Two concepts

SUMMARY REVIEWER IN PHILOSOPHY

CHAPTER 5 “Freedom of the Human Person”

Lesson 1:

I. Determinism Vs Freewill
that will help us
II.
III.
IV.
Aristotle’ Power of Volition
Sartre’s Individual Freedom
St. Thomas Aquinas Natural Law
fully understand
Objectives:

1. Realize that “all actions have consequences.”

freedom:
2. Evaluate and exercise prudence in choices.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
1. Freedom
What is itself
Freedom According to
? Merriam
- The ability to Dictionary, it is
make choices the quality or
and perform state of being
those choices. free.
- The ability to It is our capacity
be what we want to choose of what
and to decide and we wanted and
create oneself.
1
an inner What is
awareness of Freedom
what is right and ?
wrong that is - The ability to
traced to our free make choices
will according to and perform
Aristotle. It is those choices.
also an intrinsic - The ability to
and an essential be what we want
property of a and to decide and
human person create oneself.
which basically
means, it is a part Two concepts
of our human that will help us
nature. fully understand
freedom:
2
1. Freedom will according to
itself Aristotle. It is
According to also an intrinsic
Merriam and an essential
Dictionary, it is property of a
the quality or human person
state of being which basically
free. means, it is a part
It is our capacity of our human
to choose of what nature.
we wanted and
What is Freedom?

- The ability to make choices and perform those choices.

- The ability to be what we want and to decide and

an inner create oneself.

Two concepts that will help us fully understand
freedom:

awareness of 1. Freedom itself

According to Merriam Dictionary, it is the quality or

what is right and state of being free.

It is our capacity to choose of what we wanted and an
inner awareness of

wrong that is what is right and wrong that is traced to our free will
according to Aristotle. It is
also an intrinsic and an essential property of a human

traced to our free person which basically

means, it is a part of our human nature.

3
I FREE WILL VS. DETERMINISM
2. Free will
Our free will allows us to decide on things we do
depending on the situation. It is our ability to choose
between two different possible courses of
action, independently. Simply put it, free will is our
ability to choose things
according to our moral reasoning.
KINDS OF FREEDOM
1. Physical Freedom
Physical freedom refers to the absence of any physical
restraint. The person has
the freedom of mobility to go where he or she wants to
go. He or she is not impeded in
his or her actions by any physical force. Granted that
the person has natural limitations,
physical freedom allows him or her to act and move in
determined manner. You cannot
be everywhere at once, but your freedom allows you to
move one place to another and
to go whenever you want to go.
2. Psychological Freedom
Psychological freedom is also called freedom of choice.
The person is free to perform actions that he or she
considers right and wise. A person is also free to act or
not to act. Psychological freedom is innate and cannot
be denied to a person. No
outside force or influence can compel a person to take
action against his or her will.
3. Moral Freedom
Moral freedom refers to using freedom in a manner
that upholds human dignity
and goodness. Freedom is not an object that a person
may use in whatever way he or
she pleases. A person must use his or her freedom to
grow as a person. A person
becomes freer when he or she uses freedom well, but
becomes less free when he or
she uses it in a bad way. Humans have a natural
inclination for what is true and good,
and when a person uses his or her freedom to do acts
that violates human dignity and
goodness, he or she dehumanizes himself or herself and
effectively negates human freedom.
There are important factors to consider in the exercise
of freedom. These are Prudence and Self-reflection. 
Prudence is the ability to govern and discipline oneself
with the use of reason; it is having caution and giving
good judgments in making decisions. Because once we
made a decision there is no turning back, there is no
rewind, so we should always reflect first on the possible
outcomes of the choices that we are going to make.
Self-reflection is very important in exercising freedom.
 Self-reflection allows us to be more rational in making
choices, because sometimes human beings tend to be
slaves by their emotions and moods whenever they act
certain things. As free beings, exercising our freedom
responsibly is very important. Thus, it requires us to
reflect on the actions that we are going to make by
considering its possible effects and the benefits it has to
the people affected by it.
Determinism in this sense is usually understood to be
incompatible with free will, or the supposed power or
capacity of humans to make decisions or perform
actions independently of any prior event or state of the
universe. Philosophers and scientists who deny the
existence of free will on this basis are known as “hard”
determinists.
III “ARISTOTLE POWER OF VOLITION”
The power of Volition (the power to make your own
choice or decisions) –
The imperative quality of a judgement of practical
intellect meaningless, apart from will. Reason can
legislate (control), but only through will can its
legislation be translated into action.
If there is no intellect, there would be no will.
4
The will of humanity is an instrument of free choice. It is
within the power of everyone to be good or bad, worthy
or worthless. This is borne out by:
•Our inner awareness of an aptitude to do right or
wrong;
•The common testimony of all human beings; The
rewards and punishment of rulers
•The general employment of praise and blame.
For Aristotle, a human being is rational (based on facts
or reason and not by emotion). Reason is divine
characteristic. Humans have the spark of the divine. If
there were no intellect, there would be no will.
For Aristotle, a human being is rational (based on facts
or reason and not by emotion). Reason is divine
characteristic. Humans have the spark of the divine. If
there were no intellect, there would be no will.
III “JEAN PAUL SARTRE: INDIVIDUAL FREEDOM”
 Sartre's philosophy is considered to be a
representative of existentialism. The human
person is desire to be God. The human person
builds the road to the destiny of his/her
choosing; he/she is the creator.
 Sartre emphasizes the importance of free
individual choice, regardless the power of other
people to influence and coerce our desire,
beliefs, and decisions.
 To be human, to be conscious, is to be free to
imagine, free to choose and be responsible for
one's life.
IV St. Thomas Aquinas Natural Law
Natural Law
Morality, as Aquinas viewed it, is not an arbitrary set of
rules for behavior. Rather, the basis of
moral obligation is found, first of all, in human nature
itself. Built into our nature are various inclinations,
such as the preservation of life, the propagation
of species, and, because people are rational, the
inclination toward the search for truth. The basic moral
truth is simply to “do good and avoid evil.”
For Aquinas natural law consists of that portion of
the eternal law that pertains particularly to people.
His reasoning is that “all things share somewhat of the
eternal law . . . from its being imprinted on them” and
from this all things “derive their respective inclinations
to their proper acts and ends.” This is particularly true
of people, because our rational capacity “has a share of
the Eternal Reason, whereby it has a natural inclination
to its proper act and end.” And, Aquinas says, “this
participation of the eternal law in the rational creature
is called the natural law,” and again, “the natural law is
nothing else than the rational creature’s participation in
the eternal law.”
CHAPTER 6 “Intersubjectivity of the Human Person”
Lesson 1:
I. Intersubjectivity as an ontology: Social
Dimension of the Self
A. . Martin Buber’s I-You
B. Pope John Paul’s I – We Relation
Objectives:
Realize that:
I. 1. Realize that intersubjectivity requires accepting
differences and not to imposing on others;
2. Appreciate the talents of persons with disabilities and
those from the underprivileged sectors of society and
their contributions to society;
3. Explain that authentic dialogue means accepting
others even if they are different from themselves;
4. Perform activities that demonstrate the talents of
persons with disabilities and those from the
underprivileged sectors of society.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
What is
Freedom
?
5
- The ability to Dictionary, it is
make choices the quality or
and perform state of being
those choices. free.
- The ability to It is our capacity
be what we want to choose of what
and to decide and we wanted and
create oneself. an inner
Two concepts awareness of
that will help us what is right and
fully understand wrong that is
freedom: traced to our free
will according to
1. Freedom Aristotle. It is
itself also an intrinsic
According to and an essential
Merriam
6
property of a and to decide and
human person create oneself.
which basically Two concepts
means, it is a part that will help us
of our human fully understand
nature. freedom:
What is
1. Freedom
Freedom
itself
? According to
- The ability to Merriam
make choices Dictionary, it is
and perform the quality or
those choices. state of being
- The ability to free.
be what we want It is our capacity
to choose of what
7
we wanted and
 It is the condition of man, a subject, among other
men, who are also subjects also it refers to the
shared awareness and understanding among

