Group Actions

Lesson: Group Actions

Course Developers: Sumit Kumar Sharma

Department/ College/ University: Assistant Professor, Department of

Mathematics, Kirori Mal College, University of Delhi

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

 Group Actions

Table of Contents

Chapter:
Group Actions

1. Definition and Examples of group action……………………3

 Exercise A……..…………….……………………………………………..6
2. Faithful action…………………………………….…………………………..6
3. Kernel of a action………………….…………………….………………….9
 Exercise B………………………………………………………………….10
4. Stabilizers………………………………………………………………………10
4.1 Centerlizer as a special case of Stabilizer………………11
4.2 Normalizer as a special case of Stabilizer………………12
5. Orbits………………………………..……………………………………………13
 Exercise C………………………………………………………………….19
6. Applications…….…………………………………………………………….19
 Exercise D…..…………………………………………………………….25
References………………………….……………………………………………25

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Objective
This Chapter will help us understand the concept of group actions and their applications.
One of the important theorems in the theory of groups is the Calyey‟s theorem, which states
that:
“Every group is isomorphic to some subgroup of its symmetric group.”

In fact in the Calyey‟s theorem, group 𝐺 is acting on itself, apparently each member of group
𝐺 give rise to the member of a permutation group. In this Chapter, we generalize this idea and
study groups acting on arbitrary sets, which will work as an important tool to prove some
important result in theory of groups very conveniently.

1 Definition and Examples of group action

Definition 1.1 Let 𝐺 be a group with identity element 𝑒 and 𝑆 be any set. Then a action of
𝑮 on 𝑺 is a map
𝐺 × 𝑆 ↦ 𝑆 defined by
𝑔, 𝑠 ↦ 𝑔. 𝑠 ∈ 𝑆, 𝑠 ∈ 𝑆 and 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺
satisfying following conditions:
1. 𝑔1 . 𝑔2 . 𝑠 = 𝑔1 𝑔2 . 𝑠, 𝑔1 , 𝑔2 ∈ 𝐺 and 𝑠 ∈ 𝑆.
2. 𝑒. 𝑠 = 𝑠, 𝑠 ∈ 𝑆.

In this case, we say the group 𝐺 with the identity element 𝑒 acts on the set 𝑆. For
convenience, throughout this Chapter we will simply write the action `𝑎. 𝑠′ as `𝑎𝑠′.

Value Addition
 Let 𝑉 be a vector space over a field 𝔽. If we regard 𝔽 to be a multiplicative group
and 𝑉 as the set. Then vector spaces are the examples of actions of multiplicative
groups of fields on the set 𝑉.

Example 1.2 Let 𝐺 be a group with identity element 𝑒 and 𝑆 be any non-empty set. Define
a map 𝐺 × 𝑆 ↦ 𝑆 as
𝑔. 𝑠 = 𝑠, 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺 and 𝑠 ∈ 𝑆.
Then, we have
1. 𝑔1 . 𝑔2 . 𝑠 = 𝑔1 𝑔2 . 𝑠
= 𝑠, 𝑔1 , 𝑔2 ∈ 𝐺 and 𝑠 ∈ 𝑆.
2. 𝑒. 𝑠 = 𝑠, 𝑠 ∈ 𝑆.
Thus 𝐺 is acting on 𝑆. □

The action defined in Example 1.2 of any group on a non-empty set is refer to as trivial
action.

Example 1.3 Let 𝐺 = ℝ, + be the additive group of real numbers and 𝑆 = ℝ × ℝ. Define a
map
𝐺 × 𝑆 ↦ 𝑆 as
𝑟. 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 𝑟𝑦, 𝑦 , 𝑟 ∈ 𝐺 and 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑆.
Then we have
1. 0. 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 0𝑦, 𝑦
= 𝑥, 𝑦 , 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑆.
2. 𝑟1 . 𝑟2 . 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑟1 . 𝑥 + 𝑟2 𝑦, 𝑦
= 𝑥 + 𝑟1 𝑦 + 𝑟2 𝑦, 𝑦
= 𝑥 + 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 𝑦, 𝑦

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= 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 . 𝑥, 𝑦 , 𝑟1 , 𝑟2 ∈ 𝐺 and 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑆.
Thus 𝐺 = ℝ, + is acting on 𝑆 = ℝ × ℝ. □

Example 1.4 Let 𝐺 be a group with identity element 𝑒 and 𝑆 = 𝐺. Define a map
𝐺 × 𝑆 ↦ 𝑆 as
𝑔. 𝑠 = 𝑔𝑠, 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺 and 𝑠 ∈ 𝑆 = 𝐺.
Then we have
1. 𝑔1 . 𝑔2 . 𝑠 = 𝑔1 . 𝑔2 𝑠
= 𝑔1 𝑔2 . 𝑠, 𝑔1 , 𝑔2 , 𝑠 ∈ 𝐺.
2. 𝑒. 𝑠 = 𝑒𝑠
= 𝑠, 𝑠 ∈ 𝐺.
Thus G acts on itself by left multiplication. □

The action defined in Example 1.4 of any group on to itself is refer to as left regular action.

Example 1.5 Let 𝐺 a group with identity element 𝑒 and 𝑆 = 𝐺. Define a map
𝐺 × 𝑆 ↦ 𝑆 as
𝑔. 𝑠 = 𝑔𝑠𝑔 −1 , 𝑔, 𝑠 ∈ 𝐺 .
Then we have
1. 𝑔1 . 𝑔2 . 𝑠 = 𝑔1 . 𝑔2 𝑠𝑔2−1
= 𝑔1 𝑔2 𝑠 𝑔2−1 𝑔1−1
= 𝑔1 𝑔2 𝑠 𝑔1 𝑔2 −1
= 𝑔1 𝑔2 . 𝑠, 𝑔1 , 𝑔2 , 𝑠 ∈ 𝐺.
2. 𝑒. 𝑠 = 𝑒𝑠𝑒 −1
= 𝑠, 𝑠 ∈ 𝑆.
Thus group 𝐺 acts on itself. □

The action defined in Example 1.5 of any group on to itself is refer to as conjugation.

Example 1.6 Let 𝐺 = ℝ , + be the additive group of real numbers with identity element 0,
𝑆 = ℝ × ℝ. Define a map
𝐺 × 𝑆 ↦ 𝑆 as
cos 𝜃 − sin 𝜃 𝑥
𝜃. 𝑥, 𝑦 = , where 𝜃 ∈ 𝐺 is in radians and 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑆
sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 𝑦
= 𝑥 cos 𝜃 − 𝑦 sin 𝜃 , 𝑥 sin 𝜃 + 𝑦 cos 𝜃 , where 𝜃 ∈ 𝐺 is in radians and 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑆
Then, we have
1. 𝜃1 . 𝜃2 . 𝑥, 𝑦
= 𝜃1 . 𝑥 cos 𝜃2 − 𝑦 sin 𝜃2 , 𝑥 sin 𝜃2 + 𝑦 cos 𝜃2
= 𝑥 cos 𝜃2 − 𝑦 sin 𝜃2 cos 𝜃1
− 𝑥 sin 𝜃2 + 𝑦 cos 𝜃2 sin 𝜃1 , 𝑥 cos 𝜃2 − 𝑦 sin 𝜃2 sin 𝜃1 + 𝑥 sin 𝜃2 + 𝑦 cos 𝜃2 cos 𝜃1
= 𝑥 cos 𝜃1 + 𝜃2 − 𝑦 sin 𝜃1 + 𝜃2 , 𝑥 sin 𝜃1 + 𝜃2 + 𝑦 cos 𝜃1 + 𝜃2
= 𝜃1 + 𝜃2 . 𝑥, 𝑦 .

2. 0. 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑥 cos 0 − 𝑦 sin 0 , 𝑥 sin 0 + 𝑦 cos 0

= 𝑥, 𝑦 , 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑆.
Thus 𝐺 acts on 𝑆. □

IQ 1
 Is the group 𝐺 = 𝑆3 , acts on set 𝑆 of 3-variables polynomials by the possibly defined
action
𝐺 × 𝑆 ↦ 𝑆 as
𝜎. 𝑓 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 = 𝑓 𝑥𝜎 (1) , 𝑥𝜎 (2) , 𝑥𝜎 (3) , 𝜎 ∈ 𝐺 and 𝑓 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 ∈ 𝑆.

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Justify?

IQ 2
 Can we think of ℝ𝑛 acting on itself by translation? Justify.

In the next result we show that when a group 𝐺 acts on a set 𝑆 then each member of
group 𝐺 give rise to a permutation of 𝑆.

Proposition 1.7 Let 𝐺 be a group with identity element 𝑒, 𝑆 be a set and suppose that 𝐺
acts on 𝑆. Then for each 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺, the map 𝜎𝑔 : 𝑆 → 𝑆 defined by
𝜎𝑔 𝑠 = 𝑔. 𝑠, 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺 and 𝑠 ∈ 𝑆
is a permutation on 𝑆.

Proof. In order to show that 𝜎𝑔 : 𝑆 → 𝑆 is a permutation it suffices to show that 𝜎𝑔 is a

bijection. Suppose that 𝜎𝑔 (𝑠1 ) = 𝜎𝑔 (𝑠2 ), where 𝑠1 , 𝑠2 ∈ 𝑆
⇒ 𝑔. 𝑠1 = 𝑔. 𝑠2
⇒ 𝑔−1 (𝑔. 𝑠1 ) = 𝑔−1 (𝑔. 𝑠2 )
⇒ 𝑔−1 𝑔 . 𝑠1 = (𝑔−1 𝑔). 𝑠2
⇒ 𝑒. 𝑠1 = 𝑒. 𝑠2
⇒ 𝑠1 = 𝑠2 .
So 𝜎𝑔 is injective. Also for each 𝑠 ∈ 𝑆, there exist 𝑔−1 . 𝑠 ∈ 𝑆 such that
𝜎𝑔 𝑔−1 . 𝑠 = 𝑔. (𝑔−1 . 𝑠)
= 𝑒. 𝑠
= 𝑠.
Thus 𝜎𝑔 is onto. Hence 𝜎𝑔 is a permutation. □

Let 𝑆 be a finite set and 𝑆𝑦𝑚(𝑆) be the set of all permutations (bijections) of 𝑆. Then,
we know that 𝑆𝑦𝑚(𝑆) is a group with respect to the operation composition of permutations
(maps) and it is known as symmetric group of 𝑆.
If we take 𝑆 = {1, 2, ⋯ , 𝑛}, then 𝑠𝑦𝑚(𝑆) is called symmetric group of order 𝑛 and in this
case we write 𝑆𝑦𝑚 𝑆 = 𝑆𝑛 .

