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1. Write the objectives of experimental studies on fluid mechanics or Write the role of
experimental studies.
i. They make it possible to determine the influence of various features of design,
and modifications to them, in a safe, quick, direct, and relatively less
expensive manner.
ii. They provide information of a fundamental nature, usually in conjunction with
theoretical work. By this means, the theory is confirmed or extended, thereby
laying the foundation for future design improvements of a fundamental
character.
2. Mention some of the instruments used to measure fluid pressure and temperature.
List of Pressure Measuring Devices.
The Barometer, Piezometer or Pressure Tube, Manometers, The Bourdon
Gauge, The Diaphragm Pressure Gauge, Micro Manometer (U-Tube with
Enlarged Ends)
List of Temperature measuring devices
Thermocouples, Thermistors, Resistance temperature detector (RTD),
Pyrometer, Langmuir probes (for electron temperature of a plasma), Infrared
thermometer.
11. What are the physical properties of fluid? Or What are the properties of fluids that
are important for fluid mechanics measurement?
The Properties of Fluids are
i. Density.
ii. Viscosity.
iii. Temperature.
iv. Pressure.
v. Specific Volume.
vi. Specific Weight.
vii. Specific Gravity.
viii. Surface Tension.
M = Mass
L = Length
T = Time
Derivation
Coefficient of viscosity (η) = F × r × [A × v]-1 . . . . . (1)
Where F = tangential force, r = distance between layers, A = Area, and v = velocity
Since, Tangential Force (F) = Mass × Acceleration = M × [L T-2]
∴ The dimensional formula of force = M1 L1 T-2 . . . . (2)
And, the dimensional formula of area and velocity = L2 and L1 T-1 respectively . . . .
(3)
On substituting equation (2) and (3) in equation (1) we get,
Coefficient of viscosity = F × r × [A × v]-1
Or, η = [M L T-2] × [L] × [L2]-1 × [L1 T-1]-1 = [M1 L-1 T-1].
Therefore, the Coefficient of Viscosity is dimensionally represented as [M1 L-1 T-1].
16. What do you mean by repeatability, reliability and reproducibility of measurement
instruments.
Repeatability
The repeatability of an instrument is its ability to display the same reading as long
as its sensor element is fed the same signal.
Reliability
The reliability of a measuring system is the probability that it will operate with an
agreeable accuracy under the conditions specified for its operation.
Reproducibility
The reproducibility of a measuring device is its ability to display the same reading
when it is used to measure the same quantity over a period of time or when that
quantity is measured on a number of instants. Reproducibility of a device is also
termed as stability of the device.
18. What are the performance terms associated with measurement systems
There are some commonly used performance terms associated with measurement
systems. They are
i. Accuracy v. Repeatability ix. Reproducibility
ii. Range vi. Sensitivity x. Threshold
iii. Error vii. Reliability xi. Lag
iv. Resolution viii. Dead space xii. Hysteresis
19. What is understood by dynamic similarity of wind tunnel models?
Dynamic similarity exists when the model and the prototype have the same length
scale ratio, time scale ratio, and the force scale (mass scale) ratio. The model and
the prototype have the same Reynolds number and Mach number.
20. Determine the absolute viscosity of air at temperatures 0 ◦C, 5◦C, 10◦C, 20◦ C and
30◦C.
µ = (1.46 × 10−6 * T 3/2 ) / (T + 111) N s/m2
Unit – II
1. Mention any four differences between transonic, supersonic and Hypersonic
tunnels
Subsonic Transonic tunnels Supersonic tunnels Hypersonic
tunnel tunnels
Mach number between Mach between Mach 1.3 at Mach 4 and
less than 0.7 0.7 and 1.3 and 4 above
compressibility the basic transonic model support
effects are flow equations methods are more
usually small must have both the limited but the flow
and wind elliptical characteristics are
tunnel testing characteristics of well understood
techniques are subsonic flow and
straightforward hyperbolic
in that wall characteristics of
interference supersonic flow
and model-
support-system
interference
corrections can
be easily
determined
In subsonic In transonic flow In supersonic flow supply of high
flow all of the both types of wall the walls can affecttemperatures and
tunnel walls or interference are the flow around the pressures for
boundaries will encountered. model only by times long
modify the reflecting the Mach enough to
flow pattern waves emanatingperform a
around the from the model measurement.
model back to the model reproduction of
equilibrium
conditions.
structural damage
produced by
overheating
condensation condensation or condensation or condensation or
or liquefaction liquefaction can liquefaction can liquefaction can
not occur. occur occur, if the static occur
temperature
becomes cold
enough.
a drying or a a drying or a pre- a drying or a pre- a drying or a pre-
pre-heating heating facility heating facility heating facility
facility is not
required
15. What do you mean by open jet and closed jet wind tunnel.
An open-loop wind tunnel has the inflow and the outflow disconnected, which is
not economical from an energy perspective. Contrarily, closed-loop wind tunnels
save energy by recirculating the airflow. Special vanes turn the airflow around the
corners while minimizing turbulence and power losses to reduce running costs.
