KIG 3001

INSTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES

LECTURE 14:
Applied Mechanical Measurement (AMM):
Measurement of Sound
By:
Assoc. Prof. Ir. Dr. Rahizar Ramli

Department of Mechanical Engineering

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CONTENTS

14.1 Introduction

14.2 Transducers
14.3 Microphones
14.4 Sound Level Meters
14.5 Sound Calibrators
14.6 Real Time Analyzers
14.7 Graphic Level Recorders
14.8 Magnetic Tape Recorders
14.9 Sound Intensity Systems
14.10 Dosimeters
14.11 Smartphone’s Apps
14.12 Useful Links

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14.1 Introduction

What is Acoustics, Sound & Noise?

Acoustics is a study of sound (sound production, sound propagation, and sound reception)

Sound is the audible pressure fluctuation/variation in a medium (air) about the ambient
(atmospheric) pressure.

Noise is defined as unwanted or unpleasant sound.

It is subjective i.e.: different from one person to another.

Material Air Water Glass Concrete Steel Iron Lead Soft Hard
Wood Wood

Speed, c 344 1372 3658 3048 5182 5182 1219 3353 4267
(m/s)

c=fl Wavelength of a 1000 Hz sound wave = 344 mm

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14.1 Introduction (cont.)

Sound: Measured (Objective) vs. Perceived (Subjective)

1. Physical measurement: 2. Perceptual:

• Using sound measuring • By human (speak &

equipment hear)
• Consistent • Vary from one to
another
Components of Sound

Physical Perceptual
Time (t) Duration
Frequency (f) Pitch
Amplitude (A) Loudness
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14.1 Introduction (cont.)

Time, Frequency & Amplitude Relationship (2D)

Sound Envelope Spectrum
Sources (Amplitude vs. Time) (Amplitude vs. Frequency)

Acoustic signatures (2D) from various sound sources

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14.1 Introduction (cont.)

Time, Frequency & Amplitude Relationship (3D)

Acoustic signatures in 3D

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14.1 Introduction (cont.)

Expressing the Physical Components of Sound: Frequency

Infrasound Audible Sound Ultrasound

(< 20 Hz) (20 Hz – 20 kHz) (> 20 kHz)

Audible sound: Frequency of sound within the human hearing (20 Hz to 20 kHz)

Infrasound: Low frequency sound (i.e.: Ultrasound: High frequency sound (i.e.:
frequencies below the audible range). frequencies above the audible range).

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14.1 Introduction (cont.)

Expressing the Physical Components of Sound: Frequency

Bands of frequencies:
1. Constant Bandwidth (narrow band)
2. Constant Percentage Bandwidth (typically used in sound measurement)

1. Frequency content of the sound evaluated using Constant Bandwidth:

fC = (f U
+ fL ) 2 BWCB = fU - f L
where,
fc = centre frequency
fu = upper frequency
fL = lower frequency
BWCB = bandwidth for narrow band

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14.1 Introduction (cont.)

Expressing the Physical Components of Sound: Frequency

2. Constant Percentage Bandwidth (Octave Bands)
• Band with a 2:1 ratio (octave) - e.g. 100, 200, 400, 800, 1600, 3200.
• Commonly utilized in analyzing broadband noise.
• Human ear can detects changes in sound in octave bands.
• 1/3 Octave mimics human ear’s filters.
E.g.: Sound waves of 40-50 Hz (1-octave) can be easily perceived as those of 4-5 kHz (1-octave), but
changes in sound between 4000 to 4010 Hz are hardly noticeable.

10 standard full octave bands with centre frequencies,

fc = 31.5, 63, 125, 250, 500 Hz, and 1, 2, 4, 8, 16 kHz.

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14.1 Introduction (cont.)

Expressing the Physical Components of Sound: Frequency

2. Constant Percentage Bandwidth (Octave Bands)

( fC )
1
fU = ( fC )× 2 2k
fL = 1
BWCPB = fU - f L
2 2k

where, and,
fc = centre frequency k = 1 for full octave band
fu = upper frequency k = 3 for 1/3 octave band
fL = lower frequency k = 12 for 1/12 octave band

Example: Determine the lower & upper frequencies and bandwidth of a 1/3 octave band centred at 1000 Hz.
Ans: fu = 1122.4 Hz; fL = 890.9 Hz
BWCPB = 231.5 Hz

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14.1 Introduction (cont.)