Proposition 1.8 Let 𝐺 be a group, 𝑆 be a set and suppose that 𝐺 acts on 𝑆. Then, the map
𝜙: 𝐺 → 𝑆𝑦𝑚(𝑆) defined by
𝜙(𝑔) = 𝜎𝑔 , 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺
is a homomorphism.

Proof. Let 𝑔1 , 𝑔2 ∈ 𝐺. Then for each 𝑠 ∈ 𝑆

𝜙(𝑔1 𝑔2 )(𝑠) = 𝜎𝑔1 𝑔2 (𝑠)
= 𝑔1 𝑔2 . 𝑠
= 𝑔1 . (𝑔2 . 𝑠)
= 𝜎𝑔1 (𝜎𝑔2 (𝑠))
= (𝜎𝑔1 ∘ 𝜎𝑔2 )(𝑠)
= (𝜙(𝑔1 ) ∘ 𝜙(𝑔2 ))(𝑠).
Thus
𝜙(𝑔1 𝑔2 ) = 𝜙(𝑔1 ) ∘ 𝜙(𝑔2 ), for all 𝑔1 , 𝑔2 ∈ 𝐺.
Hence, 𝜙 is a homomorphism. □

In view of Proposition 1.7 and Proposition 1.8, we have following definition

Definition 1.8 Let 𝐺 be a group, 𝑆 be a set and suppose that 𝐺 acts on 𝑆 . Then the
homomorphism 𝜙 ∶ 𝐺 → 𝑆𝑦𝑚(𝑆) defined by 𝜙(𝑔) = 𝜎𝑔 , 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺 is known as permutation

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representation associated to the given action.

Value Addition
 If a group 𝐺 acts on a set 𝑆 then every element of 𝐺 acts as the permutation on 𝑆
such that operation of 𝐺 is consistent with the operation of 𝑆𝑦𝑚(𝑆).

In the next result we show that the converse of Proposition 1.8 is also true.

Proposition 1.9 Let 𝐺 be a group with the identity element 𝑒, 𝑆 be a set and suppose that
𝐺 acts on 𝑆. If 𝜙 ∶ 𝐺 → 𝑆𝑦𝑚(𝑆) is a homomorphism, then the map
𝐺 × 𝑆 ↦ 𝑆 defined by
𝑔. 𝑠 = 𝜙 𝑔 𝑠 , 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺 and 𝑠 ∈ 𝑆
is a action of 𝐺 on 𝑆.

Proof. As 𝜙 ∶ 𝐺 → 𝑆𝑦𝑚(𝑆) is a homomorphism, therefore

𝜙 𝑔1 𝑔2 = 𝜙 𝑔1 ∘ 𝜙 𝑔2 , 𝑔1 , 𝑔2 ∈ 𝐺.
Then, for 𝑔1 , 𝑔2 ∈ 𝐺 and 𝑠 ∈ 𝑆, we have
𝑔1 . (𝑔2 . 𝑠) = 𝜙(𝑔1 ) 𝑔2 . 𝑠
= 𝜙 𝑔1 (𝜙 𝑔2 𝑠 )
= (𝜙(𝑔1 ) ∘ 𝜙(𝑔2 ))(𝑠)
= 𝜙(𝑔1 𝑔2 )(𝑠)
= 𝑔1 𝑔2 . 𝑠 .
Also, for each 𝑠 ∈ 𝑆, we have
𝑒. 𝑠 = 𝜙(𝑒)(𝑠)
=𝐼 𝑠
= 𝑠.
Thus, 𝐺 acts on 𝑆. □

Exercise A
1. Let 𝔽, +, . be a field and 𝐺 = 𝔽, . be the multiplicative group of all non-zero
elements of 𝔽. Show that 𝐺 acts on the set 𝔽 by 𝐺 × 𝔽 ↦ 𝔽 as
𝑔. 𝑎 = 𝑔𝑎, 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺 and 𝑎 ∈ 𝔽.
2. Let ℤ denotes the set of integers. Show that ℤ, + acts on itself by ℤ × ℤ ↦ ℤ as
𝑔. 𝑎 = 𝑔 + 𝑎, 𝑔, 𝑎 ∈ ℤ.
3. Let 𝐺 be a group with the identity element 𝑒 and 𝑆 be a set. Then actions of 𝐺 on 𝑆
and all the homomorphism from 𝐺 into 𝑆𝑦𝑚(𝑆) are in one to one correspondence.
Hint: Follows in view of Proposition 1.7 and Proposition 1.9.

2 Faithful action
Definition 2.1 Let 𝐺 be a group, 𝑆 be a set and suppose that 𝐺 acts on 𝑆. Then the action of
𝐺 on 𝑆 is said to be faithful if every distinct element of group 𝐺 induces the distinct
permutation of 𝑆.

Value Addition
 The action of the group 𝐺 on to the set 𝑆 is faithful if and only if 𝑔1 ≠ 𝑔2 in 𝐺, there is
an 𝑠 ∈ 𝑆 such that 𝑔1 · 𝑠 ≠ 𝑔2 · 𝑠. (see IQ Question 3)
 For the trivial action, it is faithful if 𝑂(𝐺) > 1.
 The action of 𝐺 on to itself by conjugation is faithful if and only if 𝐺 has a trivial
center.
 If the action of group 𝐺 on to the set 𝑆 is faithful then the permutation representation
𝜙 ∶ 𝐺 → 𝑆𝑦𝑚(𝑆) associated to the action is always injective (one-one) and conversely.

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IQ 3
 Show that the action of 𝐺 on the set 𝑆 is faithful if and only if 𝑔1 ≠ 𝑔2 in 𝐺, there is an
𝑠 ∈ 𝑆 such that 𝑔1 · 𝑠 ≠ 𝑔2 · 𝑠.

Example 2.2 Let 𝐺 = {1, 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐} be the Klein‟s 4-group and 𝑆 = 𝐺 and suppose that 𝐺 acts
on to itelf by left regular action. Thus in view of this
𝜎1 = 𝐼

𝜎𝑎 1 = 𝑎. 1 = 𝑎
𝜎𝑎 𝑎 = 𝑎. 𝑎 = 1 1 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
⟹ 𝜎𝑎 = ∈ 𝑆𝑦𝑚 𝑆 ,
𝜎𝑎 𝑏 = 𝑎. 𝑏 = 𝑐 𝑎 1 𝑐 𝑏
𝜎𝑎 𝑐 = 𝑎. 𝑐 = 𝑏

𝜎𝑏 1 = 𝑏. 1 = 𝑏
𝜎𝑏 𝑎 = 𝑏. 𝑎 = 𝑐 1 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
⟹ 𝜎𝑏 = ∈ 𝑆𝑦𝑚 𝑆 and
𝜎𝑏 𝑏 = 𝑏. 𝑏 = 1 𝑏 𝑐 1 𝑎
𝜎𝑏 𝑐 = 𝑏. 𝑐 = 𝑎

𝜎𝑐 1 = 𝑐. 1 = 𝑐
𝜎𝑐 𝑎 = 𝑐. 𝑎 = 𝑏 1 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
⟹ 𝜎𝑐 = ∈ 𝑆𝑦𝑚 𝑆 .
𝜎𝑐 𝑏 = 𝑐. 𝑏 = 𝑎 𝑐 𝑏 𝑎 1
𝜎𝑐 𝑐 = 𝑐. 𝑐 = 1
Thus every element of group 𝐺 give rise to a distinct element of 𝑆𝑦𝑚 𝑆 . Hence this action is
faithful. □

In Example 2.2, Klein‟s 4-group is acting on to itself by left regular action, in the next example
we show that left regular action on any group 𝐺 on to itself is a faithful action.

Example 2.3 Let 𝐺 a group and 𝑆 = 𝐺. Suppose 𝐺 acts on to itself by left regular action.
Then, for 𝑔1 , 𝑔2 , 𝑠 ∈ 𝐺 such that 𝑔1 ≠ 𝑔2 , we have
𝑔1 𝑠 ≠ 𝑔2 𝑠
⇒ 𝑔1 . 𝑠 ≠ 𝑔2 . 𝑠
⇒ 𝜎𝑔1 𝑠 ≠ 𝜎𝑔2 𝑠 , 𝑠 ∈ 𝑆
⇒ 𝜎𝑔1 ≠ 𝜎𝑔2 .
Thus left regular action is faithful. □

Example 2.4 Let 𝑆 be any non-empty set and 𝐺 = 𝑆𝑦𝑚(𝑆). Define a map
𝐺 × 𝑆 ↦ 𝑆 as
𝜎. 𝑠 = 𝜎(𝑠), 𝜎 ∈ 𝐺 and 𝑠 ∈ 𝑆.
Then 𝐺 acts on 𝑆.
Further, associated permutation representation 𝜙: 𝑆𝑦𝑚(𝑆) → 𝑆𝑦𝑚(𝑆) is the identity map
which is injective. Thus, this action is faithful. □

Example 2.5 Let 𝐺 = 𝐷2𝑛 and 𝑆 = {1, 2, 3, ⋯ , 𝑛}. If we label every vertices of a regular 𝑛 −gon
as 1, 2, 3, ⋯ , 𝑛, respectively (in order). Then every element of 𝐷2𝑛 can be represented as a
permutation of {1, 2, 3, ⋯ , 𝑛}. Let 𝜎𝑔 be permutation repesentation of 𝑔 ∈ 𝐷2𝑛 . Define a map
𝐺 × 𝑆 ↦ 𝑆 as
(𝜎𝑔 , 𝑠) = 𝜎𝑔 (𝑠), 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺 and 𝑖 ∈ 𝑆.
Then, we have
1. 𝜎𝑔1 . 𝜎𝑔2 . 𝑠 = 𝜎𝑔1 . 𝜎𝑔2 𝑠

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= 𝜎𝑔1 𝜎𝑔2 𝑠
= (𝜎𝑔1 ∘ 𝜎𝑔2 )(𝑠), 𝜎𝑔1 , 𝜎𝑔2 ∈ 𝐺 , 𝑠 ∈ 𝑆.
2. 𝜎𝑒 . 𝑠 = 𝐼 𝑠
= 𝑠, 𝑠 ∈ 𝑆.
Thus 𝐺 acts on a set 𝑆.
Further, associated permutation representation 𝜙: 𝐷2𝑛 → 𝑆𝑛 is the inductive map.
Thus 𝜙 is injective. Hence, this action is faithful. □

Example 2.6 Let 𝐺 = 𝐷8 acts on itself by conjugation. If 𝑟 denotes the rotation of square by
90∘ in clockwise direction and 𝑠 denotes the reflection of square about the line passes through
the vertices 1 and 3. Then
𝜎𝑒 𝑔 = 𝑒𝑔𝑒 −1
= 𝑔, 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺.
⇒ 𝜎𝑒 = 𝐼.
Also, as 𝑟 2 ∈ 𝑍 𝐷8 , therefore
𝜎𝑟 2 𝑔 = 𝑟 2 𝑔 𝑟 2 −1
= 𝑟 2 𝑟 2 −1 𝑔
= 𝑔, 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺.
⇒ 𝜎𝑟 2 = 𝐼.
Thus 1 and 𝑟 2 act in the similar way i.e. they will give rise to the same permutation, therefore
this action of 𝐺 on to itself is not faithful. □

Example 2.7 Let 𝐺 = 𝐷8 , 𝑆 = {𝑎 = {1,3}, 𝑏 = {2,4}} and suppose that 𝐺 acts on 𝑆. If 𝑟 denotes
the rotation of square by 90∘ in clockwise direction and 𝑠 denotes the reflection of square
about the line passes through the vertices 1 and 3. Then
𝜎𝑟 = (𝑎, 𝑏) and
𝜎𝑠 = Identity permutation.
Also the kernel of the permutation representation 𝜙: 𝐺 → 𝑆𝑦𝑚(𝑆) associated to the action is
𝑘𝑒𝑟 𝜙 = 𝑠, 𝑟 2
= 𝐼, 𝑟 2 , 𝑟 2 𝑠, 𝑠
≠ 𝐼 .
Thus, 𝜙 is not injective. Hence the action is not faithful. □

Example 2.8 Let 𝐺 = ℝ, + , 𝑆 = ℝ × ℝ and suppose that 𝐺 acts on 𝑆 as in Example 1.6.