an inner persons.

Realize that Intersubjectivity Requires Accepting

awareness of
Differences and Not to Impose on Others

▪ Labels – different appearances or points of view.

what is right and ▪ Labels can be negative or limiting.

▪ Negative labels can be contagious, so can the

wrong that is positive.

Intersubjectivity as Ontology: The Social Dimension

traced to our free Of the self

Martin Buber’s and Karol Wojtyla’s

will according to ■ Believed in the notion (a conception of or belief

about something) of concrete experience/existence

Aristotle. It is
of

the human person.

also an intrinsic ■ They also think that one must not lose the sight
old one’s self in concrete experience.

and an essential ■ Both refused to regard the human person as a

composite of some kind of dimension, such us
animality and nationality

property of a Karol Wojtyla or Saint Pope John Paul II

human person
▪ For Wojtyla, the social dimension is represented
by “We relation”

which basically
▪ In his encyclical letter, “Fides et ratio”, he criticized
the traditional definition of human as

“rational animal”.

means, it is a part ▪ He maintains that the human person is the one

who exist and acts (conscious acting, has will,

of our human has self-determination).

nature.
▪ For Wojtyla, action reveals the nature of the
human agent.

Intersubjectivity

8
 Participation explains the essence of the human - asthmatic or cystic fibrotic persons
person. Through participation, the person is able to
- Diabetic
fulfill one’s self. The human
▪ Negative attitude of the family and community
person is oriented toward relation and sharing in
toward PWDs may add to their poor academic
the communal life for the common good.
and vocational outcomes. Parents need to reach
Martin Buber
the point of constructive action. They can
▪ His work “I and thou” (Ich and Du) (1923), he
decide to restructure certain aspects of their
conceives the human person in his/her wholeness,
lifestyle in order to accommodate the
totality, concrete existence and relatedness to he
communicative as sensitivity, through positive and
world.
supportive attitudes towards PWDs, is also
Buber’s I-thou philosophy is about the human
an important component.
person as a subject, who is a being different from
B. On Underprivileged Sector of Society
things or from objects. The human person
experience his wholeness not in virtue of his ▪ On Underprivileged Sector of Society
relation to one’s self, but in virtue of his relation to
The notion of poverty s not one-dimensional; rather
another self.
it is multidimensional. A number of different
▪ The human person as subject have direct and
concepts and measures of poverty relate to its
mutual sharing of selves. This signifies a person,
various dimension. Each of these has the common
subject-subject relation or acceptance, sincerity,
characteristics of representing deprivation that
concern, respect, dialog, and care. The human
encompasses:
person is not just being-in-the-world but being-with-
Income
others ,or being-in-relation.
- Health
▪ Buber cites the I-It relationship. This I-It
- Education
relationship is a person to thing, subject to object
- Empowerment
that is
- Working Condition
merely experiencing and using: lacking ▪ The most common measure of the
directedness and mutuality) underprivileged is income poverty, which is defined
in terms
Appreciate the Talents of Person with
Disability (PWDs) and those from the of consumption of goods and services. There is
Underprivileged Sectors lack of goods and services. The world bank