16. What do you mean by yaw probes Name some commonly used yaw probes.
The instruments used for determining the flow direction are termed yaw probes.
These yaw probes are generally used for determining the flow direction as well as
its magnitude.
Commonly used yaw probes are
i. Yaw Sphere
ii. Claw Yaw Probe
iii. Three–Hole and Five–Hole Yaw Probes
iv. Cobra Probe
Unit – III
1. What are the different types of flow visualization techniques?
Flow visualization with smoke, tuft, chemical coating, interferometer, schlieren,
and shadowgraph.
10. What is the basic principle involved in the interferometer method of flow
visualization?
Interferometer is an optical method most suited for qualitative determination of the
density field of high-speed flows.
The fundamental principle of the interferometer is the following.
i. From the wave theory of light, we have
C=fλ
where C is the velocity of propagation of light, f is its frequency, and λ is its
wavelength.
ii. From corpuscular properties of light, we know that when light travels
through a gas the velocity of propagation is affected by the physical
properties of the gas. The velocity of light in a given medium is related to
the velocity of light in vacuum through the index of refraction n, defined as
C vac /C gas=n
The value of refractive index n is 1.0003 for air and 1.5 for glass.
iii. The Gladstone–Dale empirical equation relates the refractive index n
with the density of the medium as
(n – 1) ρ=K
where K is the Gladstone–Dale constant, and is constant for a given gas and ρ is
the gas density.
11. Why is mercury used in manometer to measure the supersonic speed?
For pressure measurements in compressible flows, with high subsonic and
supersonic Mach numbers, mercury is the suitable liquid, since fluids like water
and alcohol show unmanageable variations in manometer column heights for the
pressures associated with such speeds
15. Why are Wheatstone bridge circuits preferred over potentiometer circuits in static
strain measurements?
Calculating resistance using Wheatstone bridge is a null method. There is no
current flowing through measuring devices and hence the circuit is prevented to be
altered in null measurements. Using this null method, we can easily measure the
unknown resistance if the other three arm's resistor are given. Hence, Wheatstone
bridge is better than other methods.
16. Briefly explain some methods of flow visualization used for subsonic flow.
Smoke, tufts, laser sheet, surface oil flow
18. What are the requirements of tracer particles used for flow visualization?
Besides some general properties that any seed material for flow visualization
should have (e.g., nontoxic, noncorrosive), there are mainly three conditions the
tracers should meet: neutral buoyancy, high stability against mixing, and good
visibility. Particles, such as smoke or microspheres, can be added to a flow to trace
the fluid motion.
19. Differentiate Schlieren, shadowgraph and interferometry methods.
Schlieren visualization is similar to the shadowgraph technique, but the primary
difference is that while shadowgraphs are sensitive to changes in the second
derivative in density, schlieren systems detect changes
comparison of the three techniques, interferograms to be most vivid, since fringes
deform and get displaced in relationship to the local velocity field. Thus, they offer
the most direct information about concentration distribution as well as the
underlying flow field in the solution. Schlieren and shadowgraph images reveal
regions of high-concentration gradients in the form of heightened brightness,
though the former shows greater sensitivity. An interferograms are easy to analyze,
schlieren requires integration of the intensity field, while shadowgraph requires the
solution of a Poisson equation to recover the local concentration.
Unit – IV
1. Mention some of the applications of pitot static tube.
i. It is used to measure speed of an aircraft
ii. It is used to measure speed of a boat
iii. It is used to measure fluid flows in different industries
iv. It is used where very high accuracy is not required
v. It is used to measure flow profile in a duct or channel
vi. In general pitot tube is used to measure velocity of flow
2. Write the advantages of pitot static tube.
i. It is easy and economical to install and remove
ii. It has no moving parts which helps in minimizing frictional losses
iii. It is small in size
iv. It is low in cost
v. It causes very less pressure loss Bring out the advantages of Pressure
transducers over monometers.
3. What are the disadvantages of pitot static tube.
i. Any foreign material in flow, can change the accurate reading.
ii. Its accuracy is not that good
iii. It has low rangeability
iv. It has low sensitivity
v. It works better in high velocity flow
vi. A change in velocity profile can cause significant changes in readings
vii. It cannot be used with dirty fluids
viii. Its sensitivity gets disturbed by flow direction
4. What is PIV?
Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) is an optical measurement technique where the
velocity field of an entire region within the flow is measured simultaneously. This
is a fundamental difference from point measurement methods that employ probes
to measure the flow velocity at a single point.
14. What is the difference between hotwire anemometer and hot film anemometer?
Hot wire and hot film sensors are used for measurements of fluctuations in the
wind. Such anemometers are in competition with both mechanical and sonic
anemometers. At least some of the mechanical sensors are more stable in
calibration, and less expensive. The high frequency resolution of the hot wire/hot
film sensors, however, cannot be matched by any other anemometers. Also, they
can be made small enough and fast enough to measure within the dissipation range.
Hot wire sensors have been used in atmospheric turbulence measurements