Then
𝜎𝜃 . 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝜃. 𝑥, 𝑦
= 𝑥 cos 𝜃 − 𝑦 sin 𝜃 , 𝑥 sin 𝜃 + 𝑦 cos 𝜃 , where 𝜃 ∈ 𝐺 is in radians and 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑆.
Also, let 𝜃 + 2𝜋 ∈ ℝ, then
𝜎𝜃 +2𝜋 . 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑥 cos(𝜃 + 2𝜋) − 𝑦 sin(𝜃 + 2𝜋) , 𝑥 sin(𝜃 + 2𝜋) + 𝑦 cos(𝜃 + 2𝜋)
= 𝑥 cos 𝜃 − 𝑦 sin 𝜃 , 𝑥 sin 𝜃 + 𝑦 cos 𝜃 .
Thus 𝜃 and 𝜃 + 2𝜋 will give rise to the same permutation, therefore this action of 𝐺 on to
itself is not faithful. □

In view of Example 2.5, we have following proposition

Proposition 2.5 𝐷6 ≅ 𝑆3 .

Proof. Define a map

𝐷6 × {1,2,3} ↦ {1,2,3} as
(𝜎𝑔 , 𝑖) = 𝜎𝑔 (𝑖), 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺 and 𝑖 ∈ {1,2,3}.
Then, 𝐷6 acts on {1, 2, 3}.
Further, associated permutation representation 𝜙: 𝐷6 → 𝑆𝑦𝑚 1,2,3 (= 𝑆3 ) is the

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 Group Actions

inductive map, so 𝜙 is injective. Also

𝑂(𝐷6 ) = 𝑂(𝑆3 ) = 6.
Therefore 𝜙 is surjective. Hence
𝐷6 ≅ 𝑆3 . □

3 Kernel of the action

Definition 3.1 Let 𝐺 be a group, 𝑆 be a set and suppose that 𝐺 acts on 𝑆. Then, the kernel
of the action of 𝐺 on 𝑆 is defined as
{𝑔 ∈ 𝐺 ∶ 𝑔. 𝑠 = 𝑠, for all 𝑠 ∈ 𝑆}.

Next, we show that the kernel of action forms a subgroup of 𝐺.

Proposition 3.2 Let 𝐺 be a group, 𝑆 be a set and suppose 𝐺 acts on 𝑆. Then kernel of action
is a subgroup of 𝐺.

Proof. Let 𝐾 be the kernel of action. As

𝑒. 𝑠 = 𝑠, for all 𝑠 ∈ 𝑆
⇒ 𝑒 ∈ 𝐾.
Therefore 𝐾 is non-empty. Let 𝑘1 , 𝑘2 ∈ 𝐾 and 𝑠 ∈ 𝑆, then
𝑘1 𝑘2 . 𝑠 = 𝑘1 . 𝑘2 . 𝑠
= 𝑘2 . 𝑠
= 𝑠.
⇒ 𝑘1 𝑘2 ∈ 𝐾.
Also, let 𝑘 ∈ 𝐾 and 𝑠 ∈ 𝑆, then
𝑘 −1 . 𝑠 = 𝑘 −1 . 𝑘. 𝑠
= 𝑘 −1 𝑘 . 𝑠
= 𝑠.
⇒ 𝑘 −1 ∈ 𝐾.
Thus 𝐾 is a subgroup of 𝐺. □

We know that, if 𝜙: 𝐺 → 𝐺′ is a homomorphism then kernel of 𝜙 denoted as 𝑘𝑒𝑟 𝜙 is

defined as
𝑘𝑒𝑟 𝜙 = 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺: 𝜙 𝑔 = 𝑒 ′ .

It is easy to verify that kernel of a homomorphism is always a normal subgroup of 𝐺.

In view of above definitions we have following observation:

Proposition 3.3 Let 𝐺 be a group, 𝑆 be a set and suppose that 𝐺 acts on 𝑆 and let
𝜙 ∶ 𝐺 → 𝑆𝑦𝑚(𝑆) be the permutation representation associated to the action then
kernel of action = 𝑘𝑒𝑟 𝜙.

Proof. 𝑘𝑒𝑟 𝜙 = {𝑔 ∈ 𝐺: 𝜙(𝑔) = 𝐼}

= {𝑔 ∈ 𝐺: 𝜎𝑔 = 𝐼}
= {𝑔 ∈ 𝐺: 𝜎𝑔 (𝑠) = 𝐼(𝑠), 𝑠 ∈ 𝑆}
= {𝑔 ∈ 𝐺: 𝑔. 𝑠 = 𝑠, 𝑠 ∈ 𝑆}
= kernel of action. □

Value Addition
 For the trivial action, kernel of action is whole of 𝐺 and it is faithful if 𝑂(𝐺) > 1.
 Kernel of action is a normal subgroup of 𝐺.

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 Group Actions

Exercise B
1. Show that a group 𝐺 acts faithfully on a set 𝑆 if and only if kernel of the action is {𝑒}.
2. Show that the kernel of left regular action is 𝑒 .

4 Stabilizer of group action

Definition 4.1 Let 𝐺 be a group, 𝑆 be a set and suppose that 𝐺 acts on 𝑆. Then, for each
𝑠 ∈ 𝑆, define the stabilizer of 𝑠 in 𝐺 denoted as 𝐺𝑠 as
𝐺𝑠 = {𝑔 ∈ 𝐺 ∶ 𝑔. 𝑠 = 𝑠}.

In the next result, we prove that if group 𝐺 acts on the set 𝑆. Then, for each 𝑠 ∈ 𝑆,
stabilizer 𝐺𝑠 of 𝑠 is a subgroup of 𝐺.

Proposition 4.2 Let 𝐺 be a group and 𝑆 be a set. Suppose that 𝐺 acts on S. Then, for each
𝑠 ∈ 𝑆, the stabilizer 𝐺𝑠 of 𝑠 in 𝐺 is a subgroup of 𝐺.

Proof. As 𝑒. 𝑠 = 𝑠, for all 𝑠 ∈ 𝑆, so 𝑒 ∈ 𝐺𝑠 . Therefore

𝐺𝑠 ≠ ∅.
Let 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐺𝑠 , then 𝑥. 𝑠 = 𝑠 and 𝑦. 𝑠 = 𝑠. So, we have
𝑥𝑦 . 𝑠 = 𝑥. (𝑦. 𝑠)
= 𝑥. 𝑠
= 𝑠.
⇒ 𝑥𝑦 ∈ 𝑆.
Also for each 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺𝑠 ,
𝑥 −1 . 𝑠 = 𝑥 −1 . (𝑥. 𝑠)
= 𝑥 −1 𝑥 . 𝑠
= 𝑒. 𝑠
= 𝑠.
⇒ 𝑥 −1 ∈ 𝑆.
Hence 𝐺𝑠 is a subgroup of 𝐺. □

Proposition 4.3 Let 𝐺 be a group, 𝑆 be a set and suppose that 𝐺 acts on 𝑆. If 𝐾 be the
kernel of action then
𝐾= ‍𝐺𝑠 .
𝑠∈𝑆

Proof. Let 𝑔 ∈ 𝐾, then we have

𝑔. 𝑠 = 𝑠 for all 𝑠 ∈ 𝑆
⇒ 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺𝑠 for all 𝑠 ∈ 𝑆
⇒𝑔∈ ‍𝐺𝑠 .
𝑠∈𝑆
This gives,
𝐾⊂ ‍𝐺𝑠 .
𝑠∈𝑆

Conversely, let 𝑔 ∈ 𝑠∈𝑆 ‍𝐺𝑠 ,

⇒ 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺𝑠 , for all 𝑠 ∈ 𝑆
⇒ 𝑔𝑠 = 𝑠 for all 𝑠 ∈ 𝑆
⇒ 𝑔 ∈ 𝐾.
So, we have

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 Group Actions

𝐺𝑠 ⊂ 𝐾.
𝑠∈𝑆
Hence, we have the required result. □

As we know that, if group 𝐺 acts on set 𝑆 then kernel of the action is a normal
subgroup of 𝐺. Thus left cosets and right cosets of kernel of action are same. In the next result
we show that the number of distinct cosets of kernel of action in 𝐺 is equal to number of
distinct permutations induced by elements of 𝐺 under this action.

Theorem 4.4 Let 𝐺 be a group and 𝑆 be a set. Suppose that 𝐺 acts on 𝑆. Then, any two
elements of 𝐺 induce same permutation if and only if they are in the same coset of kernel of
action.

Proof. Let 𝐾 be the kernel of action and 𝜎𝑔1 = 𝜎𝑔2 for some 𝑔1 , 𝑔2 ∈ 𝐺. Then we have
𝜎𝑔1 (𝑠) = 𝜎𝑔2 (𝑠), for all 𝑠 ∈ 𝑆
⇒ 𝑔1 . 𝑠 = 𝑔2 . 𝑠, for all 𝑠 ∈ 𝑆
⇒ 𝑔2−1 𝑔1 . 𝑠 = 𝑠, for all 𝑠 ∈ 𝑆
⇒ 𝑔2−1 𝑔1 ∈ 𝐾
⇒ 𝐾𝑔1 = 𝐾𝑔2 .

