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FIRE TECHNOLOGY AND ARSON INVESTIGATION

Theories of Combustion

Fire Triangle theory - The graphical representation of the three elements of fire, namely: Oxygen, Heat, and Fuel.

Each side is just as important as either of the other two sides. There cannot be fire without all the three parts present in equal proportion.

Using the same theory, there are three ways to extinguish

Remove the fuel
Cut-off the oxygen supply
Reduce the-temperature (cooling)

Elements of Fire

HEAT - a form of energy generated by the transmission of some other form of energy, as in combustion or burning.
Heat Sources:
1. Open flame 4. Hot surfaces
2. Electrical circuit 5. Friction
3. Sparks 6. All sources of ignition

OXYGEN - a colorless, odorless gas and one of the compositions of air which is approximately 21 % by volume.
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Oxygen Sources: Oxygen Requirements

1. 21 % of normal oxygen 1. 12% - no fire
2. 78% of nitrogen 2. 14% - flash point
3. 1% of other gases 3. 21% - fire point

FUEL - any substance which reacts chemically with oxygen and produces flames.
Fuel Sources:
1. Solid - molecules are closely packed together
2. Liquid - molecules are loosely packed
3. Gas - molecules are free to moved

Common types of solids:

a. Bulky
1). Coal
2). Wood
3). Wax

Common types of gases:

1. Natural gas
2. Propane
3. Butane
4. Hydrogen
5. Acetylene
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6. Carbon monoxide and others

Common types of liquids:

Gasoline 6. Paint
Kerosene 7. Varnish
Turpentine 8. Lacquer
Alcohol 9. Olive oil
Cod liver oil

FIRE TETRAHEDRON
The fire triangle theory describes the three elements of a fire as shown in Figure 1. Another explanation of the requirement of combustion uses a
four-sided figure called tetrahedron as shown in Figure 2. Both theories are used to explain what causes fire. The fourth element of the tetrahedron
explanation is known as chemical reactivity, or chemical reaction.

For Combustion to occur, four elements are necessary:

Oxygen (oxidizing agent)
Fuel
Heat
Self-sustaining chemical reaction.

These elements can be graphically described as the fire tetrahedron. Each element of the tetrahedron must be in place for combustion to occur.
This theory is extremely important to students of fire suppression, prevention, and investigation. Removing any one of the four elements
combustion will not occur. If ignition has already started, the fire is extinguished, if one of the elements is removed from the reaction.
When a fuel is heated, it gives off vapor which if mixed with the correct amount of air, can then be ignited by a heat source.
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Components/Elements of the Fire Tetrahedron:

Oxygen (Oxidizing Agent)

Oxidizing agents are those materials that yield oxygen or other oxidizing gases during the process of a chemical reaction. Oxidizers are not
themselves combustible, but they support combustion when combined with a fuel. For purposes of discussion, the oxygen in the air in the
surrounding area is considered the primary oxidizing agent.

Fuel (Reducing Agent)

Fuel is the material or substance being burned in the combustion process. In scientific terms, the fuel in a combustion reaction is known as the
reducing agent. Most common fuels contain carbon along with combinations of hydrogen and oxygen.

Heat (Temperature)

Heat is the energy component of the fire tetrahedron. When heat comes in contact with a fuel, the energy supports the combustion process.

Combustion Reactions/Process:

Causes pyrolysis or vaporization of solid and liquid fuels and the production of ignitable vapors or gases;

Provides the energy necessary for ignition;

Causes the continuous production and ignition of fuel vapors or gases to continue the combustion reaction.

Types of Energy: (Common Sources of Heat)

Chemical Energy.
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It is the most common source of heat in combustion reactions. When any combustible is in contact with oxygen oxidation occurs. The reaction of
this process results in the production of heat. Examples: Heat generated from a burning match, Self-heating (spontaneous heating).

Electrical Energy.

Electrical energy can generate temperatures high enough to ignite any combustible materials near the heated area.
Factors involving Electrical Heating:

Current flow through a resistance

Over-current or overload
Arcing
Sparking
Static
Lightning

3. Nuclear Energy.

Nuclear heat energy is generated when atoms either split apart (fission) or combine (fusion). Examples:

Fission heats water to drive steam turbines and produce electricity

The solar energy is a product of a fusion reaction (a form of nuclear energy).

Mechanical Energy.
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An energy created by friction and compression.

Heat of Friction - is the movement of two surfaces against each other. This movement produced sparks being generated.
Heat of Compression - heat is generated when a gas is compressed in a container or cylinder.

4. Self-Sustained Chemical Reaction (the fourth element)

Combustion is a complex reaction that it requires a fuel (gaseous or vapor state), an oxidizer, and heat to combine in a very specific way. Once
flaming starts, it can only continue when enough heat or energy is produced to cause the continued chain reaction. Chain reaction is a series of
events that occur in sequence with the results of each individual reaction being added to the rest.

Combustion

Fire and combustion are terms that are often used interchangeably. Technically speaking, fire is a form of combustion. Combustion is a self-
sustaining chemical reaction producing energy or products that cause more reactions of the same kind. Combustion is an exothermic reaction. Fire
is a rapid, self-sustaining oxidization process accompanied by the release of heat and light of different intensities. The time it takes a reaction to
occur determines the type of reaction that is observed.

Products of Combustion

Four (4) Categories of products of combustion:

Fire gases
Flame
Heat
Smoke
1. Fire gases - are those that remain when other products of combustion cool to normal temperature. Common combustibles contain carbon, which
forms carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide when burned. Other fire gases include hydrogen sulfide, sulfur dioxide, ammonia, hydrogen cyanide,
nitrous and nitric oxide, phosgene, and hydrogen chloride.

The fire gases that form depend on the chemical composition of the fuel, the percent of oxygen present, and the temperature of the fire.

The records of fatal fires show that more people died from inhaling these super- heated and toxic fire gases than from any other cause.
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The complete combustion of fuels containing carbon will produce C02, but seldom will there be enough oxygen for complete combustion. When
only part of the carbon is oxidized, carbon monoxide is formed. While carbon monoxide is not the most toxic fire gas, it causes more deaths than
any other because it robs the body of oxygen.

It burns rapidly when combined with oxygen at high temperatures, causing dangerous backdraft explosions. Carbon monoxide, which is also
produced by slow oxidation, is found in sewers, caves, wells, mines, stoves furnaces, and automobile exhaust.

Types of Poisonous Gases:

Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S) - a fire gas formed during fires involving organic material containing sulfur, such as: rubber, hair, wood, meat, and hides.
It is colorless, highly toxic gas with the strong odor of rotten eggs. Exposure for even a short time is dangerous. It will ignite at 500 degrees F (260
degrees C).

Hydrogen Cyanide (HCN) - a toxic fire gas found in oxygen-starve fires involving nitrogen-containing materials' such as wool, silk, urethane,
polyamides, and acrylics. This gas is also used as a fumigant which can pose serious danger to firefighters working in recently fumigated
buildings. Hydrogen cyanide smells like bitter almonds which may not be easily detected.

Hydrogen Chloride (HCL) - a gas which can be fatal after only a few breaths is produced in fires involving chloride-containing plastic. Plastics can
be found anywhere; from furnishings to electrical insulation, conduit and piping.

2. Flame

It is the luminous body of a burning gas which gets hotter and less luminous when mixed with more oxygen. Flame fades when carbon burns
completely, so flame is considered a product of incomplete combustion.

It is the manifestation of fire when the fire is in its gas-phased combustion.

Types of Flames:
A. According to Color and Completeness of Combustions.

Luminous flame - a reddish-orange in color; it deposits soot because it is a product of incomplete combustion; it has lower temperature.
Non-luminous flame - bluish in color; it does not deposit soot because it is a product of complete combustion; it has a higher temperature than
luminous flame.
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B. According to Burning Fuel and Air Mixture:

Premixed flame - example of a Bunsen burner

Diffusion flame - example of flame of the oxyacetylene torch (diffused-dispersed; widely spread).

C. Based on Smoothness:

Laminar flame - (smooth flame) flame is laminar when a particle follows a smooth path through a gaseous flame.
Turbulent flame - (rough flame) those having unsteady, irregular swirls and eddies.

NATURE OF FIRE

Even the most flammable materials (capable of being easily ignited) do not actually burn. The vapor given off by a material is the part that burns.
When a piece of wood is ignited, the fire is not from the burning wood, rather, from the vapors that are given off by the wood. The heat causes the
substance in the wood to vaporize. The heated vapors mix quickly with oxygen in the air-and fire results. This process is known as Pyrolysis.

Pyrolysis

It refers to the chemical process whereby fire consumes the most solid part of the fuel. It is the thermal decomposition of a solid fuel through the
action of heat.