Relationship of Sound Pressure, Sound Intensity, and

Sound Power Measured in a Free Field

The amplitude i.e.; the level (in log scale) for LP, LI & LW are:

𝑝 • Pressure [Pa or N/m2]

Sound Pressure => 𝐿! = 20 𝑙𝑜𝑔"#
20 𝜇𝑃𝑎 • Pressure Level [dB re: 20 µPa]

𝐼 • Intensity [W/m2]
Sound Intensity => 𝐿$ = 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔"#
10%"& 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠⁄𝑚& • Intensity Level [dB re: 1 pW/m2]

𝑊 • Power [Watts ]
Sound Power => 𝐿$ = 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔"#
10%"& 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠 • Power Level [dB re: 1 pW]

Analogy (Light bulb): To understand the relationship of LP, LI & LW

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14.1 Introduction (cont.)

Expressing the Physical Components of Sound: Frequency (Octave Bands)

1/1 and 1/3 Octave Bands According to EN ISO 266 1/1 Octave

1/3 Octave

Octave band calculation and adding dB => http://www.sengpielaudio.com/calculator-octave.htm

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14.1 Introduction (cont.)

The objective of sound measurement is to measure a

quantity that can be compared with noise criteria or
standards (correspond to some acceptable levels of
annoyance).

This would provide a consistent, reliable, repeatable and

accurate data that can be used for system improvement,
quality auditing etc.

Typical sound measuring instrument consists of:

1. Transducer (microphones)
2. Signal conditioners
3. Readout / display / storage

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14.2 Transducers (cont.)

Acoustic Transducer

Definition: It is a device used for transforming or converting energy from one form to another.

• ACOUSTIC => MECHANICAL => ELECTRICAL

OR
• ELECTRICAL => MECHANICAL => ACOUSTIC

Reciprocity:

• A property of all transducers

• Energy transforms in either direction

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14.3 Microphones

Microphone is an electromechanical transducer that converts physical quantity (unit from air
pressure variations) into electrical signal (mV or pC).

1. Acoustic => Mechanical => Electrical transduction

2. Desirable characteristics:

• Flat frequency response

• Wide dynamic range
• High sensitivity
• Robustness to external elements: Sensitivity & Linearity

• Temperature
• Humidity
• Vibration or shock
• Stray magnetic fields Frequency Response

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14.3 Microphones (cont.)

General Microphone Specifications:

Diameter = 1/2” or 1/4”

Membrane thickness about 20 µm vibrates generating
electrical signal
High precision micro-mechanical engineering
Low self-noise preamplifier
High quality cables and connectors

Typical Mic Specifications

Microphone with Dust Cap

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14.3 Microphones (cont.)

Additional Microphone Characteristics:

Directionality/Directional Patterns/Polar Patterns of Microphones

The directionality or polar pattern of a microphone is the sensitivity to sound relative to the
direction or angle from which the sound arrives. In lay man terms, how well the microphone
“hears“ sound from different directions.

Different Form of Microphone Directional Patterns

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14.3 Microphones (cont.)

Directional Patterns of Omnidirectional Microphones

Omnidirectional Microphone

Omnidirectional microphones are microphone that pick-up sound with equal gain (sensitivity) from
all sides or directions of the microphone. If one speaks into the microphone from the front, back,
left or right side, the microphone will record the signals all with equal gain.

A disadvantage is that an omnidirectional microphones cannot be aimed away from undesired

sources such as PA speakers which may cause feedback.

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14.3 Microphones (cont.)

Directional Patterns of Cardioid Microphones

Cardioid Microphone

A cardioid microphone has the most sensitivity at the front and is least sensitive at the back. It
isolates from unwanted ambient sound and is much more resistant to feedback than omnidirectional
microphones. That makes a cardioid microphone particularly suitable for loud stages.

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14.3 Microphones (cont)

Directional Patterns of Supercardioid Microphones

Supercardioid Microphone

Supercardioid microphones offer a narrower pickup than cardioids and a greater rejection of
ambient sound. But they also have some pickup directly at the rear. Hence it is important to place
monitor speakers correctly.
Supercardioids are most suitable when single sound sources need to be picked up in loud
environments. They are the most resistant to feedback.

