fraction decomposition of rational functions
4.1 Double Angles Formulae and Trigonometric

Identities
Purpose:
To re-express sin 2   , cos 2   and tan 2   in standard
forms illustrated in Section 3.3.

Example 4.1.1
Find
2 2
(a)  sin x dx, (b)  cos x dx ,
2
(c)  tan x dx.
Solution:
(a) In MF26, cos 2 x  1  2sin 2 x
 2sin 2 x  1  cos 2 x
1  cos 2 x
 sin 2 x 
2
Therefore, we have
Apply integration 2 1
result for  sin x dx  2  1  cos 2 x  dx
 f ( x) cos  f ( x)  dx. 1 1 
  x  sin 2 x   c
2 2 
x 1
  sin 2 x  c.
2 4
(b) In MF26, cos 2 x  2 cos 2 x  1

 2 cos 2 x  1  cos 2 x
1  cos 2 x
 cos 2 x 
2
Therefore, we have
2 1
Apply integration  cos x dx  2   cos 2 x  1 dx
result for
11 
 f ( x) cos  f ( x)  dx.   sin 2 x  x   c
22 
1 x
 sin 2 x   c.
4 2
(c) Since sec2 x  1  tan2 x (NOT in MF26)

Apply integration  tan 2 x  sec2 x  1
result for Therefore, we have
2 2
 f ( x )sec  f ( x )  dx.
2
 tan x dx   sec x  1 dx
 tan x  x  c.
Question To Ponder:
Can we apply similar strategies to find  cot 2 x dx ?
4.2 Factor Formulae

Purpose:
To re-express sin( mx ) cos( nx ) , sin( mx ) sin( nx ) and
cos(mx ) cos( nx ) in standard forms illustrated in Section
3.3.

The following formulae are known as the factor

formulae and are provided in MF26:
By substituting A  12 (P  Q) and B  12 (P  Q), we

obtain P  A  B and Q  A  B .
We can then rewrite the above formulae to make them

more relevant to our purpose:
Example 4.2.1
Find
(a)  cos 3 x cos x dx, (b)  4 sin 3 x cos x dx,
(c)  sin 4 x cos 4 x dx.
Solution:
1
(a)  cos3x cos x dx   2  cos 4 x  cos 2 x  dx
Apply integration
11 1 
result for   sin 4 x  sin 2 x   c
 f ( x) cos  f ( x)  dx. 24 2 
1 1
 sin 4 x  sin 2 x  c
8 4
(b)  4 sin 3x cos x dx  2 2 sin 3x cos x dx

Apply integration  2  sin 4 x  sin 2 x  dx
result for
 1 1 
 f ( x) sin  f ( x)  dx.  2   cos 4 x  cos 2 x   c
 4 2 
1
  cos 4 x  cos 2 x  c
2

1
(c)  sin 4 x cos 4 x dx  2  2sin 4 x cos 4 x dx
1
 sin 8 x dx
Apply integration 2
result for
1 1 
 f ( x) sin  f ( x)  dx.    cos8 x   c
2 8 
1
  cos8 x  c
16
Important To Note:
In (c), we may also see it as applying the double angle
formula (i.e. sin 8 x  2sin 4 x cos 4 x ) since the angles are
both 4x. In that way the integrand can be re-expressed
1
more directly as sin 8 x , compared to using the relevant
2
factor formula.
Example 4.2.2
Find
(a)  sin x sin 4 x dx, (b)  sin 2 x cos 3x dx.
Solution:
(a)  sin x sin 4 x dx   sin 4 x sin x dx
Apply integration 1
 cos 5 x  cos3x dx
result for 2
 f ( x) cos  f ( x)  dx. 11 1 
   sin 5 x  sin 3 x   c
25 3 
1 1
 sin 3 x  sin 5x  c
6 10
(b)  sin 2 x cos 3x dx   cos 3x sin 2 x dx

1
Apply integration 
  sin 5x  sin x  dx
2
result for
1 1 
 f ( x) sin  f ( x)  dx.    cos5 x  ( cos x)   c
2 5 
1 1
 cos x  cos5 x  c
2 10
Important To Note:
Observe that we place the trigonometric function with the
“larger” angle in front, before applying the factor formula,
as illustrated in Example 4.2.2.
Question To Ponder:
Why is it “better” to apply the factor formula by placing
the “larger” angle in front?

