University 8 mai 1945, Guelma Docteur : A.

Ayachi

Chapter II
Binary relations on a set

II.1 Benary relations:

Definition:
Let 𝑅 a relation between Two elements 𝑥, 𝑦 in a set 𝐸 (denoted 𝑥𝑅𝑦), then we
have:
1. 𝑅 is reflexive if ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐸 , 𝑥𝑅𝑥.
2. 𝑅 is symmetric if ∀𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐸, 𝑥𝑅𝑦 ⇒ 𝑦𝑅𝑥.
3. 𝑅 is antisymmetric if ∀𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐸, 𝑥𝑅𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦𝑅𝑥 ⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑦.
4. 𝑅 is transitive if ∀𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ 𝐸, 𝑥𝑅𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦𝑅𝑧 ⇒ 𝑥𝑅𝑧.
Remark:
𝑥𝑅𝑦 is called 𝑥 is related to 𝑦 by 𝑅.
II.2 Equivalence relation:
A relation 𝑅 on a set 𝐸 is called an equivalence relation if it is reflexive,
symmetric and transitive.
Exercise:
Let 𝑅 a relation defined by:
𝑥𝑅𝑦 ⇔ 𝑥𝑒 𝑦 = 𝑦𝑒 𝑥
proof that 𝑅 is an equivalence relation on ℝ.
Solution
1. Reflexive, let 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, we have
𝑥𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑥𝑅𝑥
2. Symmetric, let 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ, we write
𝑥𝑅𝑦 ⇒ 𝑥𝑒 𝑦 = 𝑦𝑒 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑦𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑥𝑒 𝑦 ⇒ 𝑦𝑅𝑥
3. Transitive, let 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ ℝ, such that
𝑥𝑒 𝑦 = 𝑦𝑒 𝑥
𝑥𝑅𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦𝑅𝑧 is { 𝑧
𝑦𝑒 = 𝑧𝑒 𝑦
then
University 8 mai 1945, Guelma Docteur : A.Ayachi

𝑥𝑦𝑒 𝑧 = 𝑥(𝑦𝑒 𝑧 ) = 𝑥(𝑧𝑒 𝑦 ) = 𝑧(𝑥𝑒 𝑦 ) = 𝑧(𝑦𝑒 𝑥 )

if 𝑦 ≠ 0 then 𝑥𝑒 𝑧 = 𝑧𝑒 𝑥 , 𝑥𝑅𝑧
if 𝑦 = 0 then 𝑥 = 𝑦 = 𝑧 = 0, 𝑥𝑅𝑧
II.3 Equivalence class:
Let 𝑅 be an equivalence relation on a set 𝐸, and 𝑎 an element of 𝐸. Then the
equivalence class of 𝑎 is the set
𝑎̅ = { 𝑥 ∈ 𝐸, 𝑥𝑅𝑎}
Theorem:
Let (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝐸 2 and 𝑅 the equivalence relation on 𝐸. then
1. 𝑥𝑅𝑦 ⇔ 𝑥̅ = 𝑦̅
2. 𝑥̅ ≠ 𝑦̅ ⇔ 𝑥̅ ∩ 𝑦̅ = ∅
Proof
1.1 𝑥̅ ⊂ 𝑦̅
1. ⇒) Suppose that 𝑥𝑅𝑦 and show that 𝑥̅ = 𝑦̅ 𝑖𝑒 {
1.2 𝑥̅ ⊃ 𝑦̅
1.1 Let 𝑥0 ∈ 𝑥̅ ⇒ 𝑥0 𝑅𝑥. As 𝑥𝑅𝑦 and 𝑅 is transitive then 𝑥0 𝑅𝑦 ⇒ 𝑥0 ∈ 𝑦̅
1.2 Let 𝑦0 ∈ y̅ ⇒ 𝑦0 𝑅𝑦. As 𝑦𝑅𝑥 and 𝑅 is symmetric ⇒ 𝑦0 𝑅𝑥 (because 𝑅 is
transitive) 𝑦0 ⇒ 𝑥̅ .
⇐) Suppose that 𝑥̅ = 𝑦̅ and show that 𝑥𝑅𝑦. Indeed, as 𝑥 ∈ 𝑥̅ = 𝑦̅, then 𝑥 ∈
𝑦̅ ⇒ 𝑥𝑅𝑦.
2. ⇒) Suppose by contradiction that 𝑥̅ ≠ 𝑦̅ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥̅ ∩ 𝑦̅ ≠ ∅. It exists an
element 𝑐 ∈ 𝑥̅ ∩ 𝑦̅ ie 𝑐 ∈ 𝑥̅ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 ∈ 𝑦̅. Then 𝑐𝑅𝑥 and 𝑐𝑅𝑦. Which give
𝑥𝑅𝑐 and 𝑐𝑅𝑦. Finally, 𝑥𝑅𝑦 ⇒ 𝑥̅ = 𝑦̅ , is a contradiction.
⇐) If 𝑥̅ ∩ 𝑦̅ = ∅ and 𝑥̅ = 𝑦̅, then 𝑥̅ ∩ 𝑦̅ ≠ ∅. A contradiction
Definition:
the set of equivalence set denoted 𝐸/𝑅 = { 𝑥̅ , 𝑥  𝐸} is the quotient set.
Corollary:
The equivalence set 𝐸/𝑅 = { 𝑥̅ , 𝑥  𝐸} form a partition of 𝐸.
Exercise
proof that the relation defined on ℕ by
University 8 mai 1945, Guelma Docteur : A.Ayachi

2𝑥+𝑦
𝑥𝑅𝑦 ⇔ ∈ℕ
3

is an equivalence relation. Find the three equivalent classes.