of society and Their Contributions
A. On PWDs:
▪ There are many categories of PWD or person with
disabilities. To mention some, There are:
- hearing impaired
categories poverty in two levels: poor and
extremely poor.
There are growing recognition that income poverty
is not the only important measure of
deprivation. Poor health is also an important aspect
of poverty. Globally, millions die due o AIDS,

9
Ebola virus, tuberculosis and malaria as well as
numbers of infant deaths from largely
preventable causes of diarrheal diseases. Health
deprivation had become focal point for the
underprivileged.
▪ Human rights are also relevant to issues of global
poverty in its focus on shortfalls in basic
needs. Extending human rights into the realm of
foreign direct investment is also an imperative.
C. On the Rights of Women
▪ In 1712 , Jean Rousseau said that women should
be educated to please men . Moreover, he
believes that women should be useful to men,
should take care, advise, console men, and to
render men’s live easy and agreeable . Rousseau
also influenced the development of modern
political, sociological, and educational thought .
▪ Mary Wollstonecraft is best known for A
Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792), in
which she argues that women are not naturally
inferior to men, but appear to be only because they
lack education. She suggests that both men and
women should be treated as rational beings and
imagines a social order founded on reason
Explain the Authentic Dialog That is Accepting
Others Regardless of Individual Differences
▪ In his essay, Martin Heidegger says that
humankind is a conversation.
▪ Conversation –is more than an idle talk but a
dialog. Dialog is a conversation that is attuned to
each other and to whatever they are talking
about.Humanity is progressively attuned to
communication about Being.
▪ Dialog – It is a deep and genuinely relationship
between persons.
 It happens when two person truly
acknowledge each other’s presence and
treat each other as equals.
 Mutual sharing of our inner selves in the
realm of the interhuman.
 Interhuman is life between and among
persons; it refers to the interpersonal. (the
life of dialogue).
OBSTACLE TO DIALOG
1. Seeming-
It is a way of approaching the other
governed by the image one desires to
impress on the other. It involves deliberately
playing up or hiding aspects of yourself to
appear more desirable or impressive.
2. Speechifying
It refers to one’s talking past another.
It is hearing without listening to what one
says.
3. Imposition
It constitutes holding one’s own opinion,
values, attitudes and oneself without regard
for those of another.
It is telling the other how he or she should
act, behave and respond to things.
Ontology-
 The branch of philosophy that studies
concept, such as existence, being,
becoming, and reality.
 Classification of entities.
10
 I. Forms of Society

A. Agrarian

B. Industrial

C. Virtual

II. Development of Human Society

Objectives:

1. Recognize how individuals form

societies and how individuals are
transformed by societies;
2. Compare different forms of
societies and individualities (eg. Agrarian, industrial and
virtual).
--------------------------------------------------------------------------