The process of Pyrolysis involves the following:

The fuel is heated until its temperature reaches its fire point;
Decomposition takes place - moisture in the fuel is converted to vapor;
Decomposition produces combustible vapors that rise to the surface of the fuel. These combustible vapors are technically termed as free radicals;
Free-radicals undergo combustion if proper amount of oxygen is present.
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The most common type of free-radicals - (combustible vapors):

Hydrogen gas
Carbon monoxide
Carbon dioxide
Nitrogen

Most fires will involve incomplete combustion, producing CO and Carbon particles along with heat, water vapor, and C02.

A fire involving material other than hydrocarbons and oxygen will produce combustion products composed of the atoms and molecules forming
the material together with the oxidizer used for the support of the combustion. This is the reason a poisonous fuel may give off poisonous fumes
and smoke.

3. Heat

A form of energy measured in degree of temperature, it is the product of combustion that spread the fire. It causes burns and other injuries such as
dehydration, heat exhaustion, and respiratory tract injuries. Heat, oxygen depletion, and carbon monoxide formation are the primary hazards in
fires.

Energy transferred from one body to another when the temperatures of the bodies differ. Heat is the most common form of energy found on earth.
Temperature is an indicator of heat and is measure the warmth or coldness of an object based on some standard. In most cases at present, the
standard used is based on the freezing (32 degrees F and 0 degrees C), and boiling points (212 degrees F and 100 degrees C) of water. Temperature
is measured using degrees Celsius (°C) in SI and degrees Fahrenheit (°F) in the Customary System.

4. Smoke

It is the visible product of incomplete combustion, usually a mixture of oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, finely divided
particles of soot and carbon, and miscellaneous assortment of product released from the burning material
PROPERTIES OF FIRE:

A. Physical Properties
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Specific gravity - the ratio of the weight of a solid or substance to the weight of an equal volume of water
Vapor density - the weight of a volume of pure gas compared to the weight of a volume of dry air at the same temperature and pressure.
Vapor pressure - the force exerted by the molecules on the surface of the liquid at equilibrium.
Temperature - the measure <of thermal degree of the agitation of molecules of a given substance; the measure of the molecular activity within a
substance.
Boiling point - the constant temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid is equal to the atmospheric pressure.
Ignition temperature or kindling temperature - the minimum temperature to which the substance in the air must be heated in order to initiate or
cause self-contained combustion without the addition of heat from outside sources.
Fire point - the temperature at which the material will give off ample vapors to keep burning. There is usually about 5 to 10 degrees difference
between the flashpoint and the fire point of most materials. Since these two are just a few degrees apart.
Flashpoint - the temperature at which a material is not hot enough to keep burning, but still gives off enough vapors to cause a flame to "flash"
across the surface. The term "flashpoint" is used to express the condition of a fuel vaporizing, whether or not it is vaporizing fast enough to keep
burning.

B. Chemical Properties:

Oxidation - a chemical change in which combustible material (fuel) and an oxidizing agent react.
Combustion/flame - the manifestation of fire while the fire is in its gas-phased combustion. A matter that is produced by fire.

Vapor Density:

The term used to explain the weight of vapors is "vapo density". In order to measure the weight of these vapors it usually compare them to air,
which is considered to have a vapo: density of 1.00. Therefore, if we say that a substance has a vapo: density of 1.5, it means that it is on-and-a-
half times as heavy a; air under the same conditions of pressure and temperature. Ifsubstance has a vapor density of .7, it is lighter than air
weighing only 7/10 as much as an equal volume of air.

THE CHEMISTRY OF FIRE:

A. Basic Definitions.
Technology – is a branch of knowledge that deals with the industrial arts and sciences. It is the application of such knowledge that is used to
produce the materials necessities of society.
Chemistry – is the branch of science which deals with study of composition and study of matter, changes matter undergo, energy involved in a
given change and conditions necessary to bring about changes in matter.
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Atoms – are fundamental particles of matter. It is the smallest particle of an element that takes part in a chemical reactions and cannot be further
subdivided by ordinary physical and chemical means. The structure of the atom is conceived to be made of central core known as the nucleus that
contains proton which is positively charged and neutron are principal energy levels where electrons, which is positively charged and neutron are
principal energy levels where electrons, which is negatively charged, travel in orbit.
Elements – are pure substance made up of only kind of atom. Metallic elements are good conductors of heat and electricity but non-metallic
elements are either poor or non-conductor of heat and electricity.
Molecules – are combinations of two or more atoms.
Compounds – are two or more different atoms combined in definite proportions.
Atomic Weight of an Element – is the relative weight of element as compared to the weight of an atom of carbon, arbitrarily assigned.
Molecule weight of a compound – is the sum of the atomic weight of all atoms in one molecule of the compound.
Chemical Formula – is an abbreviated way of writing the substance using the symbols of elements composing the substance and the subscripts of
whole numbers to denote the proportion at which they combine.

B. Physical Properties of Matters Related to Fire:

Specific Gravity – is the ratio of the weight of a solid or liquid substance to the weight of an equal volume of water. In general, he higher the
specific gravity of a substance, the greater amount of heat is necessary to decompose it.
Vapor Density – is the weight of a volume of pure gas composed to the weight of a volume of dry air at the same temperature and pressure. The
property is commonly used in fire protection. Vapor density of less than 1 indicates that the gas is lighter than air.
Vapor pressure – when a liquid is heated in a liquid container, the molecules in a liquid state escape to form gaseous molecules, the gas molecules
strike one another as well as the walls of the container and may return to the liquid state. The force exerted by the molecules on the surface of the
liquid at equilibrium is called Vapor Pressure.
Temperature – is the measure of the degree of thermal agitation of molecules. Thermometer is the instrument used to measure temperature which
can be expressed in C(Celsius or centigrade), F (Fahrenheit) and Km (Kelvin or Absolute).
Boiling point – is the constant temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid is equal to the atmospheric pressure.
Ignition Temperature or Kindling Temperature – is the minimum temperature to which the substance in the air must be heated in order to initiate
or cause self contained combustion without the addition of heat from outside sources.
Fire Point – is the lowest temperature of a liquid in an open container at which vapors are evolved fast enough to support continuous combustion.
Flash Point – is the temperature at which a flammable liquid form a vapors-air mixture that ignites. The minimum and maximum temperature is
referred to as the lower and upper flash point in air respectively.

C. Chemical Properties of fire:

Endothermic Reaction – are changes whereby energy (heat) is absorbed or is added before the reaction takes place.
Exothermic Reactions – are those that release or give off energy (heat) thus they produce substance with less energy than the reactants.
Oxidation – is a chemical change that is exothermic. In connection with fire technology, it is simply defined as a chemical change in which
combustible material (fuel) and an oxidizing agent like oxygen react.
Flames – are incandescent gases. In order to be sustaining, it should maintain a high temperature and a concentration of short-lived intermediate
chemical reactions between fuel and oxidizer.
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THE THEORY OF FIRE

Fire is a result of chemical reactions of a fuel (reducing agent) with certain elements as oxygen or chlorine or fluorine (oxidizing agent).
At kindling temperature this reaction is known as oxidation.

1. Oxidation Reaction
Oxidation reaction involved in fires is exothermic. In order for an oxidation reaction to take place, a combustible material (fuel) and an
oxidizing agent must be present. For practical purposes, it can be stated that any substance containing primarily carbon and hydrogen
(hydrocarbon) can be oxidized. The most common oxidizing agent is oxygen in air.

2. Ignition and combustion

Combustion is one kinds of oxidation which is the same as actual burning. It is a rapid oxidation accompanied by heat and light. When
the heat generated by combustion becomes sufficient to cause the material being oxidize to take fire, the material has reached its burning kindling.
A condensed – phase combustion is usually referred to as a glowing combustion. A gas-phased combustion is known as flame. If the process is
confined so that an appreciable pressures occurs, it is called an explosion.
The combustion process is observed as occurring in two modes: The flaming type (including explosions) and the flameless surfaced type
(including glow and deep-seated glowing ember.)

The temperature of the flame is determined by:

Heat energy released

Weight-time rate
Specific heats of affluent gaseous combustions.

To simplify the understanding of burning, the “the fire triangle” of the surface type combustion. Each side of eh triangle represents the three basic
requirements: fuel, temperature, and oxygen. The fuel is solid form that is heated to incandescence. When oxygen (or any oxidizing agent) is the
interface of the glowing fuel, no chain reaction will occur.
The flaming mode of combustion is presented as a tetrahedron. Each of the four sides is contiguous with the other three sides. Each side
representing one of the four basic requirements; fuel temperature, oxygen and uninhibited combustion chain reactions. The fuel maybe in the form
of gas.Liquid, or solid. Flammable liquids and gases burn in the flaming mode only.

Pyrolysis – is defined as the chemical decomposition of matter through the action of heat.