Solution
1. Reflexive
2𝑥+𝑥
∀𝑥 ∈ ℕ , 𝑥 = ∈ ℕ, then 𝑥𝑅𝑥.
3

2. Symmetric
2𝑥+𝑦 2𝑥+𝑦
∀𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℕ ; 𝑥𝑅𝑦, we have ∈ℕ⇒ = 𝑎 ∈ ℕ. As 𝑦 = 3𝑎 − 2𝑥, then
3 3
2𝑦+𝑥 2(3𝑎−2𝑥)+𝑥 6𝑎−3𝑥
= = = 2𝑎 − 𝑥 ∈ ℕ, then 𝑦𝑅𝑥.
3 3 3

3. transitive
∀𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ ℕ, we have
2𝑥 + 𝑦 2𝑥 + 𝑦
𝑥𝑅𝑦 ⇒ ∈ ℕ = 𝑎 ∈ ℕ
{ 3 ⇒{ 3
2𝑦 + 𝑧 2𝑦 + 𝑧
𝑦𝑅𝑧 ⇒ ∈ ℕ = 𝑏 ∈ ℕ
3 3
As 𝑧 = 3𝑏 − 2𝑦 and 𝑦 = 3𝑎 − 2𝑥, then
𝟐𝒙+𝒛 𝟐𝒙+(𝟑𝒃−𝟔𝒂+𝟒𝒙)
= = 𝑏 − 2𝑎 + 2𝑥 ∈ ℕ, then 𝑥𝑅𝑧
𝟑 𝟑

From 1, 2 and 3, then 𝑅 is an equivalence relation.

2𝑥+𝑎
𝑎 = { 𝑥 ℕ, 𝑥𝑅𝑎} = { 𝑥  ℕ, ℕ}
3
2𝑥+𝑎 3𝑘−𝑎
= { 𝑥  ℕ, = 𝑘ℕ} = {  ℕ, 𝑘 ℕ}
3 2

Then
3𝑘
0̅ = { ∈ 𝑁, 𝑘 ∈ 𝑁 } = { 0,3,6,9,12, … }
2
3𝑘 − 1
1̅ = { ∈ 𝑁, 𝑘 ∈ 𝑁 } = { 1,4,7,10,13, … }
2
3𝑘 − 2
2̅ = { ∈ 𝑁, 𝑘 ∈ 𝑁 } = { 2,5,8,11,14, … }
2
Moreover, we have 3̅ = 0̅ , 4̅ = 1̅ , …. There are three equivalence classes.
University 8 mai 1945, Guelma Docteur : A.Ayachi

II.4 Order relations:

Definition:
A relation 𝑅 on 𝐸 between two elements is an order relation if and only if
reflexive, antisymmetric and transitive.
Example
1. The relation ≤ is an order relation on ℕ , ℤ or ℝ.
2. Let 𝑋 a set, ⊂ is an order relation on 𝑃(𝑥).
Definition:
Let 𝑥 and 𝑦 be in the set 𝐸, if every two elements 𝑥, 𝑦 of 𝐸 are comparable with
the relation 𝑅 if either 𝑥𝑅𝑦 or 𝑦𝑅𝑥, we called 𝐸 is totally ordered and 𝑅 is total
order.
If 𝑥 and 𝑦 are elements of 𝐸 such that neither 𝑥𝑅𝑦 or 𝑦𝑅𝑥, then 𝑥 and 𝑦 are
incomparable. Then we called 𝐸 a partially ordered set.
Partial order (𝐸 is a partially ordered) ⇔ not totally ordered ⇔ ∃ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐸 , 𝑥 is
not in relation with 𝑦 and 𝑦 is not in relation with 𝑥.
Example
Let 𝑅 be a relation on definition
𝑎
𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℕ∗ , 𝑎𝑅𝑏 ⇔ ⇔ ∃𝑘  ℕ∗, 𝑏 = 𝑘𝑎.
𝑏
Solution
1. Reflexive
∀𝑎  ℕ∗, we have 𝑎 = 1𝑎, i.e., ∃𝑘 = 1 such that 𝑎 = 𝑘 = 𝑎 then 𝑎/𝑎
2. Antisymmetric
∀𝑎, 𝑏  ℕ∗ , we have
𝑎/𝑏 ∃𝑘1 ∈ ℕ∗, 𝑏 = 𝑘1𝑎
{ ⇒ {
𝑏/𝑎 ∃𝑘2 ∈ ℕ∗ , 𝑎 = 𝑘2 𝑏
⇒ 𝑏 = 𝑘1 𝑘2 𝑎 i.e., 𝑘1 𝑘2 = 1, 𝑘1, 𝑘2  ℕ∗, then 𝑘1 = 𝑘2 = 1 which give a = b.
3. Transitive
For all 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ ℕ∗ , we have
University 8 mai 1945, Guelma Docteur : A.Ayachi

𝑎/𝑏 ∃𝑘 ∈ ℕ∗, 𝑏 = 𝑘1𝑎

{ ⇒ { 1
𝑏/𝑐 ∃𝑘2 ∈ ℕ∗ , 𝑐 = 𝑘2𝑏
as a result, 𝑐 = 𝑘1𝑘2 𝑎, it exists 𝑘 = 𝑘1𝑘2  ℕ∗such that 𝑐 = 𝑘𝑎 ⇒ 𝑎/𝑐
-show that 𝑅 is a partial ordering (poset) on ℕ∗ ?
counter-example: we see that 3 ∤ 5 and 5 ∤ 3, then 𝑅 is a partial ordering.