What is
Freedom
?
- The ability to
make choices
and perform
those choices.
- The ability to
be what we want
CHAPTER 7 “HUMAN PERSON IN THE SOCIETY”
and to decide and
Lesson 1 create oneself.
11
Two concepts an inner
that will help us awareness of
fully understand what is right and
freedom: wrong that is
traced to our free
1. Freedom will according to
itself Aristotle. It is
According to also an intrinsic
Merriam and an essential
Dictionary, it is property of a
the quality or human person
state of being which basically
free. means, it is a part
It is our capacity of our human
to choose of what nature.
we wanted and
12
What is 1. Freedom
Freedom itself
? According to
- The ability to Merriam
make choices Dictionary, it is
and perform the quality or
those choices. state of being
- The ability to free.
be what we want It is our capacity
and to decide and to choose of what
create oneself. we wanted and
an inner
Two concepts awareness of
that will help us what is right and
fully understand wrong that is
freedom: traced to our free
13
will according to
Aristotle. It is
also an intrinsic
and an essential
property of a
human person
which basically
means, it is a part
of our human
nature.
Society
The human person exists to relate with others. The
person is by nature a social being because he or
she has a tendency to go out of himself or herself
to form bonds and relationships with others.
A society is a group of individuals involved in
persistent social interaction, or a large social group
sharing the same geographical or social territory,
typically subject to the same political authority and
dominant cultural expectations.
A. Agrarian form of society
type of society is a further evolution of the
pastoral and horticultural society. An agrarian
society focuses its economy primarily on
agriculture and the cultivation of large fields. This
distinguishes it from the hunter-gatherer society,
which produces none of its own food, and the
horticultural society, which produces food in small
gardens rather than fields.
B. Industrial society
advance technology to drive
is the one which uses
a massive
production industry that will support a large
population and society produced material goods
using sophisticated machinery powered by fuel. For
example, the Japan is an industrial society
because a huge portion of its economy is tied to
jobs that involve machine work, like
farming or auto-assembly plants, that has a
combination of machine and human employees
factory
to produce
goods. The objective of an industrial economy is
the fast and efficient manufacturing of
standardized products. The same goes if one avails
a car, there is a chance that the car was mass
produced because it operates similarly to other
models, and its parts can be replaced with other
parts because they are identical.
Post Industrial Society - is marked by a
progress from a manufacturing-based to a
service-based economy. Emphasis on information,
technology, and services because manufacturing is
a characteristic of the corporate form.
Post industrialization is most evident in countries
and regions that were among the first to experience
the Industrial Revolution, such as the United States,
western Europe, and Japan. Daniel Bell, an
American sociologist, first coined the term ‘post-
industrial’ in 1973 in his book “The Coming of
Post-Industrial Society: A Venture in Social
Forecasting,” which describes several features of
this kind of society. Post-industrial societies are
characterized by:
a. a shift from the production of goods to the
production of services;
b. the replacement of manual laborers with
technical and professional workers (computer
engineers, doctors, and bankers) as the direct
production of goods is moved
14
elsewhere;
c. the replacement of practical knowledge with
theoretical knowledge;
d. focusing to the theoretical and ethical
implications of new technologies, which helps
society avoid some of the negative features of
introducing new technologies, concerning
environment and energy;
e. the development of recent scientific disciplines—
that involve new forms of information technology,
cybernetics, or artificial intelligence—to evaluate
the theoretical and ethical implications of new
technologies;
f. an emphasis on the university and polytechnic
institutes which produce graduates who innovate
and lead the new technologies contributing to a
postindustrial society; and
g. the changing values and norms which reflects
the influences on the society. In an instance,
outsourcing of manufactured good changes how
members of a society see and treat foreigners and
immigrants. Also, those individuals previously
occupied in the manufacturing sector find
themselves with no clearly defined social role.
Post-industrial society: emerged by the
establishment of societies based on knowledge,
information, and the sale of services.
Virtual society arises where people organize
themselves through communication technology
and Internet. This society is composed of members
with higher educational attainment, better training,
and specialized roles.
C. Virtual society arises where people organize
themselves through communication technology
and Internet. This society is composed of members
with higher educational attainment, better training,
and specialized roles.
-as an online gathering of individuals who share
interests, fears, and personal opinions. For
example, we may join a VC to support a presidential
candidate, to provide support to a family with a
child recently diagnosed with cancer, or to cheer for
our favorite sports team. People join a VC to gain
freedom of expression and to interact with others
without being concerned with country boundaries,
ethnic backgrounds, sexual orientation, religious
beliefs, or political views.
DIGITAL SOCIETY AND THE INFORMATION AGE
Digital technologies have wildly affected our
interactions and activity in the 21st century. They
have significantly changed our way of learning,
working and socializing. In this modern world
we rely with the use of modern technology
which has led to considering the possible outcome
for the society,
concerning how we would take part in interaction,
and how we can use these digital tools and
communication channels.
Having our heads of digital society in our minds, we
first have to think of the information society;
which are correlated with the progress and
development of digital information and
communication technologies to the internet at
least. Information society plays a vital role with
regards to the circulation and control of made-
up ideas which affects political, economic, social
and cultural aspects. So, what does this mean for
the everyday citizen?
These informative societies have paved many
opportunities reaching bigger audiences like
never before. With a wider scale of the world’s
demography, primarily Westerners, have access to
sources and technologies which enables them to
connect with enough activities whether
economic,
social, political, or educational. We can manipulate
the phasing of learning (e.g. free sources) or
businesses (e.g. online selling) without a large
sum of money used as a capital and we can share
our ideas and perspectives to the international
audiences as we connect beyond.
15

What do we mean by digital citizenship?
Now, one of the main terms in the modern world is
the ‘digital citizen’. What does this actually
mean? A digital citizen is a person who is
knowledgeable and responsible enough to
effectively use different social platforms in the
internet. They often engage in useful topics and
issues that will help build a better society, politics
and government. If we will dig deeper, digital
citizenship might look simple. We might think that it
is just about using the internet safely. However, we
also need to consider and understand that this
citizenship can get complicated, especially if we
are going to criticize and show interest in sensitive
topics as we start to become a digital citizen, using
digital media to actively participate in society and
politics.
If we look a little closer at the field of ‘citizenship
studies’ this will lead us to a better understanding
of what digital society really means. A citizen is
defined as an individual character who is viewed
as a member of a society while citizenship
considers an individual’s behavior in terms of
rights, obligations and functions of said citizen.
Being a citizen of a state requires tons of
obligations and duties such as work, taxation and
obedience of laws. On the other hand, citizens also
have their rights, it includes civil rights such as
freedom of speech and expression, to stand for
what we believe in, and rights to a private life;
political rights, or the right to vote and social rights
to health care and welfare. In this course we will
tackle these rights as we look at real definition of
what it means to be a citizen in the modern society
and how legislation and the government shape our
ability to be democratic citizens who can stand for
the truth.
What does this all mean then in the digital age?
We have said that being a digital citizen requires
active participation online, not just access and use.
In their book “Being Digital Citizens” (2015) Isin and
Ruppert suggest that if we constitute ourselves as
digital citizens, we have become subjects of power
in cyberspace. We are enacting ourselves on the
internet, considering and understanding the
opportunities presented by this medium, such as
anonymity, communication, and influence. In short,
we can use digital technologies to engage and
participate on many levels in society
and political life.
The virtual society and the technological devices
today are starting to reshape the human person
and human interactions and relationships. More
and more interactions are done in the virtual world
than in the actual world. People are more thrilled
to see their virtual selves than their actual
selves. They are more themselves online than
offline. And this leads one to ask, “Who am I?” in a
more complex manner. People seem to start
manipulating personalities as they exhibit different
behaviors in different worlds. People fall in love in
virtual worlds. Someone breaks up with a partner
through a text message. Human relations seem to
start losing an important element in living –
commitment. Virtual worlds and disembodied
relations lack commitment. We can always step
back and retreat in a virtual world. We can always
create a new self when our avatars die or when it
has become undesirable. We can always ignore
message. Virtual realities remove risks; and
because we do not want to risk, we patronize the
virtual world. Commitment is hard. To commit is to
risk. In the virtual world, one’s anonymity
lessens, if not completely removes risks. When
we are confronted with real social problems like
war and famine, discrimination harassment and
corruption; we let the world know that we condemn
these evils and express participation in the
abolition of these problems. How? By a futile click
to like. People in the modern technological society
ultimately make no real commitments
16