Conversely, let 𝑔1 , 𝑔2 ∈ 𝐾𝑔. Then, we have

𝑔−1 𝑔1 ∈ 𝐾 and 𝑔−1 𝑔2 ∈ 𝐾
⇒ 𝑔2−1 𝑔𝑔−1 𝑔1 ∈ 𝐾
⇒ 𝑔2−1 𝑔1 ∈ 𝐾
⇒ (𝑔2−1 𝑔1 ). 𝑠 = 𝑠 for all 𝑠 ∈ 𝑆
⇒ 𝑔1 . 𝑠 = 𝑔2 . 𝑠 for all 𝑠 ∈ 𝑆
⇒ 𝜎𝑔1 (𝑠) = 𝜎𝑔2 (𝑠), for all 𝑠 ∈ 𝑆.
Thus, 𝑔1 and 𝑔2 induces same permutation. □

Value Addition
 Intersection of stabilizers corresponding to every element of group 𝐺 is always equal
to the kernel of action.
 Left cosets and right cosets of kernel of action are same.
 The number of distinct cosets of kernel of action in 𝐺 is equal to number of distinct
permutations induced by elements of 𝐺 under this action.

IQ 4
 Let 𝐺 be a group and 𝑆 be a set. Then any action of 𝐺 on a set 𝑆 may be observed as
𝐺
a faithful action of on 𝑆.
𝑘𝑒𝑟 𝜙
Hint: Follows in view of Theorem 4.4. □

4.1 Normalizer as a Special Case of Stabilizer

Let 𝐺 be a group and 𝑆 be a subset of 𝐺. Then normalizer of 𝑆 in 𝐺 denoted as

𝑁𝐺 (𝑆) is defined by
𝑔 ∈ 𝐺 ∶ 𝑔𝑆 = 𝑆𝑔 .

It is easy to verify that normalizer is a subgroup of 𝐺. In this section we show that

normalizer is a special case of stabilizer.

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 Group Actions

Proposition 4.1.1 Let 𝐺 be a group with identity element 𝑒 and 𝑃(𝐺) be the set of all
subsets of 𝐺. Then the map
𝐺 × 𝑃(𝐺) ↦ 𝑃(𝐺) defined by
𝑔. 𝐵 = 𝑔𝐵𝑔−1 , 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺 and 𝐵 ∈ 𝑃 𝐺
is a action of 𝐺 on 𝑃 𝐺 . Further, for every 𝐵 ∈ 𝑃 𝐺 , 𝐺𝐵 = 𝑁𝐺 (𝐵), where 𝐺𝐵 is the stabilizer of
𝐵 in 𝐺.

Proof. For each 𝑔1 , 𝑔2 ∈ 𝐺 and 𝐵 ∈ 𝑃(𝐺), we have

𝑔1 . (𝑔2 . 𝐵) = 𝑔1 . (𝑔2 𝐵𝑔2−1 )
= 𝑔1 (𝑔2 𝐵𝑔2−1 )𝑔1−1
= 𝑔1 𝑔2 𝐵 𝑔1 𝑔2 −1
= (𝑔1 𝑔2 ). 𝐵 .
Also
𝑒. 𝐵 = 𝑒𝐵𝑒 −1
= 𝐵, for all 𝐵 ∈ 𝑃(𝐺).
Thus 𝐺 acts on 𝑃(𝐺). Further
𝐺𝐵 = {𝑔 ∈ 𝐺: 𝑔. 𝐵 = 𝐵}
= {𝑔 ∈ 𝐺: 𝑔𝐵𝑔−1 = 𝐵}
= {𝑔 ∈ 𝐺: 𝑔𝐵 = 𝐵𝑔}
= 𝑁𝐺 (𝐵).
In view of Proposition 4.2, stabilizer is a subgroup of 𝐺 therefore, 𝑁𝐺 𝐵 is also a subgroup of
𝐺. □

4.2 Centralizer as a Special Case of Stabilizer

Let 𝐺 be a group and 𝑆 be a subset of 𝐺. Then centralizer of 𝑆 in 𝐺 denoted as

𝐶𝐺 (𝑆) is defined as
{𝑔 ∈ 𝐺: 𝑔𝑠 = 𝑠𝑔, for all 𝑠 ∈ 𝑆}.

It is easy to verify that centralizer is a subgroup of 𝐺. In this section, we show that

centralizer is a special case of stabilizer.

Proposition 4.2.1 Let 𝐺 be a group with identity element 𝑒 and 𝑁𝐺 (𝑆) be the normaliser of
𝑆 in 𝐺. Then, a map
𝑁𝐺 (𝑆) × 𝑆 ↦ 𝑆 defined as
𝑔. 𝑠 = 𝑔𝑠𝑔−1 , 𝑔 ∈ 𝑁𝐺 (𝑆) and 𝑠 ∈ 𝑆.
is a action of 𝑁𝐺 (𝑆) on 𝑆. Further, kernel of action of 𝑁𝐺 (𝑆) on 𝑆 is same as the centralizer of
𝑆 in 𝐺.

Proof. For each 𝑔 ∈ 𝑁𝐺 (𝑆), 𝑔𝑆 = 𝑆𝑔

⇒ 𝑔𝑠𝑔−1 ∈ 𝑆, for all 𝑠 ∈ 𝑆.
Therefore the map 𝑁𝐺 (𝑆) × 𝑆 ↦ 𝑆 defined by
𝑔. 𝑠 = 𝑔𝑠𝑔−1 , 𝑔 ∈ 𝑁𝐺 (𝑆) and 𝑠 ∈ 𝑆.
is well-defined. Also, for each 𝑔1 , 𝑔2 ∈ 𝑁𝐺 (𝑆) and 𝑠 ∈ 𝑆, we have
𝑔1 . 𝑔2 . 𝑠 = 𝑔1 . 𝑔2 𝑠𝑔2−1
= 𝑔1 (𝑔2 𝑠𝑔2−1 )𝑔1−1
= (𝑔1 𝑔2 )𝑠(𝑔1 𝑔2 )−1
= (𝑔1 𝑔2 ). 𝑠 .
Also,
𝑒. 𝑠 = 𝑒𝑠𝑒 −1
= 𝑠, for all 𝑠 ∈ 𝑆.
Thus 𝑁𝐺 (𝑆) acts on 𝑆. Further, if 𝐾 be the kernel of action
𝐾 = {𝑔 ∈ 𝐺: 𝑔. 𝑠 = 𝑠 for all 𝑠 ∈ 𝑆}

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 Group Actions

= {𝑔 ∈ 𝐺: 𝑔𝑠𝑔−1 = 𝑠 for all 𝑠 ∈ 𝑆}

= {𝑔 ∈ 𝐺: 𝑔𝑠 = 𝑠𝑔 for all 𝑠 ∈ 𝑆}
= 𝐶𝐺 (𝑆).
Furthermore, as kernel of action is a subgroup of 𝐺 therefore
𝐶𝐺 (𝑆) < 𝑁𝐺 (𝑆)
Also we know that 𝑁𝐺 𝑆 is a subgroup of 𝐺. Hence we have
𝐶𝐺 (𝑆) < 𝐺. □

5 Orbits
We begin this section by showing that if group 𝐺 acts on a non-empty set 𝑆, then the
action of 𝐺 on 𝑆 defines a equivalence relation on 𝑆.

Theorem 5.1 Let group 𝐺 acts on a non-empty set 𝑆. Define a relation on 𝑆 as

𝑠 ~ 𝑡 ⇔ 𝑠 = 𝑔. 𝑡 for some 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺.
Then, „~‟ is an equivalence relation on 𝑆.
Further, for every 𝑠 ∈ 𝑆, the number of elements in equivalence class of „𝑠‟ is equal to
the index of the stabilizer of „𝑠‟ in 𝐺.

Proof. (Reflexivity) As 𝐺 acts on 𝑆. Therefore

𝑒. 𝑠 = 𝑠 for all 𝑠 ∈ 𝑆
⇒ 𝑠~𝑠 for all 𝑠 ∈ 𝑆.

(Symmetry) Let 𝑠~𝑡. Then we have

𝑠 = 𝑔. 𝑡 for some 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺
⇒ 𝑔−1 . 𝑠 = 𝑔−1 . 𝑔. 𝑡
⇒ 𝑔−1 . 𝑠 = (𝑔−1 𝑔). 𝑡
⇒ 𝑔−1 . 𝑠 = 𝑒. 𝑡 = 𝑡, where 𝑔−1 ∈ 𝐺
⇒ 𝑡~𝑠.

(Transitivity) Let 𝑠~𝑡 and 𝑡~𝑢. Then we have

𝑠 = 𝑔1 . 𝑡 and 𝑡 = 𝑔2 . 𝑢 for some 𝑔1 , 𝑔2 ∈ 𝐺
⇒ 𝑠 = 𝑔1 . (𝑔2 . 𝑢)
⇒ 𝑠 = 𝑔1 𝑔2 . 𝑢, where 𝑔1 𝑔2 ∈ 𝐺
⇒ 𝑠~𝑢.
Thus, „~‟ is an equivalence relation on 𝑆.
Further, for every 𝑠 ∈ 𝑆, let 𝑐𝑠 be equivalence class of 𝑠 in 𝑆, i.e,
𝑐𝑠 = { 𝑔. 𝑠 ∶ 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺 }.
𝐺
Let 𝐺𝑠 be the stabilizer of 𝑠 in 𝐺, 𝑖𝐺 (𝐺𝑠 ) be the index of 𝐺𝑠 in 𝐺 and be the set of all
𝐺𝑠 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡
left cosets of 𝐺𝑠 in 𝐺. Then, in order to show that 𝑂(𝑐𝑠 ) = 𝑖𝐺 (𝐺𝑠 ) it suffices to show that there
𝐺
exists a bijection between 𝑐𝑠 and .
𝐺𝑠 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡
𝐺
Define a map 𝜓: 𝑐𝑠 → as
𝐺𝑠 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡
𝜓(𝑔. 𝑠) = 𝑔𝐺𝑠 , 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺.
Let 𝑔1 , 𝑔2 ∈ 𝐺 such that
𝑔1 . 𝑠 = 𝑔2 . 𝑠
⇔ 𝑔2−1 . (𝑔1 . 𝑠) = 𝑔2−1 (𝑔2 . 𝑠)
⇔ (𝑔2−1 𝑔1 ). 𝑠 = 𝑠
⇔ 𝑔2−1 𝑔1 ∈ 𝐺𝑠
⇔ 𝑔1 𝐺𝑠 = 𝑔2 𝐺𝑠
⇔ 𝜓(𝑔1 . 𝑠) = 𝜓(𝑔2 . 𝑠).

