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section 6.1
Indefinite integration
Objectives

At the end of this section you should be able to:

Recognize the notation for indefinite integration.

Write down the integrals of simple power and exponential functions.

Integrate functions of the form af(x) + bg(x).

Find the total cost function given any marginal cost function.

Find the total revenue function given any marginal revenue function.

Find the consumption and savings functions given either the marginal propen-
sity to consume or the marginal propensity to save.

Throughout mathematics there are many pairs of operations which cancel each other out and
take you back to where you started. Perhaps the most obvious pair is multiplication and divi-
sion. If you multiply a number by a non-zero constant, k, and then divide by k you end up with
the number you first thought of. This situation is described by saying that the two operations
are inverses of each other. In calculus, the inverse of differentiation is called integration.
Suppose that you are required to find a function, F(x), which differentiates to
f(x) = 3x2
Can you guess what F(x) is in this case? Given such a simple function it is straightforward to
write down the answer by inspection. It is
F(x) = x3
because
F′(x) = 3x2 = f(x) ✓
as required.
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424 Integration

As a second example, consider

f(x) = x7
Can you think of a function, F(x), which differentiates to this? Recall that when power
functions are differentiated the power decreases by 1, so it makes sense to do the opposite here
and to try
F(x) = x8
Unfortunately, this does not quite work out, because it differentiates to
8x7
which is eight times too big. This suggests that we try
F(x) = 1/8 x 8
which does work because
F′(x) = 8/8 x7 = x7 = f(x) ✓
In general, if F′(x) = f(x) then F(x) is said to be the integral (sometimes called the anti-
derivative or primitive) of f(x) and is written

F(x) =
f(x)dx
In this notation

3x dx = x
2 3

and

x dx = / x
7 1
8
8

Example

Find

x1 dx
4

Solution
1
Writing in the form x− 4 suggests that we try
x4
F(x) = x−3
which gives
F ′(x) = −3x− 4.
This is (−3) times too big, so

x1 dx = − 13 x
4
−3
=−
1
3x3
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6.1 • Indefinite integration 425

Here is a problem for you to try. Do not let the notation

dx
put you off. It is merely an instruction for you to think of a function that differentiates to what-
ever is squashed between the integral sign ‘∫’ and dx. If you get stuck, try adding 1 on to the
power. Differentiate your guess and if it does not quite work out then go back and try again,
adjusting the coefficient accordingly.

Practice Problem

1 Find

(a)
2xdx (b)
4x dx

3
(c)
100x dx
99
(d)
x dx
3
(e)
x dx
18

In Problem 1(a) you probably wrote

2xdx = x 2

However, there are other possibilities. For example, both of the functions
x2 + 6 and x2 − 59
differentiate to 2x, because constants differentiate to zero. In fact, we can add any constant, c,
to x2 to obtain a function that differentiates to 2x. Hence

2xdx = x + c
2

The arbitrary constant, c, is called the constant of integration. In general, if F(x) is any function
that differentiates to f(x) then so does
F(x) + c
Hence

f(x)dx = F(x) + c
In Problem 1 you used guesswork to find various integrals. In theory most integrals can be
worked out in this way. However, considerable ingenuity (and luck!) may be required when
integrating complicated functions. It is possible to develop various rules similar to those of dif-
ferentiation, which we discussed in Chapter 4, although even then we sometimes have to resort
to sheer trickery. It is not our intention to plod through each rule as we did in Chapter 4, for
the simple reason that they are rarely needed in economics. However, it is worthwhile showing
you a direct way of integrating simple functions such as
2x − 3x2 + 10x3 and x − e2x + 5
We begin by finding general formulae for

x dx
n
and
e mx
dx
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426 Integration

To integrate f(x) = x n an obvious first guess is

F(x) = x n +1
This gives
F′(x) = (n + 1)x n
which is n + 1 times too big. This suggests that we try again with
1 n+1
F(x) = x
n+1
which checks out because
n+1 n
F′(x) = x = x n = f(x) ✓
n+1
Hence

x dx = n +1 1 x
n n+1
+c

To integrate a power function you simply add 1 to the power and divide by the number you
get. This formula holds whenever n is positive, negative, a whole number or a fraction. There
is just one exception to the rule, when n = −1. The formula cannot be used to integrate
1
x
because it is impossible to divide by zero. An alternative result is therefore required in this case.
We know from Chapter 4 that the natural logarithm function
ln x
differentiates to give
1
x
and so