THE DISEMBODIED SUBJECT
The dissatisfaction and frustration of the human
person with bodily limitations drive the person to
prefer a disembodied human relation. At the outset,
it must be clarified that the term disembodied
subject does not mean that in the technological
society, human persons are no longer living with
their bodies. However, in a manner of speaking,
people are slowly putting aside their bodies in
relating with others because the technological
society offers an alternative which apparently
resolves human of an embodied subject. Face-to-
face interaction is too stressful and difficult while
virtual interactions are relatively easier.
Consequently, we find many cases where people
prefer communicating using virtual world, even if
the person involved is someone seen on a regular
basis. Moreover, the disembodied interaction
among people is aggravated by modern
technological devices. The different gadgets that
are produced today support disembodied human
relations. The scene which the technological
society creates is very familiar to us: we see a
family, or friends, gathered around a table or in a
room, but with very minimal actual embodied
human interaction. Everyone is glued to their
devices – cellphones, tablets, laptops, or any
device and they are all probably interacting with
their virtual societies. One is busy with other
things other than the persons within the room or
in the closest proximity. The kind of human
interaction, which was
still present just two decades ago, is obviously
altered now. And however much we try and remind
ourselves to refrain from being alone with our
devices while being with others, we always fall back
into interacting with our gadgets. We prefer to
interact with our phones with the unfinished
game that we are playing, with the new music and
movies we downloaded, or with our friends who are
probably in the situation – with other people as
well, but alone with their devices too. Interacting
with actual embodied subjects, face-to-face, is
becoming more and more difficult today. It is
indeed more difficult to relate to other embodied
subjects than to relate with things.
The practice of selfie is another move towards
disembodied human relations. People used to
approach other people to take their photos. But the
regained popularity of selfie gave people the idea
that they do not need the other to take photos.
And the invention of the monopod aggravates
the condition. The monopod allows us to take
group selfies without missing a member of our
group. It has solidified the person to take our
photos. Maybe we will just disturb the person by
asking him to take our photo. But maybe we are
more afraid of being rejected than by the idea of
bothering the other.
The virtual society and the technological
devices today are starting to reshape the human
person and human interactions and relationships.
More and more interactions are done in the
virtual world than in the actual world. People are
more thrilled to see their virtual selves than their
actual selves. They are more themselves online
than offline. And this leads one to ask, “Who am
I?” in a more complex manner. People seem to
start manipulating personalities as they exhibit
different behaviors in different worlds. People fall in
love in virtual worlds. Someone breaks up with a
partner through a text message. Human relations
seem to start losing an important element in living
commitment. Virtual worlds and disembodied
relations lack commitment. We can always step
back and retreat in a virtual world. We can always
create a new self when our avatars die or when it
has become undesirable. We can always ignore
message. Virtual realities remove risks; and
because we do not want to risk, we patronize the
virtual world. Commitment is hard. To commit is
to risk. In the virtual world, one’s anonymity
lessens, if not completely removes risks. When
17
we are confronted with real social problems like
war and famine, discrimination harassment and
corruption; we let the world know that we condemn
these evils and express participation in the
abolition
of these problems. How? By a futile click to like.
People in the modern technological society
ultimately make no real commitments.
CHAPTER 8: Human Person are Oriented
Towards their Impending Death
Lesson 1:
I. Meaning of One’s Life
A. Plato Contemplation Theory of Immortality
B. Aristotle’s Realizing Potential (Moral Virtue Theory)
Objectives
1.
Recognize the meaning of his/her own life
2. Explain the meaning of life (where will all these lead
to)
3. Reflect on the meaning of his/her
Nothing lasts forever (walang forever). The
cycle of being born, growing up and growing old
and
dying is a reality. We have limited time here on
earth
and whether we like it or not, we are bound to die.
Death is real. It is a part of our being. Death is
commonly understood as the end of bodily
functions. It also refers to the separation of body
and spirit. Everything that exists in this universe
comes to an end and we humans are not
exempted. The acceptance of being a temporary
18
individual in this world gives us a clearer vision on
how to live life to the fullest and understand the
meaning of our existence. We have the freedom to
choose a well-lived life; doing good and doing what
is right. What makes us happy? Happiness is a
state of being (over all physical condition of a
person), not just only an emotion or a decision. We
do not choose happiness because we feel it, we do
not choose happiness because we need it but
happiness is the totality of who we are as human
beings. Aside from that, we must also consider the
goods and sources of our
happiness.
HOW DOES THE
REALITY OF DEATH
DEFINE OUR LIVES
 Death is the end of bodily functions which
signals the end of a person's life. It also
refers to the separation of the body and the
soul;
 The human person is an embodied spirit or
the unity of a body and a spirit. The body
grows and dies, while the soul continues to
exist even after the body has passed.
 This makes a person's life limited in time
but no one really knows when life will end.
This has given rise to various expression
such as YOLO.
 These attitudes are not necessarily bad but
we must embrace the fact that death is an
integral part of our life and focus on the
quantifiable aspects as well as its quality.
The acceptance of our temporality can bring
about sense of freedom in us it can also
give us a clearer purpose and focus on our
activities.
TYPES of DEATH
Manner of Death
Natural death as a result of age or disease; this is
the most common type of death The most
common natural causes of death are respiratory
and cardiovascular diseases. Accidental falls
followed by suicide are the most common
unnatural causes of death.
Unnatural when people die because of human
decisions and actions and unnatural death
results from an external cause, typically
including homicides, suicides, accidents,
medical errors, alcohol intoxications and drug
overdoses.
Accidental: caused by unplanned events (i.e. car
accident)
How should I live my life before it finally ends
 Self-determination is the capacity to
choose and act for oneself.
 While there is no freedom in the inevitability
of death, we have the freedom to live well or
not. Temporarily challenges us to make that
will be good for us and the people around
us. Although we are oriented towards our
death, death is not the goal of life. The
challenge is to live ameaningful life.
TELOS- goals, purpose or fulfillment.
TERMINUS- mean the full stop or end of a line.
 HAPPINESS
- a state of being, not just an emotional experience
or chosen mental attitude. We do not choose
happiness; we choose the means to achieve it. A
good is a source of happiness and it has three
kinds.
Kinds of Good
1. Noble good is one which is pursued for its own
sake, example is love and
friendship.
19
2. Useful good is found only from what it can about realizations and opportunities for us.
provide, Even if the outcome of a difficulty is
unfavorable, dealing with suffering can
3. Pleasurable good is good so long as it provides
improve our
pleasure. Whatever the source of our happiness
attitude towards
right now, let us see to it that it is real and example
life and other
is money and as it can buy you something
people
SUFFERING
 takes place when we patiently endure A. PLATO
unpleasantness, discomfort and pain. It can
be experienced physically or mentally.
TYPES OF SUFFERING
1. PHYSICAL SUFFERING
CONTEMPLATION THEORY OF
When we experience physical sensations such IMMORTALITY
as discomfort, hunger, distress, pain These are
often caused by injury, disease, and lack of basic
needs.
2. MENTAL SUFFERING
Involves emotional and mental states such as
depression, anxiety, fear, loneliness, and grief.
These may be caused by unexpected situations
in life such as sudden changes in lifestyle, loss
of employment, stressful situations, and grief
caused by the death of a loved one.