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 Group Actions

𝐺
Therefore, 𝜓 is well-defined and injective. Also, for each 𝑔𝐺𝑠 ∈ , there exist 𝑔. 𝑠 ∈ 𝑐𝑠
𝐺𝑠 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡
such that
𝜓 𝑔. 𝑠 = 𝑔𝐺𝑠 .
Thus, 𝜓 is surjective. Hence
𝐺
𝑂 𝑐𝑠 = 𝑂
𝐺𝑠 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡
= 𝑖𝐺 𝐺𝑠 . □

In view of Theorem 5.1, we have the following definition

Definition 5.2 Let group 𝐺 acts on a non-empty set 𝑆. Define a relation on 𝑆 as

𝑠~𝑡 ⇔ 𝑠 = 𝑔. 𝑡 for some 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺.
Then, ‘~’ is an equivalence relation on 𝑆. The equivalence class of 𝑠 in 𝑆
𝑐𝑠 = {𝑔. 𝑠 ∶ 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺}
is called the orbit of 𝐺 containing 𝑠.

Definition 5.3 Let group 𝐺 acts on a non-empty set 𝑆. Then the action of group 𝐺 on 𝑆 is
said to be transitive if 𝐺 has exactly one orbit.

Value Addition
 If group 𝐺 acts on the set 𝑆 , then for every 𝑠 ∈ 𝑆 , the number of elements in
equivalence class of „𝑠‟ is equal to the index of the stabilizer of „𝑠‟ in 𝐺.
 If group 𝐺 acts on the set 𝑆. Then, 𝑆 can be partitioned into unique set of disjoint
orbits of 𝐺.
 If the action of group 𝐺 on 𝑆 is transitive then for every 𝑠, 𝑡 ∈ 𝑆, there exist 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺
such that 𝑠 = 𝑔. 𝑡 and conversely.
 If group 𝐺 acts trivially on S. Then 𝐺𝑠 = 𝐺 for all 𝑠 ∈ 𝑆. Also orbit of 𝑠 ∈ 𝑆 is
𝑐𝑠 = 𝑔𝑠: 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺
= 𝑠: 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺
= {𝑠}
Thus trival action of 𝐺 on 𝑆 is transitive if and only if 𝑂(𝑐𝑠 ) = 1 for all 𝑠 ∈ 𝑆.

Example 5.4 Let 𝐺 = 𝑆𝑛 and 𝑆 = 1,2, ⋯ , 𝑛 , 𝑛 ∈ ℕ. Define a map

𝐺 × 𝑆 ↦ 𝑆 by
𝜎. 𝑠 = 𝜎(𝑠), 𝜎 ∈ 𝐺 and 𝑖 ∈ 𝑆.
Then this is easy to verify that this defines an action of 𝐺 on 𝑆.

Also the permutation representation associated to this action is given by 𝜙: 𝐺 → 𝑆𝑦𝑚(𝑆) = 𝑆𝑛

is defined as
𝜙(𝜎) = 𝜎, for all, 𝜎 ∈ 𝐺,
i.e., the identity map on 𝑆𝑛 . Thus, this action is faithful.

Further, if for each 𝑠 = 1,2, ⋯ , 𝑛, 𝐺𝑠 is the stabilizer of `𝑠′ then

𝐺𝑠 = {𝜎 ∈ 𝑆𝑛 ∶ 𝜎. 𝑠 = 𝑠}
= {𝜎 ∈ 𝑆𝑛 ∶ 𝜎(𝑠) = 𝑠}.

So, 𝐺𝑠 is the collection of all the permutations which fix `𝑠′, therefore we can ignore `𝑠′ as `𝑠′
always map to itself. Thus
𝐺𝑠 ≈ 𝑆𝑛 −1 , for all 𝑠 = 1,2, ⋯ , 𝑛.
Furthermore,

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 Group Actions

𝑂(𝐺)
𝑖𝐺 (𝐺𝑠 ) =
𝑂(𝐺𝑠 )
𝑛!
=
(𝑛 − 1)!
=𝑛
= 𝑂(𝑆), for all 𝑠 = 1,2, ⋯ , 𝑛.
Thus there is only one orbit of 𝐺. Hence the action of 𝐺 on 𝑆 is transitive. □

Example 5.5 Let 𝐺 = 𝐷8 , 𝑆 = {1, 2, 3, 4} and suppose that 𝐺 acts on 𝑆. Let 𝑟 denotes the
rotation of square by 90∘ in clockwise direction and 𝑠 denotes the reflection of square about
the line passes through the vertices 1 and 3. Then, we have
𝜎𝑟 = 1 2 3 4 and
𝜎𝑠 = (2 4).
Also the permutation representation associated to this action 𝜙: 𝐺 → 𝑆𝑦𝑚(𝑆) is a
homomorphism and only identity permutation fixes all the four vertices of square. Therefore
𝑘𝑒𝑟 𝜙 = {𝐼}
which gives 𝜙 is injective and thus faithful.

Further, stabilizer of any vertex 𝑠 ∈ 𝑆 is a subgroup of 𝐺 of order 2. As these are

generated by the reflection about the line passing through `𝑠′ and the center of square. So
𝐺1 = 2 4 ,
𝐺2 = 1 3 ,
𝐺3 = 2 4 and
𝐺4 = (1 3)
Furthermore,
𝑂(𝐺)
𝑖𝐺 (𝐺𝑠 ) =
𝑂(𝐺𝑠 )
8
=
2
= 𝑂(𝑆), for all 𝑖 = 1,2, ⋯ , 𝑛.
Therefore there is only one orbit of 𝐺. Hence the action of 𝐺 on 𝑆 is transitive. □

Example 5.6 Let 𝐺 = 𝐷8 , 𝑆 = {𝑎 = {1,3}, 𝑏 = {2,4}} and suppose that 𝐺 acts on 𝑆 . Let 𝑟
denotes the rotation of square by 90∘ in clockwise direction and 𝑠 denotes the reflection in the
line passes through the vertices 1 and 3. Then
𝜎𝑟 = 𝑎, 𝑏 and
𝜎𝑠 = Identity permutation.
Then in view of Example 2.6, this action is not faithful and
𝑘𝑒𝑟 𝜙 = 𝑠, 𝑟 2
= {𝐼, 𝑟 2 , 𝑟 2 𝑠, 𝑠}.
Also,
𝐺𝑎 = 𝑠, 𝑟 2 = ker 𝜙.
Similarly
𝐺𝑏 = ker 𝜙.
Further
𝑂(𝐺)
𝑖𝐺 (𝐺𝑠 ) =
𝑂(𝐺𝑠 )
8
=
4
= 𝑂(𝑆), for 𝑠 = 𝑎, 𝑏.
Therefore there is only one orbit of 𝐺. Hence the action of 𝐺 on 𝑆 is transitive. □

In the previous example group 𝐺 acts on the pair of opposite vertices but in the next

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 Group Actions

example we show that it cannot act on consecutive pair of vertices

Example 5.7 Let 𝐺 = 𝐷8 , 𝑆 = 𝑐 = 1,2 , 𝑑 = 3,4 and suppose that 𝐺 acts on 𝑆. Let 𝑟
denotes the rotation of square by 90∘ in clockwise direction and 𝑠 denotes the reflection of
square about the line passes through the vertices 1 and 3. Then 𝐺 does not acts on 𝑆 as
𝑐 ∈ 𝑆 but 𝑟. 𝑐 = {1,4} ∉ 𝑆. □

If 𝐺 acts transitively on a set 𝑆 then subgroup of 𝐺 need not act transitively on 𝑆.

In this direction we have a following example

Example 5.8 Let 𝐺 = 𝑆4 , 𝑆 = {1, 2, 3, 4} and suppose that 𝐺 acts on 𝑆 . Then in view of
Example 5.4, we have
𝐺𝑠 ≈ 𝑆3 and
𝑖𝐺 𝐺𝑠 = 4
= 𝑂 𝑆 for 𝑠 = 1, 2, 3, 4.
Thus 𝐺 acts transitively on 𝑆. Define a subgroup 𝐻 of 𝐺 as
𝐻 = (1 2), (3 4)
= {𝐼, (1 2), (3 4), (1 2)(3 4)}.
Then
𝑐1 = 𝜎. 1: 𝜎 ∈ 𝐻
= 𝜎 1 : 𝜎∈𝐻
= 1, 2 .
Similarlly
𝑐2 = 1, 2 ,
𝑐3 = 3, 4 and
𝑐4 = 3, 4 .
So there are two orbits of action of 𝐻 on 𝑆. Hence 𝐻 does not act transitively on 𝑆. □

IQ 5
 Let 𝐺 = 𝑂(3, ℝ) denote the group of all 3 × 3 real orthogonal matrices and suppose
that 𝐺 act on ℝ3 in the usual sense. Explain the orbits of 𝐺 under this action.
Hint: Linear transformation corresponding to orthogonal matrices preserves length.

IQ 6
 Explain the orbits of 𝐺 under the action as defined in Example 1.6.

Value Addition
 If 𝜎 is the cyclic group of 𝑆𝑛 then orbits of 𝜎 consists of the set of numbers that
appears in the cycle decomposition of 𝜎.

Problem 5.9 Let 𝐻 be a subgroup of finite group 𝐺 , 𝑆 = 𝐺 and 𝐻 acts on 𝑆 by left

multiplication. Let 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺 and 𝒪𝑥 be the orbit of 𝑥 under the action of 𝐻. Show that the map
𝐻 → 𝒪𝑥 defined by 𝑕 → 𝑕. 𝑥
is a bijection. Further, deduce Lagrange’s theorem.

Solution. Let 𝜙: 𝐻 → 𝒪𝑥 be the map defined by

𝜙 𝑕 = 𝑕. 𝑥, 𝑕 ∈ 𝐻.
Then
𝜙 𝑕1 = 𝜙 𝑕2
⇒ 𝑕1 . 𝑥 = 𝑕2 . 𝑥
⇒ 𝑕1 = 𝑕2 .

Therefore, 𝜙 is one-one. Also, for each 𝑎 ∈ 𝒪𝑥 ,

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 Group Actions

𝑎∼𝑥
⇒ 𝑎 = 𝑕. 𝑥 for some 𝑕 ∈ 𝐻
⇒ 𝜙 𝑕 = 𝑕. 𝑥
= 𝑎.
So, 𝜙 is onto. Thus, 𝜙 is a bijection. Hence
0 𝐻 = 0 𝒪𝑥 .