4.3 Long Division

f ( x)
If the integrand involves a rational function that is
g( x )
improper, i.e. degree of f(x)  degree of g(x), then we first
carry out long division, before further attempts (where
necessary) to recognise standard forms.
Purpose:
To re-express rational functions in standard forms
illustrated in Sections 3.1, 3.4 and 3.5.
Example 4.3.1
5 x3
Find 
 2 dx.
 x 1
Solution:
3
 5x dx  5 x  x dx
Apply the  x 2  1   by long division 
  x2  1
integration result for
1 1 
f ( x)
d x.  5  x 2  ln x 2  1   c
 f ( x) 2 2 
5 2 5
 x  ln  x 2  1  c. *
2 2
Question To Ponder:
* Why can we remove the modulus in the final answer?
4.4 Partial Fraction Decomposition of Rational

Functions
Purpose:
The decomposition of a rational function into its partial
fractions can produce an integrand comprising simpler
rational functions that can be easily integrated by
recognising standard forms illustrated in Sections 3.1, 3.4
and 3.5.
Before we carry out any partial fraction decomposition,

we need to ensure that the rational function must be
proper and that the denominator of the rational function is
factorisable.
The partial fraction decomposition of rational functions of

the following forms are given in MF26.

Example 4.4.1
Find
1
(a)  2 dx
 x 4
(b)  1
 2
d x,
 2 x  3x  9
 9x2  5x  21
(c)  dx,
  3x  2   x 2
 9 
4 3 2
 x  3x  x  2 x  1 dx.
(d) 
 x3  3x2  4
Solution:
1 1
(a)  1 dx   4  4 dx
Apply the  
 x2  4  x2 x2
integration result for 1 1
f ( x)
d x.
 ln x  2  ln x  2  c
 f ( x) 4 4
1 x2
 ln c
4 x2
Recall in Example 3.5.1(a), we use a relevant result

given in MF26 to integrate directly. Both methods
yield the same answer.
 1  1
(b)  2 dx   dx
 2 x  3x  9  (2 x  3)( x  3)
2 1

 9  9 dx
 2x  3 x  3
1 2 1
Apply the    dx
9  2x  3 x  3
f ( x) 1 1
 f ( x) dx.  ln 2 x  3  ln x  3  c
9 9

(c) By decomposing into partial fractions,

9 x 2  5 x  21 A Bx  C
  2
3 x  2   x  9  3x  2 x  9
2
 9 x 2  5 x  21  A  x 2  9   (3 x  2)( Bx  C )
Substituting x  23 on both sides,

10
2
9  23   5  23   21  A    9  A  4  9 21  3
2
3
2
4
9
3

21  3  0 2  9   (2)(C )  C  3
9  5  21  3 12  9   (3  2)( B  3)  B  2
Therefore,
 9 x 2  5 x  21
 dx
  3x  2   x  9
2
3 2x  3
  2 dx
 3x  2 x  9
Apply the 3 2x 3
  2  2 2 dx ("split" further)
integration results  3x  2 x  9 x  3
for f ( x) dx and
 f ( x)  x
 ln 3 x  2  ln  x 2  9   tan 1    c
f ( x)
dx.
3
 a2  2
 f ( x)   x
or ln  3 x  2   x 2  9   tan 1    c
3
x 4  3x3  x 2  2 x  1
(d)
x3  3x 2  4
x2  2 x  1
 x 3 (by long division)
x  3x 2  4
x2  2 x  1
 x (factorise denominator)
 x  1 x  2  2
x2  2 x  1
By decomposing into partial
 x  1 x  22
fractions,
x2  2x 1 A B C
2
  
 x  1 x  2  x  1 x  2 ( x  2) 2
 x 2  2x 1  A( x  2)2  B( x  2)( x 1)  C( x  1)
Substituting x   1 on both sides,