HOW DO HAPPINESS, SUFFERING AND DEATH

GIVE MEANING TO YOUR LIFE?

 As we approach our death, we experience

both happiness and suffering. Although
these are distinct experiences, the two are
not really meant to be complete opposites,
for there may be instances when they enrich
one another. The pursuit of happiness
requires that we go through the effort to
achieve it. Our efforts are often marked by
difficulties and discouragement.
WHY DO WE SUFFER?

 Negative experiences are part of our lives.

Without it. we are unable to grow and
improve, and our positive experiences lose
meaning and significance. It's important to
remember that difficulties are not without
reason. More often, our hardship brings

20
Plato

[Death], “Is this something that the

separation of soul from the body? It died
when the body is separate from the soul
remains alone, apart, with himself, and
when the soul, separated from the body,
left alone, apart, with itself “…Fear of
death is natural for humans, but death
should be seen as the fruit of life

B. Aristotle’s Realizing Potential

(Moral Virtue Theory)

Potential
The Unmoved Mover is the straw that stirs
Aristotle’s philosophy. When we talk about
“potentiality” and “actuality” we are talking about
fulfilling our nature in our quest to discover who we
are and why we are here.
For Aristotle, everything has an inherent purpose
and our job it to discover ours. The Unmoved Mover
is the force in all living things that makes this
happen.It can accomplish this because the
Unmoved Mover is pure actuality. It is the
completely actualized entity, and it exists in each
living thing alluring it to actualize its potential. It’s the
little spark of divinity in each of us that needs to turn
into a raging fire. It entices every living thing to live
out its potential. This is its similarity to quantum
evocation.Aristotle thought that the more we
actualize our potential, the more we embody the
Unmoved Mover (or God), becoming more “Godlike”
21
in the process.The downside of Aristotle’s
philosophy is the happiness he is referring to is just
an “earthly happiness.” Once we die, we die and
that’s it. We don’t get to take it with us.
Happiness.
It is a term we throw about without much
thought these days… my guess is that,
actually, you think you know what is meant by
saying someone is happy.
According to Aristotle, happiness consists in
achieving, through the course of a whole
lifetime, all the goods — health, wealth,
knowledge, friends, etc. — that lead to the
perfection of human nature and to the
enrichment of human life. This requires us to
make choices, some of which may be very
difficult..
VIRTUE ETHICS
VIRTUE ETHICS is an ethical view originating in
ancient Greece which says that ethics is
fundamentally about learning to live well. According
to Aristotle, the good life is when a man is living a
virtuous life; a kind of life which is oriented toward
our proper end, our purpose.
CHAPTER 8: Human Person are Oriented
Towards their Impending Death
Lesson 2:
A. Schopenhauer
B. Heidegger
C. Karl Jasper
Objectives
1. Enumerate the objectives he/she really wants to
achieve and to define the projects he/she really wants
to do in his/her life
2. Explain the meaning of life (where will all these lead
to)
3. Reflect on the meaning of his/her own life.
A. Schopenhauer on Death
Arthur Schopenhauer was a German philosopher.
He is best known for his 1818 work The World as
Will and Representation, which characterizes the
phenomenal world as the product of a blind
noumenal will. Building on the transcendental
idealism of Immanuel Kant, Schopenhauer
developed an atheistic metaphysical and ethical
system that rejected the contemporaneous ideas of
German idealism. He was among the first thinkers
in Western philosophy to share and affirm
significant tenets of Indian philosophy, such as
asceticism, denial of the self, and the notion of the
world-as-appearance. His work has been described
as an exemplary manifestation of philosophical
pessimism.
ON DEATH AND LIFE AS DYING
The concept of death is a fundamental
adjunct of Schopenhauer's metaphysics of
appearance and Will. Schopenhauer interprets
death as the aim and purpose of life. He maintains
that to live is to suffer, that the triumph of death is
inevitable, and that existence is a constant dying.
Yet Schopenhauer also insists that death is the
denial of the individual will or will-to-live; that birth
and death as events in the phenomenal world are
alike unreal; that death is not complete annihilation;
and that suicide, though not morally objectionable,
is philosophically pointless because it affirms the
will-to-live. The paradoxes in Schopenhauer's
reflections on the nature of death must be
understood in order to appreciate what he means
by the empirical will in its relation to Will as thing-in-
itself in his unique brand of post-Kantian idealism.
C. Heidegger
Martin Heidegger was a German philosopher who
is best known for contributions to phenomenology,
hermeneutics, and existentialism. He is among the
most important and influential philosophers of the
20th century. He has been widely criticized for
supporting the Nazi Party after his election as
rector at the University of Freiburg in 1933, and
there has been controversy about the relationship
between his philosophy and Nazism.
22
Being-towards-death
In Heidegger's view, it is the encounter with death
that most profoundly highlights the question of
Being. “Only humanity ‘has’ the distinction of