1x dx = ln x + c
The last basic integral that we wish to determine is

e mx
dx

In Section 4.8 we showed that to differentiate an exponential function all we need to do is to

multiply by the coefficient of x. To integrate we do exactly the opposite and divide by the
coefficient of x, so

e mx
dx =
1 mx
m
e +c

It is easy to check that this is correct, because if

1 mx
F(x) = e
m
then
m mx
F′(x) = e = emx ✓
m
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6.1 • Indefinite integration 427

Example

Find

(a)
x dx 6
(b)
x1 dx
2 (c)
x dx (d)
e dx
2x

Solution
The formula

x dx = n +1 1 x
n n+1
+c

can be used to find the first three integrals by substituting particular values for n.
(a) Putting n = 6 gives

x dx = 7 x + c
6 1 7

(b) Putting n = −2 gives

x1 dx =
x dx = −11 x
2
−2 −1 1
+c=− +c
x
(c) Putting n = 1/2 gives

x dx =
x 1/ 2
dx =
1 3/2
3/2
2
x + c = x 3/2 + c
3
(d) To find

e dx
2x

we put m = 2 into the formula

e mx
dx =
1 mx
m
e +c

to get

e dx = 12 e
2x 2x
+c

Practice Problem

2 Find

(a)
x dx
4
(b)
x1 dx
3 (c)
x1/3
dx (d)
e dx3x
(e)
1dx
(f)
xdx (g)
dx
1
x
[Hint: in parts (b), (e) and (f) note that 1/x3 = x −3, 1 = x0 and x = x1 respectively.]

In Section 4.2 we described three rules of differentiation known as the constant, sum and
difference rules. Given that integration is the inverse operation, these three rules also apply
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428 Integration

whenever we integrate a function. The integral of a constant multiple of a function is obtained

by integrating the function and multiplying by the constant. The integral of the sum (or dif-
ference) of two functions is obtained by integrating the functions separately and adding (or
subtracting). These three rules can be combined into the single rule:

[af(x) + bg(x)]dx = a
f(x)dx + b
g(x)dx

This enables us to integrate an expression ‘term by term’, as the following example
demonstrates.

Example

Find

(a)
(2x 2
− 4x6)dx (b)
AC 7e −x
+ D dx
2
xF
(c)
(5x + 3x + 2)dx
2

Solution

(a)
(2x − 4x )dx = 2
x dx − 4
x dx

2 6 2 6

Putting n = 2 and n = 6 into

x dx = n +1 1 x
n n+1

gives

x dx = 13 x
2 3
and
x dx = 17 x
6 7

Hence

(2x − 4x )dx = 23 x − 47 x
2 6 3 7

Finally, we add an arbitrary constant to get

(2x − 4x )dx = 23 x − 47 x + c
2 6 3 7

As a check:
2 4
if F(x) = x3 − x7 + c then F′(x) = 2x2 − 4x6 ✓
3 7

(b)
AC 7e −x 2D 1


+ F dx = 7 e−xdx + 2 dx
x x

Now

e mx
dx =
1 mx
m
e

so putting m = −1 gives

e dx = −11 e
−x −x
= −e−x
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6.1 • Indefinite integration 429

Also, we know that the reciprocal function integrates to the natural logarithm function, so

1x dx = ln x
Hence

AC 7e −x
+ DF dx = −7e−x + 2 ln x
2
x
Finally, we add an arbitrary constant to get

AC 7e −x
+ DF dx = −7e−x + 2 ln x + c
2
x
As a check:
2
if F(x) = −7e−x + 2 ln x + c then F ′(x) = 7e−x + ✓
x
(c)
(5x + 3x + 2)dx = 5
x dx + 3
xdx + 2
1dx
2 2

Putting n = 2, 1 and 0 into

x dx = n +1 1 x
n n+1

gives

x dx = 13x ,
xdx = 12 x ,
1dx = x

2 3 2

Hence

(5x + 3x + 2)dx = 53 x + 32 x + 2x
2 3 2

Finally, we add an arbitrary constant to get

(5x + 3x + 2)dx = 53x + 32x + 2x + c

2 3 2

As a check:
5 3
if F(x) = x3 + x2 + 2x + c then F′(x) = 5x2 + 3x + 2 ✓
3 2

Advice

We have written out the solution to this example in detail to show you exactly how
integration is performed. With practice you will probably find that you can just write
the answer down in a single line of working, although it is always a good idea to check (at
least in your head, if not on paper), by differentiating your answer, that you have not
made any mistakes.