  12  2   1  1  A(  1  2) 2  A  4
9


1
2 2  2  2   1  C (2  1)  C 
3
4 1 5
1 (  2) 2  B (  2)(1)  (1)  B 
9 3 9
Therefore,
4 3 2
 x  3x  x  2 x  1
 dx
 x3  3x2  4
 x2  2x 1
 x dx
  x  1 x  2  2
Apply the  4 5 1
integration results  x   dx
 9  x  1 9  x  2  3( x  2) 2
for f ( x) dx and
 f ( x) x2 4 5 1
n
  ln x  1  ln x  2  c
 f (x)  f (x)  dx. 2 9 9 3 x  2
x2 1 1 4 5
or   ln  x  1  x  2   c
2 3 x  2  9
4.5 Completing the Square

Purpose:
For algebraic fractions with a quadratic denominator that
cannot be factorised or contains a surd, we may complete
the square and re-express the integrand in standard forms
illustrated in Sections 3.4 and 3.5.
Example 4.5.1
Find  1
 2
dx .
 2 x  3x  9
Solution:
 1  1
 2 dx   2
dx
 2 x  3x  9  2  x  34   818
Apply the 1 1
integration result for   dx
2   x  4 2   94  2
3
f ( x)
 2
dx
 f ( x)   a2

1 1
 9 ln
 x  34   94  c

1
ln
f ( x)  a
 c. 2 2  4   x  43   49
2a f ( x)  a
1 x  32 1 2x  3
 ln  c  ln c
This is a more 9 x3 9 2( x  3)
generalised version
of the result for Recall in Example 4.4.1(b), we found this integral using
1 given in a different approach. Are the two answers from the
 x 2  a 2 dx
different methods equivalent?
MF26.

Example 4.5.2
Find
1 1
(a)  d x, (b) 
 2 dx.
 4x  3  x2  x  2x  5
Solution:
Apply the  1  1
integration result for (a)  dx   dx
f ( x)  4x  3  x2  1  ( x  2) 2
 dx.
a2   f ( x) 
2
 sin 1  x  2  c
 1  1
Apply the (b)  2
 x  2x  5
dx   2
 ( x  1)  4
dx
f ( x) 1  x 1 
 a2  2
dx.  tan 1  c
 f ( x)  2  2 
§5 Integration by Substitution
Key Questions:
☐ When do we do integration by substitution?
☐ What is the purpose of carrying out substitution in integration?
☐ Given a substitution, what are the steps involved to integrate?
We have seen in §3 that when integrands are in easily

recognisable standard forms, we are able to apply the
respective integration results to integrate directly.
In §4, we are introduced a (non-exhaustive) list of

methods to help us re-express integrands (which are not
in easily recognisable standard forms) in standard forms
before we apply the relevant results in §3.
In cases where the integrands are not in easily

recognisable standard forms and the methods in §4 are
not applicable, integration by substitution may be used.
In the syllabus, the substitution to be used will be
given in the question if we are expected to integrate
using a substitution.
When we “integrate by substitution”, we are basically

simplifying the integrand to a standard form by means
of a suitable (given) substitution, i.e. change of variable.
The following example illustrates the steps involved in
the substitution method.

5.1 Indefinite Integral by the Method of Substitution
Example 5.1
By using the substitution u  x 2 , where x  0 , find
 x
 4
dx .
 1 x
Solution:
Procedure Explanation
In Step 1, we may Step Let u  x 2  x  u . Differentiate
differentiate w.r.t. to 1: dx 1 x u with
the original variable Then  . respect to the new
du 2 u
depending on which variable, u.
is easier to do. Step Replace all the
 x dx
2:  terms in ‘x’ by
 1  x4
‘u’.
 
u 1  Replace
    du
2 u  ‘  ...  dx ’ by
4

 1 u
   
dx 
‘ 
  ...  d u ’.
  du 
1 1 Simplify the
  du
2  1 u2 resulting
integrand.
Step 1 Integrate the
 tan 1  u   c
3: 2 integrand with
respect to u.
This integrand
should be easier
to integrate (if
not, it defeats the
purpose of
carrying out the
substitution).
Step 1 Replace all the
 tan  1  x 2   c
4: 2 terms in ‘u’ back
by the original
variable ‘x’.
Example 5.2
Use the substitution provided to find the following
indefinite integrals.
 x  1 dx u  x  2
(a)  , where x  2,
 x x2
2
 x
(b)  2 2
dx, x  tan  where  π    π .
 (1  x ) 2 2