standing and facing death, because the human
being is earnest about Being (Seyn): death is the
supreme testimony to Being (Seyn)” (GA 65: 230).
“Death opens up the question of Being” (GA 65:
284). Thus Heidegger's detailed examination of
human mortality was motivated by the question:
what can death tell us about the fundamental
meaning of Being?
 Death was a central theme of Heidegger's
thought throughout his entire philosophical
career.
 He considered the knowledge of the
existence of death and believed that the
existence of knowledge leads to the
knowledge of the universe.
 The immense popularity of Being and
Time owed much to his emphasis that
“preparedness for death” is a fundamental
key to authentic existence – that the
disclosure of authentic Being only occurs
when Dasein confronts its own finitude by
resolutely accepting that it is always, and
inescapably, on a journey towards its own
death.
 Death is the possibility of the impossibility
of all other possibilities
D. Karl Jasper
Karl Jaspers, (born Feb. 23, 1883,
Oldenburg, Ger.—died Feb. 26, 1969,
Basel, Switz.), German-Swiss philosopher
and psychiatrist. As a research psychiatrist,
he helped establish psychopathology on a
rigorous, scientifically descriptive basis,
especially in his General
Psychopathology (1913). He taught
philosophy at the University of Heidelberg
from 1921 until 1937, when the Nazi regime
forbade him to work. From 1948 he lived in
Switzerland, teaching at the University of
Basel. In his magnum opus, Philosophy (3
vol., 1969), he argued that the aim of
philosophy is practical; its purpose is the
fulfillment of human existence (Existenz).
For Jaspers, philosophical illumination is
achieved in the experience of limit
situations, such as conflict, guilt, and
suffering, that define the human condition.
In its confrontation with these extremes
mankind achieves its existential humanity.
He is one of the most important figures
of existentialism.
Karl Jasper on Death
Karl Jaspers' existential concept of death
lies at the heart of this book. For Jaspers, a human
being is not merely a physical entity, but a being
with a transcendent aspect, which is in some sense
‘deathless’. It is the connection between these two
aspects of the human being that governs the
structure of his work. This book is primarily
concerned to clarify and reassess Jaspers' concept
of death and his claim that one's transcendent self
‘knows no death’. In this respect, it is an attempt to
determine what it means for a human being to be
‘deathless’ within the Jaspersian framework.
The book explores Jaspers' notion of death,
seeking to provide a better understanding of human
existence in this world. In a sense it is a reflection
on what it means to be human, highlighting the
significance of the relationship between man and
death, and his preoccupation with human finitude.
We know that we must eventually die, and sooner
or later we have to confront our own mortality.
There is, however, no certainty as to when and
where we might die.
Traditionally, the idea of finitude and death
are closely associated, for it is death that marks our
finitude. Human finitude is a biological fact and is
intrinsic to human nature. But people perceive
death not only as the empirical limit to existence but
also as a metaphysical issue. The distinction
between biological death and death as a
philosophical issue is important because an
empirical inquiry into death is fundamentally
different from a metaphysical inquiry.
What I have learned
 Human is temporary. Nothing is forever.
 We have to exercise our freedom in a positive
way. Since we all will face
23
judgement on the comings days and our happiness  fear of death is only natural to humans, but
will be determined by how death should be viewed as achievement of life.
we exercise our freedom.  happiness or well-being (eudaimonia) is the
 We should always remember to do good rather highest aim of moral thought and conduct, and
than bad. virtues (aretê: 'excellence') are the requisite
 Real happiness can be found in a more lasting skills and dispositions needed to attain it the
and important things. republic
 Suffering takes place when we feel pain. It can be
experienced physically or ARISTOTLE
mentally. It is generally viewed as an undesirable
condition, and that we
naturally seek pleasure and avoid pain. Humans as  He was a Greek philosopher and polymath
we are, we normally during the Classical period in Ancient Greece.
experience pain and we often view it as necessary  Student of Plato
to help as grow and
become a strong person and find the deepest
meaning of our lives.
 As we approach our death, we experience both Aristotle
happiness and suffering. The  according to Aristotle, the purpose and ultimate
two are not really meant to be extreme opposites, goal in life is to achieve eudaimonia
for they can also enrich one
 ('happiness'). He believed that eudaimonia was
another.
not simply virtue, nor pleasure, but rather it
 As intersubjective beings who have a tendency to
was the exercise of virtue Happiness depends
form bonds with others, it is
on ourselves." More than anybody else,
only natural that the meaning of life be found when
we open ourselves to Aristotle
others. This means that although we will eventually  enshrines happiness as a central purpose of
die, we have an human life and a goal in itself. As a result, he ,
opportunity to enrich our lives as well as the lives of the topic of happiness than any thinker prior to
others the modern era.
SOCRATES
HEIDEGGER