The technique of integration that we have investigated produces a function of x. In the next
section a different type of integration is discussed which produces a single number as the end
result. For this reason we use the word indefinite to describe the type of integration considered
here to distinguish it from the definite integration in Section 6.2.
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430 Integration

Practice Problem

3 Find the indefinite integrals

(a)
(2x − 4x )dx

3
(b)
AC 10x + x5 DF dx
4
2 (c)
(7x − 3x + 2)dx
2

In Section 4.3 we described several applications of differentiation to economics. Starting

with any basic economic function, we can differentiate to obtain the corresponding marginal
function. Integration allows us to work backwards and to recover the original function from
any marginal function. For example, by integrating a marginal cost function the total cost func-
tion is found. Likewise, given a marginal revenue function, integration enables us to determine
the total revenue function, which in turn can be used to find the demand function. These ideas
are illustrated in the following example, which also shows how the constant of integration can
be given a specific numerical value in economic problems.

Example

(a) A firm’s marginal cost function is

MC = Q2 + 2Q + 4
Find the total cost function if the fixed costs are 100.
(b) The marginal revenue function of a monopolistic producer is
MR = 10 − 4Q
Find the total revenue function and deduce the corresponding demand equation.
(c) Find an expression for the consumption function if the marginal propensity to consume is given by
0.1
MPC = 0.5 +
Y
and consumption is 85 when income is 100.

Solution
(a) We need to find the total cost from the marginal cost function
MC = Q2 + 2Q + 4
Now
d(TC)
MC =
dQ
so

TC = MCdQ

=
(Q + 2Q + 4)dQ
2

Q3
= + Q2 + 4Q + c
3
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6.1 • Indefinite integration 431

The fixed costs are given to be 100. These are independent of the number of goods produced and repre-
sent the costs incurred when the firm does not produce any goods whatsoever. Putting Q = 0 into the
TC function gives
03
TC = + 02 + 4(0) + c = c
3
The constant of integration is therefore equal to the fixed costs of production, so c = 100. Hence
Q3
TC = + Q2 + 4Q + 100
3
(b) We need to find the total revenue from the marginal revenue function
MR = 10 − 4Q
Now
d(TR)
MR =
dQ
so

TR = MRdQ

=
(10 − 4Q)dQ

= 10 − 2Q2 + c
Unlike in part (a) of this example we have not been given any additional information to help us to pin
down the value of c. We do know, however, that when the firm produces no goods the revenue is zero,
so that TR = 0 when Q = 0. Putting this condition into
TR = 10Q − 2Q2 + c
gives
0 = 10(0) − 2(0)2 + c = c
The constant of integration is therefore equal to zero. Hence
TR = 10Q − 2Q2
Finally, we can deduce the demand equation from this. To find an expression for total revenue from any
given demand equation we normally multiply by Q, because TR = PQ. This time we work backwards,
so we divide by Q to get
TR 10Q − 2Q2
P= = = 10 − 2Q
Q Q
so the demand equation is
P = 10 − 2Q
(c) We need to find consumption given that the marginal propensity to consume is
0.1
MPC = 0.5 +
Y
Now
dC
MPC =
dY 
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432 Integration

so

C = MRCdY

=
A 0.5 +
0.1 D
dY
C YF
= 0.5Y + 0.2 Y + c
where the second term is found from

0.1Y dY = 0.1
Y −1/ 2

dY = 0.1 AC
1 1/ 2 D
1/2
Y
F
= 0.2 Y

The constant of integration can be calculated from the additional information that C = 85 when Y = 100.
Putting Y = 100 into the expression for C gives
85 = 0.5(100) + 0.2 100 + c = 52 + c
and so
c = 85 − 52 = 33
Hence
C = 0.5Y + 0.2 Y + 33

Practice Problem

4 (a) A firm’s marginal cost function is

MC = 2
Find an expression for the total cost function if the fixed costs are 500. Hence find the total cost
of producing 40 goods.
(b) The marginal revenue function of a monopolistic producer is
MR = 100 − 6Q
Find the total revenue function and deduce the corresponding demand equation.
(c) Find an expression for the savings function if the marginal propensity to save is given by
MPS = 0.4 − 0.1Y −1/ 2
and savings are zero when income is 100.

Example MAPLE

A firm’s marginal revenue and marginal cost functions are given by

MR = 500 − 0.5Q2 and MC = 140 + 0.4Q2
Given that total fixed costs are 1000, plot a graph of the profit function. Find the range of values of Q for
which the firm makes a profit and find its maximum value.