Solution:
(a) Let u  x  2  x  u 2  2. Then d x  2 u .
du
2
 x 1  (u  2)  1
 dx   2 (2u ) du
 x x2  (u  2)u
1
 2
 1 2 du
 u 2
 1 u 
 2u  tan 1 c
 2 2
x2
 2 x  2  2 tan 1 c
2
(b) Let x  tan  . Then d x  sec 2  .

d
2 2
 x  tan 
 2 2
dx   2 2
 sec2  d
 (1  x )  (1  tan  )
tan 2 
 4  sec  d
2
 sec 
  sin 2  d
1
Refer to triangle  1  cos 2 d

below to convert 2

back to terms in x.   1 sin 2  c
Note that 2 4
sin  cos  1
   sin  cos   c
 1
 
 sin tan x cos tan x
1
 2
is not considered as a 1 x 
  tan 1 x  c
simplified answer. 2 1  x2 
Hence we need to
construct a right-
angled triangle as x
shown on the right to
do the replacement of
the original variable. 1
Important To Note:
The use of right-angled triangle (as seen in Example
5.2(b)) is useful when the given substitution is a
trigonometric function.
Example 5.3
Use the substitution provided to find the following
indefinite integrals.
 1
(a)  dx , x  1 where x  0,
2 u
 x 4x  9
5 2
(b)  sin x cos x dx, u  cos x

Solution:
(a) 1 . Then d x 1
Let x   2.
u du u

 1 1  1 
 dx   (u )   2  du
 x 4 x2  9  4  u 
 9
u2

1
 1
    du
 4  9u  u  2

u2
 1
  du
 4  9u 2
1 3
  du
3 2 2   3u 
2
1  3u 
  sin 1    c
3  2 
1  3 
  sin 1    c
3  2x 
(b) Let u  cos x. Then du   sin x  d x   1 .

dx du sin x
5 2
 sin x cos x dx
4 2
  sin x cos x  sin x dx
2
  1  u  u  1 du
2 2
  1  2u  u  u du2 4 2
   u  2u  u  du
2 4 6
1 2 1 
   u3  u5  u7   c
3 5 7 
1 2 1
  cos3 x  cos5 x  cos7 x  c
3 5 7
Question To Ponder:
In Example 5.3(b), why do we differentiate the
substitution with respect to x instead of u (which is
contrary to the explanation in Step 1 of Example 5.1)?

5.2 Definite Integral by the Method of Substitution
Recall in §2, we learn that definite integrals are evaluated

as follows:
b b
 f ( x )dx   F( x) a  F(b)  F(a )
a
In the next two examples, we will see how to evaluate

definite integrals when done by substitution.
In general, the steps are very similar to those involving

indefinite integral using the method of substitution. The
only differences are highlighted in the following
example.
Example 5.4
Use the substitution u  x 2 to find the definite integral
0
 x
 dx .
1 1  x 4
Solution:
du Remark:
Let u  x 2 . Then  2x .
This is an additional step to
dx
change the limits.
When x = 0, u  02  0 ;
x = – 1, u  (1)2  1 . Remark:
The order in which the
limits appear (lower and
upper) must be preserved
0
0 after substitution is carried
 x 1 1
 4
dx    2 x dx out, even if this results in
 1 1  x 2  1 1   x 2  2 the lower limit being larger
than the upper limit.
1 0 1
  du
2 1 1  u 2
1 0 Remark:
  tan 1 u 
2 1 There is NO need to
1 substitute the original
  tan 1 0  tan 1 1 variable x back after the
2
integration has been
1 
 0   carried out. We evaluate
2 4
the definite integral with
 the new limits directly.