The science of fire protection rest upon the following principles:

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An oxidizing agent, a combustion material, and an ignition source are essential for combustion for combustion.
The combustible materials must be heated to its ignition temperature before it will burn.
Combustion will continue until:
The combustible materials are consume or removed
The oxidizing agent concentrate is lowered to below the concentration necessary to support the combustion.
The combustible material is cooled to below its ignition temperature.
Flames are chemically inhibited.

HEAT ENERGY SOURCE

Among the sources of heat energy are:

Chemical
Electrical
Mechanical
Nuclear

1. Chemical Heat Energy

Heat of combustion – is the amount of heat released during the complete oxidation where the organic fuel is converted to water and carbon
dioxide.
Spontaneous Heating – is the process of increase in temperature of a material as a result of slow oxidation that is without drawing heat from its
surroundings, until the ignition temperature results into combustion.
The three conditions that determine whether or not oxidation reaction will cause dangerous heating are:
Rate of heat generation
Air supply
Insulating properties of the intermediate surroundings.
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1.3. Heat decomposition – is the heat released by the decomposition of compounds requiring, the addition of heat for their formations.
1.4 Heat of Solution is the released when a substance is dissolved in a liquid.

2. Electrical Heat Energy

Electrical energy produces heat when electric current flows through a conductor or when a spark jumps on air gap. In a current flow through a
conductor, electrons are passed along from one atom to another within the conductor.

Resident Heating – is when the rate of heat generation is proportional to the resistance and square of the current. Single wires can carry more
current than bundled or closely grouped wires.
Heat Generated by Lighting – the discharge of an electrical charge on a cloud to an opposite charge on another cloud or on the ground is called
lighting. Lighting passing between the cloud and the ground can develop very high temperature in any material of high resistance in its as wood or
masonry.
Inductive Heating – whenever atoms are subject to electric potential gradients from external sources, the arrangement of the atom (or the
molecules of several atoms) is distorted, with a tendency for electrons to move in the direction of opposite direction.
Potential differences appear in the conductor whenever it is subject to the influence of a fluctuating or alternative magnetic field, whenever a
conductor is in motion across the lines of a force of a magnetic field.
Food in microwave oven is heated by the molecular friction induced by absorbed microwave energy.
Static Electrical or Frictional Electricity – is an electric discharge that accumulates on the surface of two materials that have been brought together
and then separated. If the substance are not bonded so that a spark discharge may occur. Fuel flowing in a pipe can generate enough static
electricity of sufficient energy to ignite a flammable vapor.
Heat from Arcing – Arcing result when an electric circuit which is carrying current interrupted, either intentionally (as by a knife switch) or
accidentally (as when a contact or terminal becomes loosened). The temperatures of are very high, and the heat released may be sufficient to ignite
combustible materials within the vicinity.

3. Mechanical Heat Energy:

Although there are a few notable examples of ignition by the mechanical heat energy released by compression, most fires by this heat
source are due to frictional heat.

Frictional Heat – results when mechanical energy is used in overcoming the resistance to motion when two slides are rubbed together.
Overheating of machinery – may caused fires from the heat accumulated from the rolling, sliding, or friction in machinery or between two hard
surfaces, at least one of which is metal.
Heat of Compression – is heat released when gas is compressed. This is also known as the diesel effect.

4. Nuclear Heat Energy

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Nuclear energy is released in the form of heat pressure and nuclear radiation.
Nuclear Fission – the nucleus then splits into two lighter nuclei (the fission products), and at the same time released tremendous amount of energy
in the form of kinetic energy of the fission fragment. The device in which the nuclear fission chain is initiated, maintained and controlled, so that
the accompanying energy is released at a specified rate is called a nuclear reactor.
Nuclear fusion – includes all nuclear reactions in which two light nuclei combine to form heavier nucleus, with the emissions of other particles or
gamma rays.

HEAT TRANSFER:

The transfer of heat is responsible for the start, as well as the extinguishing of most fires heat is transferred by one or more of three methods.

Conduction – is heat transferred by direct contact from one body to another.

Radiation – is means of heat transfer when energy travels through space or materials as waves. Radiant energy waves travel with a speed of light.
On arrival at a body, they are absorbed, reflected or transmitted.
Convection – is a means by which heat is transformed by a circulating medium either gas or a liquid. Heated air expands and rises and for this
reason heat transfer by convection occurs in an upward direction although heat currents can be made to carry heat by convicting in any direction.

HEAT MEASUREMENT

Heat of materials is measured by its temperature. A material is conceived to be made up of minute particles called molecules that are in constant
motion. The temperature of the material is the condition which determines whether it will transfer heat to or from other materials.
Temperature Units Celsius degree (also called centigrade): A Celsius or centigrade degree ( 0C ) is 1/100 the different between the temperature of
melting ice and boiling water at one atmosphere pressure.
Fahrenheit degree ( F ) is 1/180 the different between the melting point of ice and boiling point of water at one atmospheric pressure. On the
Fahrenheit scale, the melting point of ice is 32 while boiling point of waters is 212.
Kelvin or absolute – (K or A) is the scale as the Celsius degree but the melting pint of ice is 273 and the boiling point of water is 373. There is
1/100 differences between the melting point of ice and boiling point of water at one atmosphere of pressure.
The device that measures the temperature defends either on the physical change expansion (solid to liquid) or energy change (changes in intensity
of electrical energy in emission intensities or spectral distribution). Most common device is the thermometer. It consists of a tube partially filled
with liquid which measures the expansion and contraction of the liquid which changes on temperature.

COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS

One of the requirements in the formation of fire is combustible materials which must be heated to its ignition temperature before it will
burn.
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Solid combustible Materials

A. Wood and Wood Based Products

Wood is a very versatile material which is commonly used for construction, furniture and interior decoration among others. When the
thermal environment is conducted to a given reaction, they will char, smolders ignite and burn.

Chemical Composition of wood

The physical components of wood are carbon, hydrogen and oxygen with smaller quantities of nitrogen, sulfur and other elements.

2. Factors Influencing Ignition and Burning – Characteristics of wood and wood Products.
Physical form – Wood used for kindling are chop to smaller pieces in order to speed up burning. Heavier wood logs or timber shows considerable
resistance to ignition.
Moisture Content – The rate of burning is also influenced by the moisture content of the materials.
Heat of conductivity – is a measure of am rate at which absorbed heat will flow through the mass materials.
Rate and period of Heating – influence the susceptibility of wood and wood products to ignition. Combustible solids are usually considered less
hazardous compared to flammable liquids or gasses because they do not vaporize readily nor they give off flammable vapors at ordinary
temperature and atmospheric pressure.
Rate of combustion – is markedly influenced by physical form of combustible, the air supply present, the moisture content and other factors but for
complete combustion to proceed, there should progressive vaporization.
Ignition Temperature - Specific Ignition temperature of wood are difficult to determine because of the variables concerned.
Ignition temperature of wood varies widely depending on a number of variables, among which are:
The specific gravity of a sample
The physical characteristic of sample; i.e, its size, its form, and its moisture content.
The rate and period of heating
The nature of heat source
The air (oxygen) supply.
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FIBERS AND TEXTILES

Factors that influence the burning textiles;

Chemical composition of the textile fiber
The finish weight
Fabric weight
The tightness of the weave.
The flame retarded treatment

1. Chemical composition
Classification of fibers according to composition
Natural Fibers
a. Vegetables
b. Animal
c. Mineral
Synthetic or Artificial fibers
a. Organic this fiber imitates vegetables fibers, divided into cellulose, as for example rayon which is reconstituted cellulose with acetic acid non-
celluloses includes rayon.
b. Inorganic-like fiberglass and steel.
2. Fiber finish
3. Fabric Weight
4. Tightness of Weave

Plastic-other than cellulose nitrate, are classified as ordinary combustibles. They comprise a group of material consisting mainly of organic
substance or high molecular weight substance. They are solid in the finished state although at some stage of manufacture plastic can be made to
flow into a desired shape, usually through the application of heat or pressure or both.
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LIQUIDS COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS

Liquid is a state of matter with definite volume but no definite shape. It assumes the shape of the containing vessel. This is because it is
characterized by free movement of molecules do not have the tendency to separate from one another. It is only slightly compressible and is
incapable of indefinite expansion, unlike a gas.

Flammable and Combustible Liquids

Flammable liquids refer to any liquid having a flash point below 37.8 C (100 F) and having a vapor pressure not exceeding 40 psia (2068.6 um) at
37.8 C Combustible liquids are those with flash point at or above 37.8 C (100 F)

2. Burning Characteristic of Liquids:

Since it is the vapors from the flammable liquids which burn, the ease of ignition as well as the rate of burning can be related to such properties as
the vapor pressure, flash point, boiling point, and evaporation.