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14.3 Microphones (cont.)

Directional Patterns of Bidirectional Microphones

Bidirectional Microphone

A microphone with a figure of eight polar pattern picks up the sound from in front of the
microphone and from the rear but not the side (90-degree angle).
Microphones with this Figure of Eight polar pattern are typically ribbon or Large Diaphragm
Microphones.

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14.3 Microphones (cont.)

Types of Microphones: Dynamic

a. Dynamic (Electrodynamic) microphones:

i. Electromagnetic induction principle

ii. Diaphragm is connected to coil leads
iii. AC current is induced in wire due to oscillating motion of diaphragm

Electrodynamic Microphone
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14.3 Microphones (cont.)

Types of Microphones: Dynamic (cont)

iv. Features of dynamic microphones:

• Moderate cost
• High dynamic range
• Good frequency response
• Medium sensitivity
• Good performance in humidity
• Poor in magnetic & electromagnetic fields

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14.3 Microphones (cont.)

Types of Microphones: Piezoelectric

b. Ceramic / Piezoelectric / Rochelle Salt

microphones:
i. Phenomenon of selected solids
ii. Produces voltage across two sides that are under
tensile loads
iii. Foil added to faces for wires

Schematic Diagram of a
Piezoelectric Microphone

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14.3 Microphones (cont.)

Types of Microphones: Piezoelectric (cont.)

iv. Features of ceramic / piezoelectric microphones:

• Cheap
• Fair to poor frequency response
• Poor (low) sensitivity
• Poor dynamic range (not suitable for musical purpose)
• Poor in high / low temperatures

Example of a
Piezoelectric Microphone

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14.3 Microphones (cont.)

Types of Microphones: Piezoelectric (cont.)

1. Crystals which demonstrate the piezoelectric effect produce voltages when they are deformed.
2. The crystal microphone uses a thin strip of piezoelectric material attached to a diaphragm.
3. The two sides of the crystal acquire opposite charges when the crystal is deflected by the
diaphragm.
4. The charges are proportional to the amount of deformation and disappear when the stress on
the crystal disappears.
5. Early crystal microphones used Rochelle salt because of its high output, but it was sensitive to
moisture and somewhat fragile.
6. Later microphones used ceramic materials such as barium titanate and lead zirconate.
7. The electric output of crystal microphones is comparatively large, but the frequency response
is not comparable to a good dynamic microphone.
8. Not widely used in the music industry.

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14.3 Microphones (cont.)

Types of Microphones: Condenser

c. Condenser microphones
i. Old word for capacitor
ii. One plate is the microphone diaphragm
iii. The other plate is fixed
iv. Air is the dielectric
v. Voltage fluctuates as the plate moves
vi. Require battery for charge
vii. Require pre-amplifier due to:
• High source of impedance caused by air as
dielectric
Schematic Diagram of a
viii. Output is the AC variation of DC offset Condenser Microphone

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14.3 Microphones (cont.)

Types of Microphones: Condenser (cont.)

vii. Require pre-amplifier due to:
• High source of impedance caused by air as dielectric

viii. Output is the AC variation of DC offset

ix. Features of condenser microphones:
• Expensive
• Best frequency response
• Widest dynamic range
• High sensitivity (very thin aluminum diaphragm)
• Susceptible to high humidity
• Very delicate (do not drop or expose to shock/impact)
• Recalibration for high / low temperature

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14.3 Microphones (cont.)

Types of Microphones: Condenser (cont.)

Examples of Condenser Microphones

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14.3 Microphones (cont.)

Types of Microphones: Electret

d. Electret microphones
i. Special form of condenser
ii. Permanently polarized via heat and electric field exposure of dielectric
iii. Battery is still needed for pre-amp (i.e.: to overcome impedance mismatch)
iv. Best all around microphones

Schematic Diagram of an Electret Microphone

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14.3 Microphones (cont.)

Types of Microphones: Electret (cont.)

viii. Features of electret condenser microphones:
• Moderate cost
• Excellent frequency response
• Good dynamic range
• High sensitivity
• Robust to shock, temperature and humidity
• Small in size
Example of Electret Microphone

rahizar@um.edu.my Exploded View and Example of Electret Microphone

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14.3 Microphones (cont.)