8

Example 5.5
Use the substitution u  x 1 to find the definite
2
integral  x x 1 dx .
1
Solution:
Let u  x 1  u  x 1  d x  2 u .
2
du
When x = 1, u = 0 , and when x = 2, u = 1
2 1
 x x  1 dx    u 2  1 u  2u  du
1 0
1
   2u 4  2u 2  du
0
1
2 2 
  u5  u3 
5 3 0
16

15
Important To Note:
We may still use a GC to check our final numerical
answers (in the case of definite integrals) even if the
explicit use of GC is not allowed.
§6 Integration by Parts
Key Questions:
☐ When do we do integration by parts?
☐ What does it mean to integrate by parts?
☐ How do we choose which part of the integrand is to be differentiated and
which is to be integrated?
In cases where the integrands are not in easily

recognisable standard forms, the methods in §4 are not
applicable AND no substitution is given in the question,
integration by parts may be used.
Another possible tell-tale sign that we may need to

integrate by parts is when the integrand is a product of
two functions in x.

Let u and v be two functions in x.
By product rule,
d dv du
(uv )  u v .
dx dx dx
Integrating w.r.t. x, we get

dv du
uv  
u dx  
v d x.
 dx  dx
Re-arranging, we get
 u d v d x  uv   v d u d x . (*)
 
 dx  dx
Important To Note:
The success of doing integration by parts often depends
on the choice of u and dv . Notice from the formula (*)
dx
that we need to choose one “part” to differentiate and
one “part” to integrate.
This means we need to be conversant with the

integration results related to the standard forms (in §3)
in order to make good choices.
Type 1
If only one of the two functions of the integrand is
integrable, then integrate the one that is integrable.
Example 6.1
Find
3 1
(a)  x ln x dx, (b)  x tan x dx.
Solution:
Differentiate ln x (a) x3 ln x dx
since we cannot

integrate it. x4   x4  1 
 ln x      dx
4  4  x 
1 4 1
 x ln x   x3 dx
4 4
1 4 1
 x ln x  x 4  c
4 16

1
(b)  x tan x dx
1
Differentiate tan x
since we cannot x2   x2   1 
 tan 1 x      2 
dx
integrate it. 2   2   1 x 
1 2 1 x2
 x tan 1 x    dx
2 2  1  x2
1 1 1
 x 2 tan 1 x    1 dx
2 2  1  x2
1 1
 x 2 tan 1 x   x  tan 1 x   c
2 2
1 1
 ( x 2  1) tan 1 x  x  c
2 2
Example 6.2 (Definite Integral)

4
Evaluate the integral  x ln x dx .
1
Solution:
4 4
4  x2   x2  1 
Observe how the 1
x ln x dx   ln x   
2
  dx
1 1 2  x 
placement of limits in
the case of definite  42 12  1 4
integrals.   ln 4  ln1   x dx
2 2  2 1
4
1  x2 
 8ln 4   
2  2 1
1  42 12  15
 8ln 4      8ln 4 
2 2 2 4
Important To Note:
It is incorrect to write
4
4  x2 2
 x 1 
 x ln x dx   ln x     dx  .
1
2  2  x  1
Type 2
If both functions of the integrand are integrable
separately, then the one chosen to be differentiated
would ultimately yield a constant if differentiated a
sufficient number of times.
Example 6.3
Find
2 3x
(a)  x cos x dx , (b) x e dx .

Differentiate x since Solution:

it will yield a (a)
constant after
 x cos x dx  x sin x   sin x dx
 x sin x  cos x  c
differentiation. 2 3x
(b)  x e dx
1 2 3x 1 3x
 xe 
 e  2 x  dx
3 3
1 2
 x 2 e3 x   x e 3 x dx
3 3
1 2 1 1 3x 
 x 2 e3 x   xe 3 x    e dx 
3 3 3 3 
1 2 3x 2 3x
 x 2 e3 x  xe  e c
3 9 27
Example 6.4
Find  x sin x dx . Hence find  x sin x ln  sec x  tan x  dx .
Differentiate x since Solution:

it will yield a
constant after
 x sin x d x   x cos x   cos x d x
differentiation.   x cos x  sin x  c '
Hence,
Differentiate  x sin x ln sec x  tan x  dx
ln  sec x  tan x     x cos x  sin x  ln  sec x  tan x 
since we cannot sec x tan x  sec 2 x
integrate it. 
   x cos x  sin x  dx
 sec x  tan x
Make use of the    x cos x  sin x  ln  sec x  tan x     x  tan x dx
result just above to
1 2
integrate x sin x .    x cos x  sin x  ln  sec x  tan x   x  ln cos x  c.
2
Type 3
If both functions of the integrand are integrable
separately and neither yields a constant on repeated
differentiation, then it does not matter which
function we choose to differentiate.
Example 6.5
Find  e x cos x d x.