There are variables affecting the rate of propagation and burning, among them: wind velocity, temperature, heat of combustion, latent
heat of evaporation and barometric pressure.
GASES

The term “gas” refers to the state of matter which has no definite volume and no definite shape unless it is confined in a container. It is
composed of very tiny particles called the molecules and these are at constant random motion in a straight line:

1. Classification According to Physical properties

A. Compressed Gas – is one in which at all normal atmospheric temperature inside its container, exist partly in the liquid state and partly in the
gaseous state and under pressure.
B. Liquefied Gas – is one in which, at normal atmospheric temperature inside its container, exist partly in the liquid state and partly in the gaseous
state and under pressure as long as any liquid remains in the container.
C. The gas phase – subject to the same effect as for a compressed gas;
the liquid attempts to expand, compressing the vapor;
the vapor pressure of the liquid increase with increasing temperature of the liquid.
D. Cryogenic gases – is liquefied gases which exist in its container at temperature far below normal atmospheric temperature, usually slightly
above its boiling point and correspondingly low to moderate pressure.

2. Classification According to usage

Fuel gases – are flammable gases customarily used for burning with air to produce heat which in turns is utilized as power, light comfort and
process.
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Industrial Gases – include a large number of gases used for industrial processes as those used in welding and cutting (oxygen, acetylene);
refrigeration (freon, ammonia, sulfur dioxide; chemical processing (hydrogen, nitrogen, ammonia chorine); water treatment (chlorine, fluorine, etc.
Medical Gases - are those for treatment such as for anesthesia (choroform, nitrous oxide); and respiratory therapy (oxygen).

Basic Hazards of Gases

1. Hazards of confinement maybe attribute to;
a. gases expands when heated, and when confined, the heating results in an increase in pressure which can result in gas release and/or cause
container failure.
b. that the container can fail due to contract with flames from an exposing fire thus loss in strength of the material of which the container
in made.
Hazards of gases – when released from their containers vary with the physical and chemical properties of the gas and the nature of the environment
into which they are released. All gases, except oxygen, are hazardous to life if they displace the breathing air.
Combustion Explosions are among the dangers related to gases. They can be considered as occurring in the following steps;
The liquid phase of a liquefied flammable fast or a flammable is released from its container, piping or equipment.
The gas mixes with air.
With certain proportion of gas and air (flammable and the combustible range.
When ignited, the flammable mixture burns rapidly and produces heat at a fast rate.
The heat is absorbed by anything within the vicinity of the flame and very hot combustion products.
If the container is not free to expand because it is confined, pressure in the container will increase.
If the container is not strong enough to with and pressure, some part of the container will abruptly move and depart from its original position in a
hurry and the release of the pressure will produce a loud sound known as explosion.

CHEMICALS
On the hazardous properties, chemicals maybe classified as to:
Combustibility
Ability to oxidize other materials
Instability
Reactivity to air and water
Corrosiveness
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Toxicity
Radioactivity

A. Combustible Chemicals
The chemicals mentioned here well known combustible chemicals.
Carbon Black (C) – is formed by the incomplete combustion of acetylene or natural cracking of hydrogen in absence of air.
Lampblack (c) – The burning of low-grade heavy oils or tarry materials with sufficient air lampblack commonly known as soot.
Lead Thiocyanate (PBCNS)
Peroxides (O2)
Sulfide
Sulfur
Napthalene – is most often used in the household as an insecticide. It is a white solid with highly aromatic odor.

B. OXIDIZING CHEMICALS
In most instances, oxidizing chemicals are not combustible, they are known to be oxidizing agents because they are source or oxygen for
combustion.
Nitrate (NO3)
Nitrites (NO2)
Inorganic Peroxides
Chlorates ( C103-)
Dichromate (Cr2O7)
Hypochlorite (C10)
Perchlorates (C10-)
Permanganate (MnO4)
 21

FIRE PROTECTION FOR OXIDIZING CHEMICALS

In general, water appears to be the only suitable extinguishing agent for fires involving inorganic oxidizing agents. It may be possible to extinguish
a fire involving a peroxide spill with a dry chemical extinguisher or by smothering with water from hose stream.
Self contained breathing apparatus should be worn by fire fighters to prevent inhaling noxious gases as nitric oxide, nitrogen dioxide,
chlorine sulfur dioxide and many others.

C. UNSTABLE CHEMICALS
Unstable chemicals are which undergo chemical change very readily on exposure to air, water, heat, shock or pressure. They may be self
reactive.
Acetaldehyde (CH3CHO)
Ethylene Oxide (CH2OCH2)
Hydrogen Cyanide (HCN)

D. AIR AND WATER-REACTIVE CHEMICALS

Some chemicals react violently with air with water so that from the point of view of fire protection, they are to be discussed. These
reactions are highly exothermic so that if the chemical itself is self-igniting, burning may take place; if non-combustible, the heat of reaction may
be sufficient to ignite nearby combustible materials.
Alkalis (Caustics) (OH)
Anhydrides (RCO – COR)
Charcoal (C)
Coal
Hydrides (H-)
Oxides (O=)
Phosphorous (P)
Sodium (Na)

E. CORROSIVE CHEMICALS
Corrosive chemicals are highly irritant which cause local destruction on living tissues.
 22

Inorganic Acids
Hydrochloric Acid (HC1)
Nitric Acid (HNO3)
Perchloric Acid (HC104)
Sulfuric Acid (H2SO4)
The Halogen (X2)

F. TOXIC CHEMICALS
From the point of view of fire protection, the toxicity of chemicals is of particular importance. A fire or explosion any release toxic
chemicals and this will subject fire fighters to a severe life hazard. Where there is a way of eliminating the toxic materials, protection should be
provided for those who are exposed daily to this hazard.
Protection against the toxic effect of these chemicals during handling can be accomplished in two ways:
By using the most practical of the methods available of controlling and confining the chemicals so that the toxic chemical cannot be
contracted, swallowed or inhaled in dangerous quantities during normal operations.

G.RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS
Radioactive materials/elements and compounds have fire and explosion hazards with those of the same materials that are not radioactive.
An additional hazard is due to the particulars and rays emitted by the nucleus of instable atoms. These radioactive emissions can cause damage to
the tissues and other genetic damage for the generation to come.

PHASES OF BURNING/THE THREE STAGES OF FIRE:

The methods firefighters use to extinguish a fire will depend largely on the phase in which they find the fire.

Factors to be considered in determining phases of burning:

The amount of time the fire has burned;
The ventilation characteristics of the confining structure;
The amount and type of combustibles present
 23

Incipient/Beginning phase - it is the initial stage of fire. Characteristics:

Normal room temperature
Oxygen plentiful
Thermal updraft rise accumulates at higher point.
Flame temperature of 1000 degrees F
Producing pyrolysis products: (C02, CO, S02, water vapor, & other gases).
Free-Burning Phase - the second phase of burning in; which materials or structures are burning in the presence of adequate oxygen.

Characteristics:
Fire has involved more fuel
Oxygen supply is depleted
Heat accumulates at upper area
Temperature exceeds 1,300 degrees F degrees C)
Area is fully involved

Smoldering Phase - the final phase of burning wherein flame ceases butt dense smoke and heat completely fill the confined roorm.

Characteristics:

Flames may die and leave only glowing embers or super heated fuel under pressure with little oxygen
Intense heat will vaporize lighter fuel components, such as hydrogen and methane, increasing the hazard
Temperature throughout the building is very high and normal breathing is not possible.
Oxygen deficiency may cause backdraft.
 24

Backdraft

Firefighters operating at fires in buildings must use precautionary measures when opening a building to gain entry, by providing ventilation either
by horizontal/cross ventilation (opening doors or windows) or vertical ventilation (opening a hole at the highest portion of the affected part of the
building. As the fire grows in a confine area, large volumes of hot, unburned fire gases can collect in unventilated spaces. These gases may be at or
above their ignition temperature but have insufficient oxygen available to actually ignite. Any action taken during fire fighting operations that
allows air to mix with these hot gases can result in an explosive ignition called backdraft.

The danger for backdraft can be minimized with proper application of vertical ventilation causing the unburned gases rise and release through the
opening before an entry is made.

Conditions that indicate the danger for backdraft

a. Pressurized smoke exiting small openings
b. Black smoke becoming dense gray yellow
c. Confinement and excessive heat

Flashover

Flashover occurs when a room or other area is heated enough that flanges sweep over the entire surface.. Firefighters originally believe that
combustible gases released during the early stages of thefire cause flashover by collectingat the ceiling and mixing with air burst into flames.

Combustible material is grouped into on one of four classifications. These classes of fuel help to simplify firefighting methods and techniques.

Classification of fire

By knowing the classes of fire a certain material will fall into, you will be able to make intelligent firefighting decisions.