Types of Microphones: Ribbon

e. Ribbon microphones
i. The first type of microphone made
ii. Special form of electrodynamic microphone
iii. Has natural “figure-8” directivity (typically used in broadcasting)
iv. Excellent transient response due to low ribbon weight
v. Slight emphasis of low frequency due to “proximity effect”

rahizar@um.edu.my Schematic, Directionality and Example of Ribbon Microphone

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14.3 Microphones (cont.)

Types of Microphones: Unidirectional

f. Special unidirectional microphones

i. Sound incident from any direction other than 0 deg will
be cancelled out, giving only unidirectional response
ii. Dish microphone
• Uses parabolic reflector
• Microphone is located at focal point
iii. Both usually mated with electrodynamic microphone

Schematic and Example

of Unidirectional Microphone

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14.3 Microphones (cont.)

Applications of Microphones

Measurement microphone
§ Sound pressure
Sound Intensity probe (2 phase-matched microphone)
§ Sound intensity vector

Microphone array (more than 2 microphones) SLM 2D SI Probe

§ Acoustical imaging (localization)

Hydrophone
§ Underwater acoustics
Special microphone
3D SI Probe
§ Broadcasting, audiometry, military applications etc. Microphone Array

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14.4 Sound Level Meters (SLM)

Sound level meters (SLM) are the instruments designed to measure sound
pressure levels.

Typical components in SLM

i. Condenser microphone
ii. Preamplifier
iii. Weighting networks (Flat, A, B, C & D)
iv. Amplifier
v. RMS rectifier
vi. Analog / Digital output

An Octave SLM

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14.4 SLM (cont.)

Setting in SLM
1. SLM has Time Response that mimics the
human ear.

2. “Fast” setting:
Time constant (TC) = 125 ms
3. “Slow” setting:
TC = 1 sec. Avoid rapid fluctuation during
measurement of continuously varying
sound.
4. Impulsive noise (I):
TC (rising edge) = 35 ms
TC (falling edge) = 1500 ms
Typical Block Diagram of a SLM

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14.4 SLM (cont.)

b. Physical characteristics – portable

c. Weighting networks
i. A-scale (general application)
ii. A, B, C & D-scale (precision)
iii. American National Standard Institute (ANSI) standard sets scale values
iv. Display
• Analog (VU meters) or digital read-out
• Fast/slow settings
• Sets damping of circuit response
• “Fast” setting for signals with rapid variation
• “Slow” setting for Occupational Safety & Health Association (OSHA)
requirement

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14.4 SLM (cont.)

Frequency Weighting

§ Human ear perceives loudness varies depending on the frequency of sound. E.g.: Sound at 1kHz
is perceived louder than that of at 20 Hz or 20 kHz with all having equal energy.
§ Frequency weighting considers typical human response within all audible frequency
components to be described as a single number.

Frequency Weighting

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14.4 SLM (cont.)

Frequency Weighting
§ A-weighting is valid to represent the sensitivity of the human ear as a function of the frequency of pure tones
in accordance to IEC 60651, IEC 60804, IEC 61672, ANSI S1.4. A-weighted measurements are expressed
as dBA or dB(A).

§ B-weighting, no longer in common use, was initially developed to cover the mid-range loudness scale. It was
more 'critical' of lower frequencies than the A-weighting network which probably accounts for it's use by the
motor industry for many years after it's decline in general popularity. B-weighted measurements are expressed
as dBB or dB(B).

§ C-Weighting is usually used for Peak measurements and also in some entertainment noise measurement,
where the ear's response is flatter at higher sound levels i.e.: 100 dB and above. C-weighted measurements
are expressed as dBC or dB(C).

§ D-weighting was specifically designed for use when measuring high-level aircraft noise in accordance with the
IEC 537 measurement standard. D-weighted measurements are expressed as dBD or dB(D).

§ Z- or ZERO frequency-weighting was introduced in the IEC 61672 in 2003 and was intended to replace the
"Flat" or "Linear" frequency weighting often fitted by manufacturers. Z-weighted measurements are expressed
as dB.
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14.4 SLM (cont.)