Solution:
Differentiate cos x
 e cos x dx  e cos x   e   sin x  dx
x x x
in this case.
= e x cos x   e x sin x dx
 e x cos x  e x sin x   e x cos x dx 

 2 e x cos x dx  e x cos x  e x sin x  c
x 1
 e cos x dx  e x  cos x  sin x   c,
2
1
where c  c
2
Important To Note:
(i) When applying the formula for integration by
parts repeatedly for the same integral, the choice
of the “part” to integrate must be consistent. This
is illustrated in the above example where the
“part” chosen to be integrated is e x in both
instances of applying formula for integration by
parts.
(ii) In the above example, we may also integrate

cos x and differentiate e x .
(iii) When doing integration by parts, we may add a

constant of integration after the completion of all
the necessary integration, i.e. we do not need to
put a constant of integration after each
integration.
Type 4
Integrands that are not products but which are
clearly easier to differentiate than to integrate. Then
introduce ‘1’ as a second part of the integrand and
integrate ‘1’.
Example 6.6
Find
(a)  ln x dx , (b)  sin  ln x  dx .
Solution:
(a)  ln x dx  1 ln x dx
 1
 x ln x   x   dx
 x
 x ln x  x  c

(b)
 sin  ln x  dx   1.sin  ln x  dx
 1
 x sin  ln x    x cos  ln x     dx
  x
 x sin  ln x    1.cos  ln x  dx
  1 
 x sin  ln x    x cos  ln x    x   sin  ln x     dx 
  x 
 x sin  ln x   x cos  ln x    sin  ln x  dx
 2 sin  ln x  dx  x sin  ln x   x cos  ln x   c

x
  sin  ln x  dx  sin  ln x   cos  ln x    c
2
Example 6.7
Find  tan 1 x dx .
Solution:
1   1 
 tan x dx  x tan 1 x   x  2 
dx
  1 x 
1 2x
 x tan 1 x    dx
2  1  x2
1
 x tan 1 x  ln 1  x2   c
2

 f ( x)
Appendix A: Proof for  dx  ln f( x)  c (in Section 3.1)
 f( x)
We first prove that
 1 d x  ln x  c

 x
Clearly, x  0 (for the integrand). So,
 d
d  dx  ln x  , x  0
dx
 ln x    d
  ln( x) , x  0
 dx
 1
 x , x  0

 1 , x  0
  x
1
 , x0
x
1
Therefore, 
 dx  ln x  c for all non-zero values of x.
 x
As a consequence,
d 1  f ( x)
dx
 ln f ( x)  
f ( x)
 f ( x)   dx  ln f ( x)  c .
 f ( x)

Appendix B: Proof for results in MF26 (in Section 3.4)
d 1
Recall that
dx
 tan 1 x  
1  x2
. Therefore, by recognising standard forms,
 1 dx   1
dx
 2 
 a 1  a 
2 2 2
a x x
2
 1
 dx
 a  a 1 x 2
   a  
1 1
a
  dx
a  1   ax 2
1 1  x 
 tan    c
a a
d 1
Recall that
dx
 sin1 x   . Therefore, by recognising standard forms,
1  x2
 1  1
 2 2 dx  

dx
 a x 2 2
 a 1  ax2  
 1
 2
dx
 a 1  ax 2
 1
a

 dx
2
 1   ax 
 x
 sin 1    c
a

Appendix C: Proof for results in MF26 (in Section 3.5)
 1 
dx  
1
dx
 2 2
 x a  ( x  a )( x  a )
1 1
 2 a  2 a dx (by decomposing into partial fractions)
 xa xa
1
=  ln x  a  ln x  a   c
2a
1 xa
 ln  c (by law of logarithms)
2a x  a
 1  1
 2 2 dx   dx
 a x  (a  x)(a  x)
1 1
 2 a  2a dx (by decomposing into partial fractions)
 a x ax
1
=  ln a  x  ln a  x   c
2a
1 a x
 ln  c (by law of logarithms)
2a a  x