Deduction: In view of above, for each 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺, the number of elements in orbits of 𝑥 is equal to
0 𝐻 . Also, under the group action orbits of 𝐺 forms partition of the set, therefore the orbits of
𝐻 partitions 𝐺. Let 𝒪𝑥 1 , 𝒪𝑥 2 , ⋯ , 𝒪𝑥 𝑟 be the distinct orbits of 𝐻 which partitions 𝐺 then
𝑟

⇒𝐺= 𝒪𝑥 𝑖
𝑖=1
𝑟

⇒0 𝐺 =0 𝒪𝑥 𝑖
𝑖=1
𝑟

= 0 𝒪𝑥 𝑖 .
𝑖=1
As 0 𝒪𝑥 𝑖 = 0 𝐻 , 𝑖 = 1, 2, ⋯ , 𝑟.
⇒ 0 𝐺 = 𝑟. 0 𝐻
Hence, if 𝐺 is the finite group and 𝐻 is a subgroup of 𝐺 then 0 𝐻 divides 𝑂 𝐺 . □

Problem 5.10 Let 𝐺 be a group, 𝑆 be a non-empty set and suppose that 𝐺 acts on 𝑆. Let
𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑆 such that 𝑏 = 𝑔. 𝑎 for some 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺, then 𝐺𝑏 = 𝑔 𝐺𝑎 𝑔−1 , where 𝐺𝑎 and 𝐺𝑏 are stabilizers
of 𝑎 and 𝑏 respectively.
Further, deduce that if 𝐺 acts transitively on 𝑆 then the kernel of the action is
𝑔𝐺𝑎 𝑔−1 .
𝑔∈𝐺

Solution. Let 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑆 such that 𝑏 = 𝑔. 𝑎 for some 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺 and 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺𝑏 . Then

𝑔−1 𝑥𝑔 . 𝑎 = 𝑔−1 𝑥 . 𝑔. 𝑎
= 𝑔−1 𝑥. 𝑏
= 𝑔−1 . 𝑏
= 𝑎.
Therefore
𝑔−1 𝑥𝑔 ∈ 𝐺𝑎 for all 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺𝑏
⇒ 𝑥 ∈ 𝑔𝐺𝑎 𝑔−1 for all 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺𝑏
⇒ 𝐺𝑏 ⊆ 𝑔𝐺𝑎 𝑔−1 .

Conversely, let 𝑥 ∈ 𝑔𝐺𝑎 𝑔−1

⇒ 𝑔−1 𝑥𝑔 . 𝑎 = 𝑎
⇒ 𝑔−1 𝑥 . 𝑏 = 𝑎
⇒ 𝑔. 𝑔−1 𝑥 . 𝑏 = 𝑔. 𝑎
⇒ 𝑥. 𝑏 = 𝑔. 𝑎
⇒ 𝑥. 𝑏 = 𝑏
Therefore
⇒ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺𝑏 for all 𝑥 ∈ 𝑔𝐺𝑎 𝑔−1
⇒ 𝑔𝐺𝑎 𝑔−1 ⊆ 𝐺𝑏 .
Thus
𝑔𝐺𝑎 𝑔−1 ⊆ 𝐺𝑏 .
Hence
𝐺𝑏 = 𝑔𝐺𝑎 𝑔−1 .

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 Group Actions

Deduction: If 𝐺 acts transitively on 𝑆 then for every 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑆 there exist 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺 such that
𝑏 = 𝑔. 𝑎 . Therefore if we fix 𝑎 ∈ 𝑆, then for every 𝑠 ∈ 𝑆, there exist 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺 such that 𝑠 = 𝑔. 𝑎
⇒ 𝐺𝑠 = 𝑔𝐺𝑎 𝑔−1 , 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺.
Also, if 𝐾 is the kernel of action then
𝐾 = {𝑔 ∈ 𝐺: 𝑔𝑠 = 𝑠, for all 𝑠 ∈ 𝑆}.
= 𝐺𝑠 .
𝑠∈𝑆
Thus
𝐺𝑠 = 𝑔𝐺𝑎 𝑔−1 .
𝑠∈𝑆 𝑔∈𝐺
Hence
𝐾= 𝑔𝐺𝑎 𝑔−1 . □
𝑔∈𝐺

Problem 5.11 Let 𝑆 be a set and 𝐺 ≤ 𝑆𝑦𝑚 𝑆 , let 𝜎 ∈ 𝐺 and 𝑠 ∈ 𝑆. Prove that if 𝐺 acts
transitively on S then
𝜎𝐺𝑠 𝜎 −1 = 𝐼 .
𝜎 ∈𝐺

Solution. In view of Problem 5.10, if 𝐺 acts transitively on 𝑆 then the kernel of the action 𝐾
is
𝐾= 𝜎𝐺𝑠 𝜎 −1 .
𝜎∈𝐺
Also, as 𝐺 ≤ 𝑆𝑦𝑚 𝑆 , the permutation representation associated to the action is the
homomorphism 𝜙: 𝐺 → 𝑆𝑦𝑚(𝑆) which is an inductive map.
⇒ 𝜙 is injective
𝑘𝑒𝑟 𝜙 = 𝐼 .
Thus

𝜎𝐺𝑠 𝜎 −1 = 𝐾
𝜎 ∈𝐺

= 𝑘𝑒𝑟 𝜙
= 𝐼 . □

Problem 5.12 Let 𝐺 be an Abelian group such that 𝐺 acts transitively on the set 𝑆 (i.e.,
transitive subgroup of 𝑆𝑦𝑚 𝑆). Show that 𝜎 𝑠 ≠ 𝑠 for all 𝜎 ∈ 𝐺 ∼ 𝐼 and all 𝑠 ∈ 𝑆. Deduce that
0 𝐺 =0 𝑆 .

Solution. As 𝐺 is Abelian, therefore by Problem 5.11

𝐼 = 𝜎𝐺𝑠 𝜎 −1
𝜎 ∈𝐺
= 𝜎𝜎 −1 𝐺𝑠
𝜎 ∈𝐺
= 𝐺𝑠
𝜎 ∈𝐺
= 𝐺𝑠 .
So we have
𝜎 𝑠 ≠ 𝑠 for all 𝜎 ∈ 𝐺 ∼ 𝐼 and all 𝑠 ∈ 𝑆.

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 Group Actions

Deduction: As the action of 𝐺 is transitive on 𝑆, so if we fix 𝑠 ∈ 𝑆 then for every 𝑡 ∈ 𝑆 there

exists 𝜎 ∈ 𝐺 such that 𝑡 = 𝜎. 𝑠. Now, suppose that
𝜎. 𝑠 = 𝜏. 𝑠
⇒ 𝜏 −1 . 𝜎. 𝑠 = 𝜏 −1 . 𝜏. 𝑠
⇒ 𝜏 −1 𝜎. 𝑠 = 𝑠
⇒ 𝜏 −1 𝜎 ∈ 𝐺𝑠 = 𝐼
⇒ 𝜎 = 𝜏.
Therefore we can say, for a fixed 𝑠 ∈ 𝑆 , for every 𝑡 ∈ 𝑆 there exists a unique 𝜎 ∈ 𝐺 such
that 𝑡 = 𝜎. 𝑠 . So, there is a one-one map from 𝑆 → 𝐺 . Thus
0 𝐺 ≥0 𝑆 .
Also for each 𝑠 ∈ 𝑆, define 𝜙𝑠 : 𝐺 → 𝑆 by
𝜙𝑠 𝜎 = 𝜎. 𝑠 , 𝜎 ∈ 𝐺
Then, 𝜙𝑠 is also one-one. In fact
⇒ 𝜙𝑠 𝜎 = 𝜙𝑠 (𝜏)
⇒ 𝜎. 𝑠 = 𝜏. 𝑠
⇒ 𝜏 −1 𝜎. 𝑠 = 𝑠
⇒ 𝜏 −1 𝜎 ∈ 𝐺𝑠 = 𝐼
⇒ 𝜎 = 𝜏.
Therefore
0 𝐺 ≤0 𝑆 .
Hence
0 𝐺 =0 𝑆 . □

Exercise C
1. Let 𝐺 = 𝑆𝑛 , fix an 𝑖 ∈ 1,2, ⋯ , 𝑛 and let 𝐺𝑖 = 𝜎 ∈ 𝐺 ∶ 𝜎 𝑖 = 𝑖 (the stabilizer of 𝑖 in 𝐺).
Use group actions to prove that 𝐺𝑖 is a subgroup of 𝐺. Find 0 𝐺𝑖 .
Hint: Example 3.4.
2. Let 𝑆 be a set and 𝐺 ≤ 𝑆𝑦𝑚 𝑆, let 𝜎 ∈ 𝐺 and 𝑠 ∈ 𝑆. Prove that 𝜎𝐺𝑠 𝜎 −1 = 𝐺𝜎 𝑠 .

6 Applications
In this section, we prove some important theorems as an application of group actions.

𝐺 𝐺
Lemma 6.1 If 𝐺 is cyclic group. Then is also cyclic, where 𝑁 ⊲ 𝐺. Further, 𝑂 = 𝑑, where
𝑁 𝑁
𝑑
𝑑 is the smallest positive integer such that 𝑎 ∈ 𝑁.

𝐺
Proof. As 𝐺 is cyclic, therefore 𝐺 = 𝑎 for some 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺. Let 𝑁𝑥 ∈ then 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺
𝑁
𝑟
⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑎 for some 𝑟 ∈ ℤ
Therefore
𝑁𝑥 = 𝑁𝑎𝑟
𝑟
= 𝑁𝑎 for some 𝑟 ∈ ℤ.
So, we have
𝐺
= 𝑁𝑎 .
𝑁

Now, we show that 0 𝑁𝑎 = 𝑑, where 𝑑 is the smallest positive integer such that 𝑎𝑑 ∈ 𝑁. As
1. 𝑁𝑎 𝑑 = 𝑁𝑎𝑑
= 𝑁. (as 𝑎𝑑 ∈ 𝑁)
2. Let 𝑁𝑎 𝜆 = 𝑁
⇒ 𝑎 𝜆 ∈ 𝑁.

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 Group Actions

As 𝜆 ∈ ℤ and 𝑑 ∈ ℤ+, therefore by division algorithm

𝜆 = 𝑡𝑑 + 𝑠, where 𝑡 ∈ ℤ and 0 ≤ 𝑠 ≤ 𝑑 − 1.
⇒ 𝑎 𝜆 = 𝑎𝑡𝑑 +𝑠
= 𝑎𝑑 𝑡 𝑎 𝑠
𝜆 𝑑
As 𝑎 ∈ 𝑁 and 𝑎 ∈ 𝑁, therefore
𝑎 𝑠 ∈ 𝑁.
As 𝑑 is the smallest positive integer such that 𝑎𝑑 ∈ 𝑁 but 𝑎 𝑠 ∈ 𝑁 where, 0 ≤ 𝑠 < 𝑑.
Therefore we have 𝑠 = 0.
⇒ 𝑑|𝜆 .
𝐺
Thus 0 𝑁𝑎 = 𝑑. Further, as = 𝑁𝑎 , so we have
𝑁
𝐺
0 = 0 𝑁𝑎 = 𝑑. □
𝑁

Theorem 6.2 (Cycle Decomposition) Every element of the symmetric group 𝑆𝑛 has a
unique cycle decomposition.