 founder of Western philosophy he was a man

 Death is a phenomenon of life that reveals the
of principle
way in which a human being exists and what it
 Socratic method of question and answer, his
means to be.
claim that he was ignorant (or aware of his own
 Death is a self-possibility of existence; if one is
absence of knowledge), and his claim that the
able to exist, he can absolutely own it. > He
unexamined life is not worth living, for human
interprets death as a meaningful possibility by
beings.
showing that death is an existential awareness
 The unexamined life is not worth living
of possible not-being.
 people should care less about their bodies and
 Existence is aware of continuous self-
possessions and more about their souls
awareness; consequently, the main question of
PLATO philosophy is always tied with inexistence.
Heidegger thus considers that knowledge about
death leads to understanding of existence and
 He was a Greek philosopher born in Athens that knowledge of existence will result in
during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. knowing the universe.

24
 of justice as fairness describes a society of free citizens
holding equal basic rights and an egalitarian economic
system.
EPICURUS

 Epicurus was an ancient Greek philosopher and

sage who founded Epicureanism, a highly
 influential school of philosophy. the soul is
mortal and suffers destruction.
 Epicurus advocated living in such a way as to
derive the greatest amount of pleasure possible
during one's lifetime, yet doing so moderately in
order to avoid the suffering incurred by
overindulgence in such pleasure.
JEAN-JACQUES ROUSSEAU > Social Contract Theory
 Humans are good and compassionate by
nature, but can be corrupted by civilization.
 Jean-Jacques Rousseau was a Swiss
Enlightenment philosopher with some radical
ideas. He argued passionately for democracy,
equality, liberty, and supporting the common
good by any means necessary. life will be fair
for all if we employ the general will and set
aside our personal interest
Human Person are Oriented Towards their
Impending Death
Death is typically regarded as a great evil, especially if it
strikes someone too soon.
Self-determination- the process by which a group of
people, usually possessing a certain degree of national
consciousness, form their own state and choose their
own government.
Transcendence- refers to the very highest and most
inclusive or holistic levels of human consciousness,
behaving and relating, as ends rather than means, to
oneself, to significant others, to human beings in
general, to other species, to nature, and to the cosmos
Intersubjectivity - means that we all influence and are
all influenced by others to some degree.

JOHN LOCKE

 He believed that humans are rational by nature,

Telos-fulfilment, goal, completion
and can-by-large control themselves.
 Locke believes that we are able to notice or
experience our mind performing these actions
Original position- individuals sacrifice some of their
and when we do we receive ideas of reflection.
wants and submit to a higher authority

SIGMUND FREUD
Veil of ignorance

 The Veil of Ignorance, as a thought experiment,

Freud did not know how to escape death and thought of
shows us that ignorance is not always
it as a natural and inevitable event. Despite the broad
detrimental to a society.
impact of Freud's thoughts on death.
 The "vell of ignorance" is a moral reasoning
JOHN RAWLS device designed to promote impartial decision
making by denying decision makers access to
He redefined the social contract and explained that
potentially biasing information about who will
human beings approach social cooperation In a rational
benefit most or least from the available options.
manner to meet their individual self-interest. His theory
25
Libertarianism

 It is a political ideology which believes that it is

the individual not the government, that is the
best judge in upholding and exercising rights.
 any political position that advocates a radical
redistribution of power from the coercive state
to voluntary associations of free individuals",
whether "voluntary association" takes the form
of the free market or of communal co-
operatives ideology believes that individual
rights stress that the role of the government in
protecting the civil liberties

26