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National Junior College Mathematics Department

National Junior College

As introduced in O-level, integration is the reverse process of differentiation. In this

§1 Integration as the Reverse of Differentiation (Anti-differentiation)

1.1 Indefinite Integrals

Observe that the integral of f(x) is not unique, i.e., there

2022 – 2023 / H2 Maths / Integration Techniques / Notes Page 1 of 35

In general, for any constant c,

The process of finding the possible integrals of f(x) is

The indefinite integral of f ( x ) is written as  f ( x ) dx . It

In the next section, we will see definite integrals that are

1.2 Some Properties of Indefinite Integrals

(a)  k f ( x) dx = k  f ( x ) dx , for any constant k

The methods of integration that will be covered in this

(ii) integration by substitution (in §5);

(iii) integration by parts (in §6).

In the case of (i), when integrands are NOT recognisable

2022 – 2023 / H2 Maths / Integration Techniques / Notes Page 2 of 35

§2 Evaluating Definite Integrals

In §1, we saw that for indefinite integrals,

Extending the above concept, we have that for a definite

This is essentially the difference in values of its anti-

2022 – 2023 / H2 Maths / Integration Techniques / Notes Page 3 of 35

Method 2: Using an analytical method

2022 – 2023 / H2 Maths / Integration Techniques / Notes Page 4 of 35

§3 Integration by Recognising Standard Forms

When n   1, When n   1, we have:

2022 – 2023 / H2 Maths / Integration Techniques / Notes Page 5 of 35

Integrands for both Solution:

2022 – 2023 / H2 Maths / Integration Techniques / Notes Page 6 of 35

2022 – 2023 / H2 Maths / Integration Techniques / Notes Page 7 of 35

2022 – 2023 / H2 Maths / Integration Techniques / Notes Page 8 of 35

Note that the modulus is not included for

(ii) Some integrands require manipulation before we

2022 – 2023 / H2 Maths / Integration Techniques / Notes Page 9 of 35

3.3  f ( x )cos  f ( x) dx,  f ( x )sin  f ( x) dx

2022 – 2023 / H2 Maths / Integration Techniques / Notes Page 10 of 35

2022 – 2023 / H2 Maths / Integration Techniques / Notes Page 11 of 35

The proof for

Alternatively, we may use the result given in

2022 – 2023 / H2 Maths / Integration Techniques / Notes Page 12 of 35

Alternatively, we may use the result given in

Notice that the    2

workings are slighter  x 

The results above are extracted from MF26 (Page

Note (again) that the modulus is not included for

The proof for the above results can be found in

2022 – 2023 / H2 Maths / Integration Techniques / Notes Page 13 of 35

§4 Methods to Re-express Integrands in Standard Forms

We have seen from the examples in §3 that integrands

4.1 Double Angles Formulae and Trigonometric

2022 – 2023 / H2 Maths / Integration Techniques / Notes Page 14 of 35

(b) In MF26, cos 2 x  2 cos 2 x  1

(c) Since sec2 x  1  tan2 x (NOT in MF26)

4.2 Factor Formulae

2022 – 2023 / H2 Maths / Integration Techniques / Notes Page 15 of 35

The following formulae are known as the factor

By substituting A  12 (P  Q) and B  12 (P  Q), we

We can then rewrite the above formulae to make them

(b)  4 sin 3x cos x dx  2 2 sin 3x cos x dx

2022 – 2023 / H2 Maths / Integration Techniques / Notes Page 16 of 35

(b)  sin 2 x cos 3x dx   cos 3x sin 2 x dx

2022 – 2023 / H2 Maths / Integration Techniques / Notes Page 17 of 35