Frequency Weighting (cont.)

Example of Frequency Weighting (Unweighted & A-weighted

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14.4 SLM (cont.)

SLM Types / Class

"Type" or "Class" of a Sound Level Meter

The Type or Class of a sound level meter describes its accuracy as defined by the relevant
international standards

The ANSI standard S1.4 refers to the grade as "Type", whereas the newer standard IEC
61672 refers to it as the "Class".

Although these standards have similarities, the later standard does make more demands on
the SLM regarding accuracy, performance and calibration.

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14.4 SLM (cont.)

SLM Types / Class (cont)

CLASS – IEC 61672:2013
Instruments listed as ‘Class 1’ or ‘Class 2’ are what you will most commonly find on today’s
market. This is a reference to the standard IEC 61672-1:2013, which is the current standard to
which sound level meters are produced (correct at time of writing 2017).
Side note: BS EN 61672-1:2013 is the British Standard Equivalent and is often used
interchangeably.
Each class within the standard is allowed different levels of tolerance with Class 1 being the
most accurate and Class 2 the lesser.
Generally speaking, it is not necessary to know the exact performance of your instrument, as
long as you know the standard your application needs and the standard to which your meter
conforms to.

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14.4 SLM (cont.)

SLM Types / Class (cont.)

TYPE – IEC 60651 / IEC 60804

If you have been monitoring sound for any length of time then you may also be aware of
“Types” of sound meter.
Types are a reference to the old standards and are part of IEC 60651 and IEC 60804 (Both of
which have been replaced by IEC 61672:2013 ).
The older standards divided tolerances into 4 categories, ‘Type 0’, ‘Type 1’, ‘Type 2’, and ‘Type
3’. Type 1 & 2 were roughly comparable to Class 1 and Class 2.
Type 3 was generally considered to inaccurate to offer repeatable results whilst Type 0 was
typically only suited to high-level laboratory work.

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14.4 SLM (cont.)

Type 1 Sound Level Meter (SLM)

IEC 651 standard
Required for:
For Sound level meters 1. Industry => Product labelling
IEC 804 standard IEC61672 2. Environmental => Regulations
For Integrated SLM 3. Building Acoustics => Sound insulation
IEC 942 standard
Objective:
Sound calibrators
1. Repeatable results
Typical specifications: 2. Comparison between measurements
1. Accuracy: +/- 0.7 dB
2. Excellent linearity
3. Linear frequency response
4. Controlled directivity
5. Working temperature: -10 to +50°C
Typical Frequency Response
6. EMC immunity/generation of a Class 1 or Type 1 SLM

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14.5 Calibrators

The Purpose of Sound Calibration

1. Using known magnitudes of the input quantity before performing any measurement
(“proving the instrument” to make the measurement reliable).
2. To check any deviation / offset.
3. To adjust / compensate (analog / digital) for the deviation.

Single Point Calibration:

Output = Constant x Input
1. 94 dB at 1 kHz
2. 124 dB at 250 Hz

Recommended Measurement Practice:

To calibrate before and after measurement SLM Calibration

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14.6 Real Time Analyzer

1. 1/1, 1/3. 1/12, 1/24 octave analysis

2. Support multiple windows (Frequency, Amplitude,
Time etc.)
3. Use Constant Percentage Filters for better prediction
of human response
4. Many testing standards written in “1/3 octave”

a. Absorption
b. HVAC components permitted levels
c. Community noise permitted levels

Example of Real Time

Acoustic Analyzer

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14.7 Graphic Level & Recorders

1. Enable hardcopy of Envelope (Amplitude vs. Time) or Spectrum (Amplitude vs. Frequency)

Example of a Level Recorder

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14.8 Magnetic Tape Recorders

1. Remote data collection

2. Post analysis
3. Inexpensive method for data collection but must ensure the no overloading (exceeds the
dynamic range limit) during data collection.

Example of Magnetic Tape Recorders

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14.9 Sound Intensity Systems

When to use Sound Intensity?

Source Receiver

Intensity Pressure

1. Sound intensity is best for investigating the cause of noise and identifying sources.

2. Sound pressure should be used when studying the effects of noise.

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14.9 Sound Intensity Systems (cont.)