Proof. Let 𝜎 ∈ 𝑆𝑛 , 𝐺 = 𝜎 and suppose that 𝐺 acts on 𝑆 = {1, 2, ⋯ , 𝑛}. Then in view of Theorem
5.1, 𝑆 can be partitioned into unique set of disjoint orbits. Let 𝒪 be any orbit and 𝑠 ∈ 𝒪. Let
𝐺 𝐺
𝐺𝑠 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡
be the set of left cosets of 𝐺𝑠 in 𝐺. Then define a map 𝜓: 𝒪 → as
𝐺𝑠
𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡
𝜓 𝜎 𝑖 . 𝑠 = 𝜎 𝑖 𝐺𝑠 , 𝜎 𝑖 ∈ 𝐺 = 𝜎 , 𝑠 ∈ 𝑆.
𝑖 𝑗
Then, for 𝜎 . 𝑠 , 𝜎 . 𝑠 ∈ 𝒪, we have
𝜓 𝜎𝑖 . 𝑠 = 𝜓 𝜎𝑗 . 𝑠
⇒ 𝜎 𝑖 𝐺𝑠 = 𝜎 𝑗 𝐺𝑠
⇒ 𝜎 𝑖−𝑗 ∈ 𝐺𝑠
⇒ 𝜎 𝑖−𝑗 . 𝑠 = 𝑠
⇒ 𝜎𝑖 . 𝑠 = 𝜎𝑗 . 𝑠 .
𝐺
So, 𝜓 is an injective map. Also for each 𝜎 𝑟 𝐺𝑠 ∈ , there exist 𝜎 𝑟 . 𝑠 ∈ 𝒪 such that
𝐺𝑠 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡
𝜓 𝜎 𝑟 . 𝑠 = 𝜎 𝑟 𝐺𝑠 .
Therefore 𝜓 is surjective and so it is a bijection. Thus
𝐺
0 𝒪 =0 .
𝐺𝑠 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡
𝐺
Now, as 𝐺 is cyclic therefore 𝐺𝑠 ⊲ 𝐺 and so in view of Lemma 6.1, is also cyclic group of
𝐺𝑠 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡

order `𝑑′, where 𝑑 is the smallest positive integer for which 𝜎 𝑑 ∈ 𝐺𝑠 . Further
𝑂(𝐺)
𝑖𝐺 (𝐺𝑠 ) =
𝑂(𝐺𝑠 )
𝐺
=0
𝐺𝑠 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡
=𝑑
=𝑂 𝒪 .
Thus the distinct cosets of 𝐺𝑠 in 𝐺 are
𝑒𝐺𝑠 , 𝜎𝐺𝑠 , 𝜎 2 𝐺𝑠 , ⋯, 𝜎 (𝑑−1) 𝐺𝑠 .
Therefore, in view of above defined bijection 𝜓 distinct elements of 𝒪 are
𝑠, 𝜎(𝑠), 𝜎 2 (𝑠), ⋯, 𝜎 (𝑑−1) (𝑠).
Fixing the elements of 𝒪 in above order shows 𝜎 cycles the elements of 𝒪 i.e. on orbit of
order 𝑑, 𝜎 acts as a 𝑑-cycle.
Further, the orbits of 𝐺 = 𝜎 are uniquely determined by 𝜎. As within each orbit, we
can start with any element. Suppose we choose to start with 𝜎 𝑖 (𝑥) instead of 𝑥, then we have
𝜎𝑖 𝑥 , 𝜎 𝑖+1 𝑥 , ⋯ , 𝜎 𝑑−1 𝑥 , 𝑥, 𝜎 𝑥 , ⋯, 𝜎 𝑖−1 (𝑥)
which is a cyclic permutation. This shows cycle decomposition is unique up to a rearrangement

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 Group Actions

of the cycles and up to a cyclic permutation of the integers with in each cycle. □

Group acting on itself by Left multiplication

Let 𝐺 a group and 𝑆 = 𝐺. Define a map

𝐺 × 𝑆 ↦ 𝑆 as
𝑔. 𝑠 = 𝑔𝑠, 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺 and 𝑠 ∈ 𝑆 = 𝐺.
Then the group 𝐺 acts on itself. This action of 𝐺 on itself is called left regular action. (See
Example 1.4).

Suppose that 𝐺 is a finite group and 𝑂(𝐺) = 𝑛 . Then in order to represent the
permutation representation induced by left regular action we number the elements of 𝐺 with
1, 2, ⋯ , 𝑛 (in order)* i.e., if elements of 𝐺 are listed as:
1 2 3 ⋯ 𝑛
↕ ↕ ↕ ⋯ ↕
𝑔1 𝑔2 𝑔3 ⋯ 𝑔𝑛
Then for each 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺, the permutation representation `𝜎𝑔 ′ associated to 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺 may be
expressed as a permutation of indices 1, 2, ⋯ , 𝑛 as follows:
𝜎𝑔 𝑖 = 𝑗 ⇔ 𝑔. 𝑔𝑖 = 𝑔𝑗 .
*
(Different ordering of group elements will produce different description of 𝜎𝑔 as a
permutation of {1, 2, ⋯ , 𝑛}).

The above discussion is explained with the help of a following example:

Example 6.3 Let 𝐺 = {1, 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐} be the Klein‟s 4-group. Then we can number the elements of
𝐺:
1 2 3 4
↕ ↕ ↕ ↕
1 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
Under this numbering permutation representation of every element of 𝐺 induced by left
regular action are as follows:
𝜎𝑎 1 = 𝑎. 1 = 𝑎 = 2
𝜎𝑎 2 = 𝑎. 2 = 𝑎. 𝑎 = 1 1 2 3 4
⟹ 𝜎𝑎 = ∈ 𝑆𝑦𝑚 𝑆 ,
𝜎𝑎 3 = 𝑎. 3 = 𝑎. 𝑏 = 𝑐 = 4 2 1 4 3
𝜎𝑎 4 = 𝑎. 4 = 𝑎. 𝑐 = 𝑏 = 3
Thus
𝜎𝑎 = (1 2)(3 4) ∈ 𝑆4 .
Similarly
𝜎𝑏 = (1 3)(2 4) ∈ 𝑆4 and
𝜎𝑐 = (1 4)(2 3) ∈ 𝑆4 . □

Group acting on set of left cosets of its subgroup by left multiplication

𝐺
Let 𝐺 a group and 𝐻 be a subgroup of 𝐺. Let be set of all left cosets of 𝐻 in 𝐺.
𝐻 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡
Define a map
𝐺 𝐺
𝐺× ↦ 𝑎𝑠
𝐻 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝐻 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡
𝐺
𝑔. 𝑎𝐻 = 𝑔𝑎𝐻, 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺 and 𝑎𝐻 ∈ .
𝐻 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡
Then the group G acts S. In fact
𝑔1 . (𝑔2 . 𝑎𝐻) = 𝑔1 . (𝑔2 𝑎𝐻)
= 𝑔1 𝑔2 𝑎𝐻

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 Group Actions

𝐺
= (𝑔1 𝑔2 ). 𝑎𝐻, for all 𝑔1 , 𝑔2 ∈ 𝐺 and 𝑎𝐻 ∈ .
𝐻 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡
Also
𝑒. (𝑎𝐻) = 𝑒𝑎𝐻
𝐺
= 𝑎𝐻 for all 𝑎𝐻 ∈ .
𝐻 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡
Further, if 𝑖𝐺 (𝐻) = 𝑚 . Then in order to represent the permutation representation
induced by the above action, we number the left cosets of 𝐻 in 𝐺 by integers with 1, 2, ⋯ , 𝑚
(in order)** i.e., if the distinct left cosets of 𝐻 in 𝐺 are listed as:
1 2 3 ⋯ 𝑚
↕ ↕ ↕ ⋯ ↕
𝑎1 𝐻 𝑎2 𝐻 𝑎3 𝐻 ⋯ 𝑎𝑚 𝐻
Then for each 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺, the permutation representation `𝜎𝑔 ′ associated to 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺 may be
expressed as a permutation of indices 1, 2, ⋯ , 𝑚 as follows:
𝜎𝑔 𝑖 = 𝑗 ⇔ 𝑔. 𝑎𝑖 𝐻 = 𝑎𝑗 𝐻.
**
(Different ordering of group elements will produce different description of 𝜎𝑔 as a
permutation of {1, 2, ⋯ , 𝑚}),

The above discussion is explained with the help of a following example:

Example 6.4 Let 𝐺 = 𝐷8 and 𝐻 = 𝑠 , where 𝑟 denotes the rotation of square by 90∘ in
clockwise direction and 𝑠 denotes the reflection of square about the line passes through the
vertices 1 and 3. Then we can number the distinct left cosets of 𝐻 in 𝐺 as :
1 2 3 4
↕ ↕ ↕ ↕
𝐻 𝑟𝐻 𝑟2 𝐻 𝑟3 𝐻
Under this numbering, permutation representation of every element of 𝐺 induced by action
of 𝐺 on set of all left cosets of 𝐻 in 𝐺 are as follows:
𝜎𝑠 1 = 𝑠. 1𝐻 = 𝑠𝐻 = 𝐻 = 1
𝜎𝑠 2 = 𝑠. 𝑟𝐻 = 𝑠𝑟𝐻 = 𝑟 3 𝐻 = 4
⇒ 𝜎𝑠 = (2 4)
𝜎𝑠 3 = 𝑠. 𝑟 2 𝐻 = 𝑠𝑟 2 𝐻 = 𝑟 2 𝐻 = 3
𝜎𝑠 4 = 𝑠. 𝑟 3 𝐻 = 𝑠𝑟 3 𝐻 = 𝑟𝐻 = 2
Similarly
𝑟. 1𝐻 = 𝑟𝐻
𝑟. 𝑟𝐻 = 𝑟 2 𝐻 ⇒ 𝜎𝑟 = (1 2 3 4).
𝑟. 𝑟 2 𝐻 = 𝑟 3 𝐻
𝑟. 𝑟 3 𝐻 = 𝑟 4 𝐻 = 𝐻
Finally, as we know that the permutation representation is a homomorphism, so any other
element can be determined with the help of above two permutations.
In particular
𝜎𝑠𝑟 2 = 𝜎𝑠 ∘ 𝜎𝑟 2
= 𝜎𝑠 ∘ 𝜎𝑟2
= (2 4)(1 2 3 4)(1 2 3 4)
= 13 . □

Value Addition
𝐺
 If we take 𝐻 = {𝑒}, then above defined action of 𝐺 on to the set of all left
𝐻 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡
cosets of 𝐻 in 𝐺, is the left regular action.