A. Based on Cause:
Natural fire
Accidental fire ,
 25

Intentional fire

B. Based on Burning Fuel

Four (4) Classes of Fire

1.Class A - Materials involving vegetable fiberwood, paper straw, grain, and grass; Ss; combustible minerals such as coal and coke. Near
early all thrash fires are considered as Class A.
Class B - Materials including petroleum product such as gasoline, fuel oils, lubricating oils, greases; animal fats such as butter, lard, tallow;
vegetable extracts such as alcohol, , and turpentine; vegetable compounds such shortenings and oleomargarines; natural gases compressed gases
such as butane, proper hydrogen, and acetylene.
Class C - This type of fire involves electric motors, electrical appliances and apparatus Actually a Class C fire is composed usually of Class A and
Class B materials or a combination of both. Use of water is usually dangerous because of risk of electrical shock.
Class D - These are materials involving combustible metals, alloys, or metal compounds either in a solid, semi solid or liquid state. They may
further reduce in shavings, grindings, granules, or dust. Some liquid metals petals are kept in a liquid state under pressure. Usuallythese liquid
metals are extremely dangerous. These type of materials burn at high temperatures and will react violently with water, air, and/or other chemicals.
Class K - these are materialsinvolved in the kitchen fires. This classification was added to the NFPA portable extinguishers Standard 1998.

Spontaneous Heating

Spontaneous heating and spontaneous ignition start result of a chemical reaction within the material - a reaction independent of any outside source
of heat. Spontaneousbegins a cycle of oxidation that builds up heat very slow in first stage. The condition that builds up temperatureenough to
cause ignition is called spontaneous heating. .point, itbecomesspontaneous ignition. In most material process develops slowly and does not
reach its ignition points for days or even weeks; consequently, fires may break out today that actually started days before. Usually there is
enoughlow oxidation, but not enough air to carry the heat from some of the common materials that may spontanated and ignited are animal oils,
mixed fish oils, linseed oil, charcoal, sawdust, hay, grain and cotton.

Propagation of Fire

Propagation of fire simply means the spread of fire. As a substance burns, fire propagation will be increased by the transmission of heat by nearby
materials. This condition causes additional vapors to be released thereby spreading the fire.

Types of Heat Transmission:

1. Conduction - it is the transmission of heat through an| object /medium or conductor, such as pipe, metal, hot-air duct, wire, or even wall.
 26

2. Radiation - the transmission through the discharge p Gspread of heat from a heated or burning source. Radiation takes place through the air or
through spat that cause another flammable object to ignite.
3. Convection - it is the transmission of heat by the moving currents of liquid or gas. When these gases or liquids are heated, they start to move
within themselves; and by their free motion, circulation starts.

4. Flame Contact - Heat may be conducted from one body to another by direct flame contact. Fire spreads along or through burning material by
flame contact. When a material is heated to the point where flammable vapors are released, the vapors may be ignited. Any other flammable
material may be heated to its ignition temperature by direct contact with the flame or burning vapors.

Intensity of Fire

Intensity of fire means simply "how hot the fire is burning”.Some types of fuels naturally burn hotter (more intensely) than others. For example, a
gasoline fire burns hotter than a wood fire, while an acetylene flame is hotter than a gasoline flame.

Factors to determine the intensity of fire:

1. Type of fuel
2. Percentage of oxygen present

Understanding Hazards and Codes

1.) Hazards - Any act or condition which can cause a threatening event.
2.) Fire Hazard - Any act or condition which increases or may cause an increase in the probability of the occurence-fire, or which may hinder,
delay, obstruct with fire fighting operations or the safeguarding of life and proper:.
3.) Codes - Sets of rules and regulations promulgated into law.

IMPLEMENTING RULES AND REGULATIONS OF THE FIRE CODE OF THE PHILIPPINES (P.D. 1185)

APPLICABILITY AND SCOPE

The provisions of The Fire Code shall apply to:

 27

1. All persons;
2. All private and public buildings, structures, facilities and their premises erected before or after its effectivity
3. Design and installation of all electrical systems.
4. Use, handling and storage of explosives, combustible, flammable, toxic and/or other hazardous materials;
5. Fire safety construction;
6. Fire suppression, protective and warning devices/systems.

RESPONSIBILITY OF ENFORCEMENT

The Bureau of Fire Protection, under the direction, supervision and control of the Fire Chief, BFP shall be responsible for the enforcement of the
Fire Code.

RULE I – GENERAL PROVISIONS

DIVISION 1 – GENERAL
SECTION 1.101. SCOPE – The provisions of the Code shall apply to and govern the following:

All Persons
All private or public buildings, facilities, structures and their premises constructed before or after the effectivity hereof;
Designed and installation of electrical system;
Storage, handling or use of explosive and/or combustible, flammable, toxic and other hazardous materials;
Fire Safety construction; and
Fire protective and warning equipment or systems.

Section 1.104 – Changes in Occupancy

 28

The owner, administrator or occupant may change, alter or modify, the use of a building structure or facility or proportions thereof,
subject to the permit/certificate requirements of the building Officials and the Fire service. After the change, alteration or modification has been
effected, the area may be used or occupied only after a new fire inspection has been conducted and a new Fire Safety Inspection certificate is
issued.

Section 1.105 – Definition of Terms

Assembly occupancy – the occupancy or use of a building or structure or any portion thereof by a group of person for civic, political,
education, travel, religious, social, amusement or recreational purpose.

Automatic Fire suppression System – an integrated system of under ground or overhead piping or both connected to a source of
extinguisher agent or medium and designed in accordance with fire protection engineering standards which when actuated by its automatic
detecting device, suppresses fire within the area protected.

Boiling Point – the temperature at which a liquid is transformed or converted to vapor.

Class A Fire – fire involving ordinary combustible materials such as wood, cloth, paper, rubber, and plastics.

Class “B” fire – fire involving flammable liquids and gases

Class “C” fire – fire involving energized electrical equipment.
Class “D” fire – fire involving combustible metals, such as magnesium, sodium, potassium and other similar materials.

Combination Standpipe – pipeline system filled with water and connected to a constant water supply for the use of the fire service and the
occupants of the building solely for the suppression purpose.
Dip Tank – a tank, vat or container of flammable or combustible liquid in which articles or materials are immersed for the purpose of coating,
finishing, treating or similar processes.
Dry Standpipe – a type of standpipe system in which the pipes are normally not filled with water. Water is introduced into the system thru Fire
Service connections when needed.
Explosive – includes any chemical compound or mechanical mixture that is commonly used intended for the purpose of producing an explosion.
Fire Alerting System – a fire alarm system activated by the presence of a fire, where the signal is transmitted to designated locations instead of
sounding a general alarm, in order to prevent panic.
Fire Protective Assembly – an assembly incorporated in a structure designed to prevent the spread of fire, such as dampers, curtain board, fire
stoppers and the like.
Fire Exit Drill – a practice drill for the orderly and safe evacuation of occupants in a building.
 29

Fire Resistant Rating – the time duration that a material or construction can withstand the effect of hundred fire test.
Fire Wall – a wall designed to prevent the spread of fire, having a fire resistance rating of not less than four hours with sufficient structural
stability to remain standing even if construction on either side collapse under fire conditions.
Flame Retarded – any compound, or mixture which when applied properly improves the fire resistant quality of fabrics and other materials
Hazardous Fire Areas – any land covered with dry grass, cogon, reeds, brush, and other highly combustible growth that fires are likely to occur
therein and hard to suppress.
High Rise Building – buildings, structure or facilities fifteen (15) meters or more in height.
Horizontal Channel – any uninterrupted space between horizontal layers of storage commodities. Such channels may be formed by pallets,
shelving, racks or other storage arrangements.
Liquid Petroleum Gas – any flammable gas liquefied through pressure. The liquid vaporizes under normal atmospheric pressure.
Means of Egress – a continuous and unobstructed route of exit from any point in a building, structure or facility or portions thereof.
Occupant Load – the maximum number of persons that may be allowed to occupy a particular building, structure or facility or portions thereof
Panic Hardware – a mechanical device consisting of linkages and a horizontal bar across a door which when pushed from the inside will cause the
door to open and facilities exit from a building, structure or facility.
Spraying Area – any area in which dangerous quantities of flammable vapor or combustible residues, dust or deposits are present due to the
operation of spraying devices.
Tank Vehicle – any vehicle carrying or towing a cargo tank used for transporting flammable fluids or hazardous chemicals.

INTRODUCTION TO FIRE INVESTIGATION

INVESTIGATION – is an inquiry of facts.

OBJECTIVES OF FIRE PROTECTION

1. To prevent fire from starting,

2. To save lives and properties.
3. To confine the fire in its points of origin.
4. To put out the fire.
 30

It is presumption of law that all fire is caused by:

Natural Cause
Accidental
Incidental Origin – there s a malicious and criminal intent which is arson.