Why Sound Intensity?

1. Sound intensity distinguishes between active (propagating) sound and reactive (non-
propagating) sound.

2. Sound intensity ignores standing waves.

How to Measure Sound Intensity?

I r = pu r ! (2.24)
p can be measured with an ordinary microphone
ur is determined using TWO ordinary microphones

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14.9 Sound Intensity Systems (cont.)

Determining Particle Velocity, ur

Equation of Motion (from Euler’s Equation)

¶u r ¶p 1 ¶p
r = - ! (2.25) or, ur = - ò dt ! (2.26 )
¶t ¶r r ¶r
But if we assume:
¶p Dp p -p
» = B A ! (2.27 )
¶r Dr Dr

Then, an estimate for particle velocity is:

1
uˆ r = -
rDr ò(p B - p A ) dt ! (2.28)

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14.9 Sound Intensity Systems (cont.)

Sound Intensity Probe

1. Consists of a minimum of two closely-spaced, phase-

matched microphones.
2. The gap between the microphones determines the
frequency range of interest, i.e. the smaller the gap, the
higher the frequency of interest.

Figure 7.28: Sound Intensity Probe

pB + p A
p̂ = ⇒ average pressure
2
1
ûr = −
ρΔr
∫ (p B − pA ) dt ⇒ average particle velocity

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14.9 Sound Intensity Systems (cont.)

Sound Intensity Probe (cont)

Sound Intensity Probe Configuration

Sound Intensity Measurement Definition

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14.9 Sound Intensity Systems (cont.)

Sound Intensity Applications

1. Sound power determination

2. Sound source location
• Source ranking
• Source mapping
3. Other measurements
• Transmission loss
• Absorption
• Radiation efficiency

Types of Sound Intensity Probe

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14.9 Sound Intensity Systems (cont.)

Sound Intensity Measurements

Examples of Sound Intensity Measurement

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14.9 Sound Intensity Systems (cont.)

Sound Intensity Measurements: Case Study

• Noise source identification using Sound Intensity method.

• Compressor motor high pitch noise problem [2].

Compressor Motor

[2]
Rahman, A.G.A., S.M. al-Attas, and R.Ramli. 2001. An investigation of abnormal high pitch noise in the Train 2 compressor motor, Condition
Monitoring and Diagnostic Engineering Management; (COMADEM 2001), Manchester: Elsevier; pp. 251-262.

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14.9 Sound Intensity Systems (cont.)

Sound Intensity Measurements: Case Study

SI Measurement on Plane A SI Measurement on Plane B

1. Inconsistent air gap due to lose stator winding causes very high pitch noise undetectable with other
NDT methods i.e.: vibration, ultrasonic etc..
2. Sound Intensity measurement was conducted on site (outdoor) assuming free-field condition.
3. Accurately identified the location of the loose winding.

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14.10 Dosimeters

• A noise dosimeter (American English)

or noise dosemeter (British English) is a
specialized sound level meter intended
specifically to measure the noise
exposure of a person integrated over a
period of time.

• Usually to comply with Health and Safety

regulations such as the Occupational
Safety and Health (OSHA) 29 CFR 1910.95
Occupational Noise Exposure
Standard or EU Directive 2003/10/EC.
Examples of Dosimeters

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14.10 Dosimeters (cont.)

• Noise dosimeters measure and store sound pressure

levels (SPL) and, by integrating these measurements over
time, provide a cumulative noise-exposure reading for a
given period of time, such as an 8-hour workday.

• Dosimeters can function as personal or area noise monitors.

• In occupational settings, personal noise dosimeters are often

worn on the body of a worker with the microphone mounted
on the middle-top of the person’s most exposed shoulder.
Placement of
Personal Noise Dosimeter

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14.10 Dosimeters (cont.)

Examples of Personal Noise Exposure Limit using Dosimeter

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14.11 Smartphone’s Apps

Examples of Smartphone Noise Applications

AudioTools

Decibel X

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14.12 Useful Links

Measurement of Sound and its Applications => https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7C0OMf5WhaQ

How to measure decibels with the NIOSH app => https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ariJyA1Ebk4

Sound - The Units of Measurement of Sound => https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7C0OMf5WhaQ

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Q&A

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