In the next result we give the properties of above defined action of 𝐺 on set of all left
cosets of 𝐻 in 𝐺.

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 Group Actions

Theorem 6.5 Let 𝐺 be a group and 𝐻 be a subgroup of 𝐺. Suppose that 𝐺 acts by left
𝐺
multiplication on the set of all left cosets of H in 𝐺 . Let 𝜋𝐻 be the associated
𝐻 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡
permutation representation induced by action. Then
𝐺
1. 𝐺 acts transitively on .
𝐻 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡
𝐺
2. The stabilizer of 𝑒𝐻 ∈ in 𝐺 is the subgroup 𝐻. (i.e., 𝐺𝑒𝐻 = 𝐻.)
𝐻 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡
3. The kernel of the action (or ker 𝜋𝐻 ) is
‍𝑥𝐻𝑥 −1
𝑥 ∈𝐺
and ker 𝜋𝐻 is the largest normal subgroup of 𝐺 contained in 𝐻.

𝐺
Proof. (1). Let 𝑎𝐻, 𝑏𝐻 ∈ and take 𝑔 = 𝑏𝑎 −1 . Then
𝐻 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡
𝑔. (𝑎𝐻) = 𝑔𝑎𝐻
= (𝑏𝑎−1 )𝑎𝐻
= 𝑏𝐻.
𝐺
So, for every 𝑎𝐻, 𝑏𝐻 ∈ , there exist 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺 such that 𝑔. (𝑎𝐻) = 𝑏𝐻 . Thus 𝐺 acts
𝐻 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡
𝐺
transitively on .
𝐻 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡

(2). We have
𝐺𝑒𝐻 = {𝑔 ∈ 𝐺: 𝑔. (𝑒𝐻) = 𝐻}
= {𝑔 ∈ 𝐺: 𝑔𝐻 = 𝐻}
= {𝑔 ∈ 𝐺: 𝑔 ∈ 𝐻}
=𝐺∩𝐻
= 𝐻.

(3). By the definition of kernel of homomorphism, we have

𝑘𝑒𝑟⁡ 𝜋𝐻 = {𝑔 ∈ 𝐺: 𝑔. (𝑥𝐻) = 𝑥𝐻, for all 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺}
= {𝑔 ∈ 𝐺: 𝑔𝑥𝐻 = 𝑥𝐻, for all 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺}
= {𝑔 ∈ 𝐺: 𝑥 −1 𝑔𝑥 ∈ 𝐻, for all 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺}
= {𝑔 ∈ 𝐺: 𝑔 ∈ 𝑥𝐻𝑥 −1 , for all 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺}
= {𝑔 ∈ 𝐺: 𝑔 ∈ ‍𝑥𝐻𝑥 −1 }
𝑥∈𝐺
−1
= ‍𝑥𝐻𝑥 .
𝑥∈𝐺
Further, let 𝑁 be a normal subgroup of 𝐺 such that 𝑁 ⊆ 𝐻. Then we have
𝑁 = 𝑥𝑁𝑥 −1
⊆ 𝑥𝐻𝑥 −1 for all 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺
⇒ 𝑁 ⊆ 𝑥𝐻𝑥 −1 for all 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺
⇒𝑁⊆ ‍𝑥𝐻𝑥 −1
𝑥∈𝐺
⇒ 𝑁 ⊆ ker 𝜋𝐻 .
Also, we know that ker 𝜋𝐻 ⊲ 𝐺. Thus ker 𝜋𝐻 is the largest normal subgroup of 𝐺 contained in
𝐻. □

Corollary 6.6 (Calyey's Theorem) Every group is isomorphic to a subgroup of some

symmetric group. Moreover, if 𝐺 is a group such that 𝑂(𝐺) = 𝑛 then 𝐺 is isomorphic to
subgroup of 𝑆𝑛 .

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 Group Actions

𝐺
Proof. Let 𝐻 = {𝑒}, 𝑆 = be the set of all left cosets of 𝐻 in 𝐺 and 𝐺 acts on 𝑆 by left
𝐻 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡
multiplication. Let 𝜋𝐻 : 𝐺 → 𝑆𝑦𝑚(𝑆) be the associated permutation representation induced by
action. Then by Theorem 6.5, ker 𝜋𝐻 is the largest normal subgroup of 𝐺 contained in 𝐻.
Therefore,
ker 𝜋𝐻 = 𝑒 .
Hence by I st isomorphism theorem,
𝐺 ≈ 𝜋𝐻 𝐺 < 𝑆𝑦𝑚 𝑆 . □

Corollary 6.7 (Index Theorem) If 𝐺 is a finite group and 𝐻 < 𝐺 such that 𝑖𝐺 𝐻 = 𝑝, where
𝑝 is the smallest prime such that 𝑝|𝑂(𝐺), then 𝐻 normal in 𝐺.

𝐺
Proof. Let 𝐻 be a subgroup of 𝐺 such that 𝑖𝐺 (𝐻) = 𝑝 and be the set of all left cosets of
𝐻 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡
𝐺 𝐺
𝐻 in 𝐺 . Suppose 𝐺 acts on by left multiplication and 𝜋𝐻 : 𝐺 → 𝑆𝑦𝑚 be the
𝐻 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝐻 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡
associated permutation representation induced by action. Let 𝐾 = ker 𝜋𝐻 and 𝑖𝐻 (𝐾) = 𝑘. So we
have
𝑂(𝐺)
𝑖𝐺 (𝐾) =
𝑂(𝐾)
𝑂(𝐺) 𝑂(𝐻)
= .
𝑂(𝐻) 𝑂(𝐾)
= 𝑝𝑘.
Also, 𝐻 has 𝑝 left cosets in 𝐺. Therefore
𝐺
𝜋𝐻 : 𝐺 → 𝑆𝑦𝑚 ≈ 𝑆𝑝
𝐻 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡
So, by I st - isomorphism theorem,
𝐺
≈ 𝜋𝐻 (𝐺) < 𝑆𝑝 .
𝐾
Thus , by Lagrange‟s Theorem
𝑂(𝜋𝐻 (𝐺))|𝑂(𝑆𝑝 )
⇒ 𝑘𝑝 | 𝑝!
⇒ 𝑘 | (𝑝 − 1)!
⇒ prime divisors of 𝑘 are less than 𝑝.
⇒ 𝑂 𝐺 has a prime divisor less than 𝑝.
Also, by minimality of 𝑝, every prime divisor of 𝑘 is greater than or equal to 𝑝. This gives
𝑘 = 1. Hence
𝐻 = 𝐾 ⊲ 𝐺. □

Problem 6.8 Let 𝐺 be a group and 𝐻 be a subgroup of 𝐺 such that 𝑖𝐺 𝐻 = 𝑛 then show that
there is a normal subgroup of 𝐺 with index ≤ 𝑛! .

𝐺
Solution. Suppose that 𝐺 acts on the set of all left cosets by left multiplication. Let
𝐻 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡
𝐺
𝜙: 𝐺 → 𝑆𝑦𝑚 be the permutation representation induced by this action, and let 𝐾 be the
𝐻 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡
kernel of the representation. Now 𝐾 is normal in 𝐺, and by Theorem 6.5,
𝐾 ≤ 𝐺𝐻 = 𝐻.
By the First Isomorphism Theorem, there is an injective group homomorphism
𝐺 𝐺
Φ: → 𝑆𝑦𝑚 .
𝐾 𝐻 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡
Since

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 Group Actions

𝐺
𝑂 𝑆𝑦𝑚 = 𝑛! .
𝐻 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡
Therefore
𝐺: 𝐾 ≤ 𝑛! . □

Problem 6.9 If 𝐺 is a group such that 0 𝐺 = 𝑝𝛼 for some prime 𝑝 and positive integer
𝛼. Then show that subgroup of index 𝑝 is normal in 𝐺. Deduce that group of order 𝑝2 has
normal subgroup of order 𝑝.

Solution. Let 𝐺 be a group of order 𝑝𝛼 . Then 𝑝 is the smallest prime dividing 0 𝐺 . Therefore
in view of Corollary 6.7, every subgroup of index 𝑝 is normal in 𝐺.

Deduction: Suppose that 0 𝐺 = 𝑝2 . Let 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 such that 𝑎 ≠ 𝑒.

⇒ 0 𝑎 = 𝑝 or 𝑝2 .
2
If 0 𝑎 = 𝑝2 then 𝑎 𝑝 = 𝑒
⇒ 𝑎𝑝 𝑝 = 𝑒
⇒ 0 𝑎𝑝 = 𝑝
⇒ either 𝑎 or 𝑎𝑝 has order 𝑝.
⇒ 𝐺 has a subgroup, say 𝐻 such that 0 𝐻 = 𝑝
Thus
0 𝐺
𝐺: 𝐻 =
0 𝐻
𝑝2
=
𝑝
=𝑝
Hence, 𝐻 is normal in 𝐺. □

Exercise D
1. Let 𝐺 = 𝑆3 and 𝐺 acts on itself by the left regular action. By labelling the elements
of 𝐺 : 1, 1 2 3 , 1 3 2 , 1 3 , 2 3 , 1 2 with the natural numbers 1, 5, 6, 2 , 3, 4
respectively, display the image of each element of 𝐺 under representation of 𝐺 to 𝑆6 .
2. Let 𝐺 = 𝐷8 and 𝐺 acts on itself by the left regular action. By labelling the elements
of 𝐺 : 1, 𝑟, 𝑠, 𝑠𝑟, 𝑟 2 , 𝑠𝑟 2 , 𝑟 3 , 𝑠𝑟 3 with the natural numbers 1, 2, 5, 6, 3, 7, 4, 8
respectively, display the image of each element of 𝐺 under left regular representation
of 𝐺 to 𝑆8 .
3. Let 𝐺 = 𝐷8 and 𝐺 acts on itself by the left regular action. By labelling the elements
of 𝐺: 1, 𝑟, 𝑠, 𝑠𝑟, 𝑟 2 , 𝑠𝑟 2 , 𝑟 3 , 𝑠𝑟 3 with the natural numbers 1, 3, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8
respectively, display the image of each element of 𝐺 under left regular representation
𝐺 to 𝑆8 .
4. Show that the two subgroups (i.e., the image of 𝐺) obtained in Exercise D.2 and
Exercise D.3 are different.

References
[1]. David S. Dummit and Richard M. Foote, Abstract Algebra (2nd Edition),
John Wiley and Sons (Asia) Pte. Ltd, Singapore, 2003.

[2]. Smith, Jonathan D.H., Introduction to abstract algebra. Textbooks in

mathematics. CRC Press, 2009.

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