Five (5) factors that affect the Rate of Intensity of heat:

Amount of materials to be burned

Calorific value of burning materials
Oxygen supply available
Surface area of exposure
Flame length produced

Calorific value – heat energy stored with chemical composition of the materials.
Fire Investigation – is conducted to determined the origin, cause and nature of fire to.
Arson Investigation – is established the elements of the crime identify the suspect and gather evidence to prove his guilt.

Fire Investigation Procedure:

Hold Office – where fire alarm is received.

Take Note
Note taking:
will refresh your memory
 31

Basis of your reports

Documentation for civil damages
Protect the innocent
Basis of Fire Prevention
Mingle within the crowd

Be (armed) equipped with investigation devices of instruments

Endeavor to immediately contact or know the discover, caller of the said incidents and occupants/owner of the burned building
Always be alert for anything unusual or normal

Five (5) Motives predominates in Arson:

Concealment of a crime
Economic Gain such as Insurance Fraud and Business Fraud
Revenge/Punitive Measure
Intimidation and Economic Disabling
Thrill seeker or Pyromania

Fire Investigative Responsibilities:

“In our jurisdiction fire responsibilities is lodge in the Bureau of Fire protection.
This is mandated is Sec. 54 Chapter IV of R.A. 6975 and I quote.
Sec. 54 Power and Function – The fire Bureau shall be responsible for the prevention and suppression of all destructive fires on building,
houses, and other structure, forest, land transportation vehicles and equipment, ship or vessels docked at piers or wharves or anchored in major
seaports, petroleum industry installation plane crashes and other similar incidents as well as the enforcement of the Fire Code of the Philippines
and other related laws”
The Fire Bureau shall have the power to investigated all cause of fires and if necessary, file the proper complaints with the City/Municipal
Prosecutors who has jurisdiction over the case.

Arson Law in the Philippines:

 32

Covers form Article 320 to 326 of Revised Penal Code

June 1969 – arson law was amended/ modified under R.A. 5647 to increase penalties in a crime of arson.

Extent of Penalties:
Danger to Human Lives
Danger to properties resulting from conflagration
Difficulty of giving precaution and identifying the perpetrator

Arson – maliciously and willfully burning of one’s property and the property of others.

Elements of Arson
Burning actually took place
Burning must be done by a person with malicious intent
Burning must be done by a person who is legally responsible

Securing the Fire Scene

Fire Scene – is the focal point wherein the initial phase of the investigation is conducted.
It is from there where evidence are gathered to establish the fact of the offense, the identity of the perpetrator, witnesses and to destroy alibis.

Reasons why crime scene should be secured.

In order to preserve the evidence
 33

To prevent looter/pilferer
To prevent unauthorized persons and intrusions

Reasons for protecting the physical Evidence

To guard against mutilation, pollution, alteration or substitution
To maintain a short chain of custody
To minimize the possibility of examination by unauthorized person
To maintain identify
To insure that the physical evidence will be arrive at crime laboratory in its original conditions.
To enable the investigator to reconstruct the crime
To refresh the memory of the investigator.

Search must be methodical and thorough

Mechanics of Search:
To locate the point of origin
Find enough of the materials used in ignition devices

Crime scene reminders:

The search must be thorough AND ACCURATE
Nothing is taken for granted
Everything that may be of possible significance must be recorded
No reliance is placed on memory
 34

Instrumentation:
Spectrograph – it is instrument used to identify flammable liquids.
Gramograph- it is an instrument use to identify certain solid/liquids
Steam Distillation – is an instrument use to convert materials thru steams.

Checklist of an investigator:

Gather take notes (have an investigator notebook always)

Upon receipt of alarm.

Date and Time of Alarm
Location
Description of property
Extent of fire/burning
Name of caller
Telephone number used

While en route to fire scene.

Observe traffic condition

Take note of identities of vehicles in case of traffic accident which caused obstruction or any object.
Observe any unusual circumstances while nearing the fire scene

Upon Arrival:
 35

Mingle with the crowd (listen to their remarks)

Take note of surrounding, condition of burning building and other relevant facts.
Be alert for anything unusual at fire scene.

Take note of all indications or situations to help you determine the origin.

Part of building where flame/smoke is coming from

Look for discover

Ocular Inspection

(Made while fire is in progress when possible)

Determine Origin
a. Observe charring effect (alligator skin pattern) on wood.
b. Observe spalling effects on concrete.
c. Use reverse techniques.
If fire already involved a big areas even the whole building.
Start from point reached by the fire and retrace path made by the fire to origin.

Secure the area of origin.

Determining the cause(Initial source of heat)
Consider all possibilities that start normal/accidental in nature by eliminating every possible source.
 36

Use layer checking techniques in searching for physical evidence

Determining Nature of fire.

Preparation made by suspect.
Be alert for tracer of incendiary
Be alert for “anything” which is not there but which is supposed to be there or anything that is there but is not supposed to be there.

5. After operations
a. Interrogate witnesses for testimonial evidence

PRINCIPLES INVILVED INPROPER HANDLING OF EVIDENCES:

Evidence should reach the laboratory as much possible in the same condition as when it was found.
Sufficiency of samples. The quantity of specimen should be adequate.
Standard for comparison submit a known or standard specimen for comparison purposes,
Maintenance of individuality – keep each specimen separate from others so there will be no intermingling or mixing of known and unknown
materials wrap and seal in individual packages when necessary.
Labeling and sealing – mark or label each piece of evidence for positive identification as the evidence taken from a particular location in
connection with the crime under investigation.
The chain of custody of evidence must be maintained. Account for the evidence from the time it is collected until it is produced in court. Any
break in this chain of custody may make the materials inadmissible as evidence in court.

THE FOLLOWING INFORMATION ABOUT THE EVIDENCE SUBMITTED TO THE LABORATORY FOR EXAMINATION:

Type of offense under investigation

Time/Date and Place of commission
Date when the evidence was collected
 37

Names of victims and suspects with their address.

Name of officer and office submitting the materials
A list of specimens submitted and each instance a brief but comprehensive description
Types of exam desired for each specimen submitted
A brief summary of the facts of the case under investigation
Where the specimens was found
Condition of the material when found
The Exact location on the specimen.

Types and Uses of Fire Extinguishers.

In accordance with fire classifications, a number of fire extinguishers have been developed for us in fire-fighting and fire protection.
It is extremely important that instructions regarding maintenance are fully adhered to.
Fire extinguishers must always be fully charged and in a condition which will permit effective operation at any moment without delay.
There are numerous types of fire extinguishers now in use, or now on the market, hence, reference is made only to those normally used in fire-
fighting operations.

Water Extinguishers
Soda-Acid Extinguishers
Foam Extinguishers
Carbon Dioxide Extinguishers
Loaded Stream Extinguishers
Dry Chemical Extinguishers
ABC Dry Chemical Extinguishers
 38

Water Extinguishers.
These extinguishers are effective on small fires in ordinary combustible materials such a wood, paper, textiles, rubbish, etc. (Class A fires) where
the quenching and cooling effect o water or a solution containing a large percentage of water is of first importance.
These extinguishers are not effective in fires involving flammable liquids, greases, etc., i vats, tanks, open vessels, or any other class "B" fire
where the blanketing effect is essential.

Dry Chemical Extinguishers

These extinguishers are effective on fires in small quantities of flammable liquids, greases, and other Class "B" fires in open vessels or on floors
where the cloud of chemical may be employed to smother the flame.

ABC Dry Chemical Extinguishers

These extinguishers are approved for all classes of fires, and are available in three sizes: 5 lb, 15 lb., and 25 lb.
The poundage denotes the weight of the powder contained in each unit.
The chemical action of the powder, upon contact with fire, has the following effect on the various classes of fire:
Class A. Insulation is provided automatically by the deposit formed by the powder on the burning material. Cooling is affected because the change
from powder to deposit utilizes and absorbs heat.
Class B. The powder has a smothering and cooling effect on fires of his classification.
Class C. This powder is a non-conductor of electricity and is approved for live electrical fires requiring a non-conducting extinguishing agent.

EVENTS/PERSONAGES OF SIGNIFICANCE TO THE FIRE SERVICE

Bucket Brigade - First known fire fighting unit organized thousands of years B.C.
Ctsebius of Alexandria - Invented the pump in 200 B.C.
Vigils - Firefighting unit organized by the Romans 1 A.D.
Pliny the Younger - Roman Governor of Bithynia who organized thefamous firefighters known as the vigilantes in 6 A.D.
Peter Stuyvesant - Governor of New Amsterdam who passed the firstknown fire prevention ordinance in 1648
Great London Fire - The turning point of the fire service which occurred in1666
Dr. Nicolas Barton - Underwrote the first insurance policy and organized first known fire department Famous
 39

Richard Newsharn - Englishman designer and builder of first water engine

19th Century - Era of inventions which made fire prevention and firefighting procedures morecomplicated.
Paul Hodge - Designed and built first steam powered fire engine in New York in 1840
Moses Latta - Designed and built first steam powered fire engine in 1852, which was successfully put in service during the Cincinnati Ohio fire on
Jan. 1, 1853
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) - Organized in 1896 to set standard fire prevention and firefighting procedures.
Great Triangle Fire - Occurred in 1911 in New York which lead to the adoption and promulgation of Fire Codes
Regimen de Pompier - Be medaled firefighting unit organized in France during the First World War.
Manila Fire Department - First organized fire department in the Philippines on Aug. 6, 1901
Capt. Jacinto Lorenzo - First Filipino Fire Chief
PD765 - Established the INP integrating all local police and Fire forces
PD 1185 - Fire Code of the Philippines signed on Aug. 26, 1977
RA 6975 - Established the BFP in 1990
RA 9263 - Professionalization of BFP in March 10, 2004
RA9514 - Fire Code of the Philippinesof 2008

FIRE SUPPRESSION AND CONTROL STRATEGIES

Pre- Fire planning - To know the problems and what to do in case fire Starts in a particular building or area.
Size-up - An estimate of the situation
Rescue - Removal of victims from endangered areas and bringing them to a place of safety.
Cover Exposure - To prevent the fire from extending to other uninvolved portions of the burning structures
Confinement - To prevent the fire from extending to other uninvolved portions of the burning building
Ventilation - To displace smoke, hot, poisonous or toxic gases from a contaminated area and replacing them with fresh air from outside
Extinguishment - To put out the main body of the fire
 40

Salvage - To protect properties of value from preventable damages due to sources other than the fire
Overhauling - To prevent the fire rekindling
Post-Fire Analysis - A critique of the fire operations conducted

PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENTCONCEPTS

INTRODUCTION

Firefighters require the best personal protective equipment available because of the hostile environment in which they perform their duties.
Providing and using quality protective equipment will not necessarily guarantee firefighter safety but injuries can be reduced and prevented if
protective assembles and breathing apparatus are properly maintained and used properly,

NFPA Requirements on Protective Ensembles and Breathing Apparatus

Manufacturer's name, identification
Manufacturer's address
Country of manufacture
Manufacturer's identification number or serial number
Month and Year of Manufacture
Model name, number or design
Garment materials
Footwear size and width
Cleaning Precautions

Full Protective Equipment for Structural Firefighting consists of the following:

Head Protection – prevents the head from impact and puncture injuries as well as from scalding water. This is the first concern of firefighters. Also
referred to as helmet.
 41

Benefits of the Head Protection

Protect from head from impact
Provide protection from heat and cold
Provides face shields for secondary of the eyes and face when SCBA is not required

Types of Head Protection

Firefighter Helmets
Rescue Helmets

Parts of a Helmet
Ear Covers
Chin Straps
Faceshields
Head Adjuster
Brim (Wide)

Eye Protection - protects the wearer's eyes from flying solid particles or liquids.

Types of Eye Protection

Helmet Faceshield
Safety Goggles
SCBA Mask Facepiece
Safety Glasses
 42

Hearing Protection –Limits noised induced damage to the firefighter's ears when loud noise situations cannot be avoided.

Types of Hearing Protection

Intercom/Ear protection systems
Earmuffs / Ear Plugs

Protective Hoods - provides protection of the firefighter's neck, ears and face not covered by helmet or coat from exposure to extreme heat.
Protective Coats and Trousers - used to protect the upper and lower extremities (trunks and limbs) against cuts abrasions, and burn injuries
resulting from heat and provide limited protection against corrosive liquids.

Main Components of a Protective Coat and Trousers

Outer Shell
Moisture Barrier .
Thermal Barrier

Parts of Protective Coat

Collar
Storm Flaps
Wristlets Pockets Reinforced Elbow Pads
Straps, Zippers or Hooks
Reflective Trims

Parts of a Protective Trouser

 43

Reinforced Knee Pads Heavy Duty Suspenders

Reflective Trims
Pockets

Feet Protection - protect the feet from burn injuries and puncture. Also called Safety Shoes and Boots

Types of Feet Protection

Fire Boots
Safety Shoes

Hand Protection – protect the hands from cuts, abrasions, wounds, and burn injuries. Must have enough dexterity (handiness) for proper fit to the
wearer.

Kinds of Hand Protection

Firefighter Gloves (with wristlets or Gauntlets)
Extrication Gloves
Knitted Gloves
Rescue Gloves

Personal Alert Safety System (PASS) - provides life-safety protection by emitting a loud shriek if the firefighter should collapse or remain
motionless for approximately 30 seconds-'. Newer types of PASS are attached to the SCBA Harness Assembly. This is also called Personal Alert
Device (PAD).

Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus (SCBA) - protects the face and lungs from toxic smoke and gases, and other products of combustion. .

Protective breathing apparatus is extremely crucial to the well-being of a firefighter. Failure to use this equipment could lead to failed rescue
attempts, firefighter injuries, or worst - fatalities. A well trained firefighter should be knowledgeable of respiratory hazards, the requirements for
wearing protective breathing apparatus, the procedures for donning or doffing the apparatus, and the proper care and maintenance of the
equipment. The Basic misconception the SCBA is that its content not oxygen but compressed air (open circuit) or liquid oxygen (closed circuit).
 44

Respiratory Hazards

The lungs and respiratory tract are more vulnerable to injury than any other body areas, and the gases encountered in fires are, for the
most part, dangerous in one way or another. It is general rule that we should not enter any potential toxic atmosphere or any hazardous condition
unless equipped with a protective breathing apparatus.

DEFINITION OF TERMS

As used in the Fire Code of the Philippines (PD 1185), the following words and phrases shall mean and construed as indicated:

Abatement - Any act that would remove or neutralize a fire hazard.

Administrator - Any person who acts as agent of the owner and manages the use of a building for business.
Aircraft Service Station - That portion of an airport where flammable liquids are stored or dispensed and shall include all facilities essential
thereto, such as underground tanks from which aircraft fuel and lubricants maybe drawn through dispensing devices.
Assembly Occupancy - The occupancy or use of a building or structure or any portion thereof by a group for civic, political, education, travel,
religious, social, amusement or recreational purposes.
Automatic Fire Suppression System - An integrated system of underground or overhead piping or both connected to a source of extinguishing
agent or medium and designed in accordance with fire protection engineering standards which when activated by its automatic detecting device,
suppresses fire within the area protected.
Blasting Agent - Any material or mixture consisting of a fuel and oxidizer used to set off explosives.
Boiling Point - The temperature at which a liquid is transformed or converted to vapor.
Cargo Tank - Any container mounted on a tank vehicle with a capacity of at least four hundred fifty (450) liters used for carrying flammable or
combustible liquids. It does not apply to the fuel tank of a motor vehicle.
Cellulose Nitrate or Nitro Cellulose - A highly combustible and explosive compound produced by the reaction of nitric acid with a cellulose
material.
Cellulose Nitrate Plastic (Pyroxylin) - Any plastic substance, materials or compound having cellulose nitrate (intro-cellulose) as base.
Class "A " Fire - Fire involving ordinary combustible materials such as wood, cloth, paper, rubber, and plastic.
Class "B" Fire - Fire involving flammable liquids and gases.
Class "C" Fire - Fire involving energized electrical equipment.
Class "D" Fire - Fire involving combustible metals, such as magnesium, sodium, potassium and other similar materials.
Combination Standpipe - Pipe line system filled with water and connected to a constant water supply for the use of the Fire Service and occupants
o the building solely for fire suppression purposes.
Combustible Fiber Loose House - An enclosed and isolated structure where loose fibers are worked upon, and used as storage for such fibers.
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Combustible, Flammable or Inflammable - Descriptive of materials that are easily set on fire.
Combustible Fiber - Any readily ignitable and free burning fiber such as cotton, oakum, rags, waste cloth, waste paper, kapok, hay, straw, Spanish
moss, excelsior and other similar materials commonly used in commerce.
Corrosive Liquid - Any liquid which causes fire when in contact with organic matter or with certain chemicals.
Combustible Liquid - Any liquid having a flash point at or above 37 degrees centigrade (10° degrees Fahrenheit).
Curtain Board - A vertical panel of non-combustible or fire resistive materials attached to and extending below the bottom chord of the roof
trusses, to divide the underside of the roof into separate compartments so that heat and smoke will be directed upwards to a roof vent.
Cryogenic - Descriptive of any material which by its nature or as a result of its reaction with other elements produces a rapid drop in temperature
of the immediate surroundings.
Damper - A normally open device installed inside an air duct system which automatically closes to restrict the passage of smoke or fire.
Distillation - The process of first raising the temperature to separate the more volatile parts and then cooling and condensing the resulting vapor so
as to produce a nearly purified substance.
Duct System - A continuous passageway for the transmission of air.
Dip Tank - A tank, vat or container for flammable or combustible liquids in which articles or materials are immersed for the purpose of coating,
finishing, treating or similar processes.
Dry Standpipe - A type of standpipe system in which the pipes are normally not filled with water. Water is introduced into the system through Fire
Service connections when needed.
Dust - A finely powdered substance which, when mixed with air in the proper proportion and ignited which cause an expl
osion.
Electrical Arc - An extremely hot luminous bridge formed by the passage of an electric current across a space between two conductors or
terminals due to the incandescence of the conducting vapor.
Ember - A hot piece of lump that remains after a material has partially burned and is still oxidizing without the manifestation of flames.
Explosives - Includes any chemical compound or mechanical mixture, that is commonly used or intended for the purpose of producing an
explosion.
Explosive Magazine - Buildings, structures or facilities used for the storage of explosives, shells, projectile and ammunition.
Finishes - Materials used at final coating of a surface for ornamental or protective purposes.
Fire - The active principle of burning characterized by the heat and light of combustion.
Fire Alarm - Any visual or audible signal produced by a device or system to warn the occupants of the building or fire fighting elements of the
presence of danger of fire to enable them to undertake immediate action to save life and property and to suppress the fire.
Fire Alerting System - A fire alarm system activated by the presence of a fire where the signal is transmitted to designated locations instead of
sounding general alarm, in order to prevent panic.
Fire Door - A fire resistive door prescribed for openings in fire separation walls or partitions.
Fire Exit Drill - A practice drill for the orderly and safe evacuation of occupants in a building.
Fire Extinguisher - A device that contains within it chemicals, fluids or gases for extinguishing fires, the means for application of its content for
that purpose, and is capable of being readily moved from place to place.
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Fire Hazard - Any condition or act which increases or may cause an increase in the probability of the occurrence of fire, or which may obstruct,
delay, hinder or interfere with fire fighting operations and the safeguarding of life and property.
Fire Lane - The portion of a roadway or public-way that should be kept opened and unobstructed at all times for the expedient operation of fire
fighting units.
Fire Protective Assembly - An assembly incorporated in a structure designed to prevent the spread of fire, such as dampers, curtain board, fire
stopper and the like.
Fire Resistance Rating - The time duration that a material or construction can withstand the effect of standard fire test.
Fire Trap - A building unsafe in case of fire because it will bum easily or because it lacks adequate exits of fire escapes.
Fire Protective and Fire Safety Device - Any device intended for the protection of building or persons to include but not limited to built-in
protection system such as sprinklers and other automatic extinguishing systems, detectors for heat, smoke and combustion products and other
warning system components, personal protective equipment such as fire blankets, helmets, fire suits, gloves and other garments that may be put on
or worn by persons to protect themselves during fire.
Fire Wall - A wall designed to prevent the spread of fire, having a fire resistance rating of not less than four hours with sufficient structural
stability to remain standing even if construction on either side collapse under fire condition.
Fire Safety Construction - Refers to design and installation of walls, barriers, doors, windows, vents, means of egress, etc., integral to and
incorporated into a building or structure in order to minimize danger of life from fire, smoke, fumes or panic before the building is evacuated.
These features are also designed to achieve, among others, safe and rapid evacuation of people through means of egress sealed from smoke or fire,
the confinement of fire or smoke in the room or floor of origin and delay their spread to other parts of the building by means of smoke sealed and
fire resistant doors, walls, and floors. It shall also mean to include the treatment of building components or contents with flame retardant
chemicals.
Flame Spread Rating - The time in which flame will spread over the surface of burning materials.
Flame Retardant - Any compound or mixture which when applied properly improves the fire resistant quality of fabrics and other materials.
Flash Point - The minimum temperature at which any material gives off vapor in sufficient concentration to form an ignitable mixture with air.
Forging - A process where a piece of metal is heated prior to changing its shape or dimensions.
Fulminate - A kind of stable explosive compound which explodes by percussion.
Fumigant – A fume, or vapor used for the destruction or control of insects, fungi, vermin, rodents, or other pests.
Hazardous Operation/Process - Any act of manufacturing, fabrication, conversion, etc., that uses or produces materials which are likely to cause
fire or explosion.
High-Rise Building - Buildings, structures or facilities fifteen (15) meters or more in height.
Horizontal Exit - Passageway from one building to another or through or around a wall in approximately the same floor level.
Hose Box - A box or cabinet where fire hoses, valves and other equipment are stored and arranged for fire fighting.
Hose Reel - A cylindrical device turning on an axis around which a fire hose is wound and connected.
Hypergolic Fuel - A rocket or liquid propellant which consists of combination of fuels and oxidizers which ignite spontaneously on contact with
each other.
Industrial Baking or Drying - The industrial process of subjecting materials to heat for the purpose of removing solvents or moisture from the
same, and/or to fuse certain chemical salts to form a uniform glazing on the surface of materials being treated.
Jumper - A piece of metal or an electrical conductor used to bypass a safety device in an electrical system.
Liquid Petroleum Gas (LPG) - Any flammable gas liquefied through pressure. The liquid vaporizes under normal atmospheric pressure.
Means of Egress - A continuous and unobstructed route of exit from any point in a building, structure or facility to a public way.
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Occupant - Any person actually occupying and using a building or portion thereof by virtue of a lease contract with the owner or administrator or
by permission or sufferance of the latter.
Occupancy - The purpose for which a building or portion thereof is used or intended to be used.
Occupant Load - The maximum number of persons that maybe allowed to occupy a particular building, structure or facility or portions.
Oil Burning Equipment - An oil burner of any type together with its tank piping, wiring controls, blower, and related devices and shall include all
oil fire units, heating and cooling appliances.
Organic Peroxide - A strong oxidizing organic compound which releases oxygen readily. It causes fire when in contact with combustible materials
especially under conditions of high temperature.
Organic Coating - A liquid mixture of binders such as alkyde, nitrocellulose, acrylic, or oil and flammable and combustible solvents such as
hydrocarbon, ether, ketone, or alcohol, which when spread on a surface becomes a durable protective and decorative finish.
Overloading - The use of one or more electrical appliances or devices which draw or consume electrical current beyond the designed capacity of
the existing electrical system.
Owner - The person who holds the legal rights of possession or title to a building or real property.
Oxidizing Material - A material that readily yields oxygen in quantities sufficient to stimulate or support combustion.
Panic Hardware - A mechanical device consisting of linkages and a horizontal bar across a door, which when pushed from the inside will cause
the door to open and facilitates exit from a building, structure or facility.
Pressurized or Forced Draft Burning Equipment - Type of burner where the fuel is subjected to pressure prior to discharge into the combustion
chamber and/or which includes fans or other provisions for the introduction of air at above normal atmospheric pressure into the same combustion
chamber.
Picking Room - Rooms where baled, bundled or piled materials are segregated into desired sizes or groups.
Plenum - An air compartment or chamber to which one or more ducts are connected and which form part of an air distribution system.
Public Assembly Building - Any building or structure where fifty (50) or more people congregate, gather or assemble for any purpose.
Public Way - Any street, alley or other strip of land unobstructed from the ground to the sky, deeded, dedicated or otherwise permanently
appropriated for public use.
Pyrophoric - Descriptive of any substance that ignites spontaneously when exposed to air.
Refining - A process where impurities and/or deleterious materials are removed from a mixture in order to produce a pure element or compound. It
shall also refer to partial distillation and electrolysis.
Self-Closing Doors - Automatic closing doors that are designed to confine smoke and heat and delay the spread of fire.
Smelting - Melting or fusing of metallic ores or compound so as to separate impurities from pure metals.
Smoke Develop Rating - A rating of a combustible material based on the density and volume of smoke developed within a certain period of time
when its surface is ignited.
Smoking- Puffing, carrying and/or use of lighted pipe, cigar, cigarette, or tobacco in any form.
Spraying Area - Any area in which dangerous quantities of flammable vapor or combustible residues, dust, or deposits are present due to the
operation of spraying devices.
Sprinkler System - An integrated network of hydraulically designed piping installed in a building, structure or area with outlets arranged in a
systematic pattern which automatically discharges water when activated by heat or combustion products from a fire.
Standpipe System - A system of vertical pipes in a building to which fire hoses can be connected on each floor, including a system by which water
is made available to the outlets as needed.
Tank Vehicle - Any vehicle carrying or towing a cargo tank used for transporting flammable fluids or hazardous chemicals.
Vestibule - A passage hall or antechamber between the outer doors and the interior parts of a house or building.
Vertical Shaft - An enclosed vertical space of passage that extends from floor to floor, as well as from the base to the top of the building.