Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering

Full Module Specification

Course Name: Electrical Machines II
Course Code : EEE-209
Course Teacher: 1. Khandaker Foysal Haque
Lecturer, Dept. of EEE.
2. Rubab Ahmed,
Lecturer, Dept. of EEE.
Module Number: 06
Module Duration: 12 weeks
Academic Year: 2018
Semester: Summer 2018
Counseling Hour: See Faculty members routine/ by appointment
Credit Hours: 3
Pre Requisites : Electrical Machines-I
Co Requisites : Electrical Circuit-01 and Electrical Circuit-02.

Grading : As outlined in the University policy

Teaching Methodology Class room lecture, Multimedia
Presentation ,Discussion, Group study,
Assignment, Class test, Viva voce etc.

Method of Evaluation Attendance =10

Continuous Assessment =30
Mid-term =30
Final =30
TOTAL =100
 Course Contents:

Week Module Topics/Module/Chapter Reference

Module 1  Introduction of Alternator

1  Operation of Synchronous Generator
 Construction
Module 2  Voltage Regulation
2  Synchronous Impedence
 Armature Reaction

Module 2  Parallel Operation

3

Module 3  Introduction of Synchronous Motor Principles of Electrical

 Operation Of Synchronous Motor
4 Machines –V.k Mehta

& Rohit Mehta
Module 3  Equivalent circuit of Synchronous
Motor

 Motor on load
5  Power Stage of Synchronous Motor

midterm
Week Topics/Module/Chapter
A Textbook Of
Module 4
 Different Torque of Synchronous Electrical Technology
motor Vol ll – B.L. Theraja &
6 A.K. Theraja
 V curves For Synchronous Motor

Module 4
7  Synchronous Condenser

Module 5  Applications of Synchronous Motors
 Comparison of Synchronous Motors
and Induction Motors
8

Module 5  Operation Of Single Phase Induction

Motor
9  Based on Starting Method

Module 6  Resistance Start Motor

 Capacitor Start Capacitor Run Motor

 Shaded Pole Motors
10
 Repulsion Motors
 Universal Motors
 Hysteresis Motors

Final Exam
 Alternators (Module – 1)
Introduction

There are three basic types of rotating electric machines, namely

1. the dc machine,

2. the polyphase synchronous machine (ac) and

3. the polyphase induction machine (ac).

Synchronous Generator
Theory
The generators in which the speed of the
rotor and frequency of supply from stator are
linked by a definite relationship are known as
synchronous generators. A synchronous machine is
one in which is a strictly constant relationship exists
between the speed and supply frequency. In an
alternator when the rotor rotates, it produces an
alternating e.m.f with frequency given by
f  PN/120, where P is the number of poles, f=
frequency in Hz , and N is the rotor speed in r.p.m. For a given number of poles, there is a fixed
correspondence between the rotor speed and the stator frequency. The rotor speed is, therefore,
called the synchronous speed. This feature that distinguishes the synchronous machine from
the other types of electric machines is the synchronous link between the rotor and stator
rotating fields.

Operation
An alternator has 3 -phase winding on the stator and a dc field winding on the rotor.
The stator and rotor are both made of magnetic material which conducts the magnetic flux
upon which depends the process of energy conversion. The stator consists of a iron frame,
which supports the armature core, having slots on its inner periphery for placing the
conductors. The rotor is like a flywheel having alternating N and S poles.
When the field magnets rotate the dc current is supplied through slip rings from a dc
source. As the rotor rotates, the stator conductors being stationary are cut by magnetic flux.
Hence e.m.f is induced in armature conductors. The magnetic poles, being alternately N and S,
induce e.m.f and hence current which first flows in one direction and then in the other. Hence,
an alternating e.m.f is produced in stator conductors whose frequency depends on the number
of N and S poles moving past a conductor in one second and whose direction is given by
Flemings Right Hand rule.
Construction :
Three materials are mainly used in the manufacture of these machines: steel to conduct
magnetic flux, copper (or aluminum) to conduct electric current and insulation to insulate the
voltage induced in conductors confining currents to them.
A synchronous generator consist of two parts: the cylindrical rotating member called
the rotor and the annular stationary member called the stator with the
intervening air gap between them. The stator and rotor are
both made of magnetic material (steel) which conducts the
magnetic flux upon which depends the process of energy
conversion. The rotor has an axial shaft and is coupled to
either the prime mover or the load.

An alternator has 3-phase winding on the stator and a d.c. field winding on the rotor.
In both dc and synchronous machines, the main field is created by field poles excited with
direct current. The winding on the field poles is called the field winding. The three phase
winding on the stator is called the armature winding, which handles the load power of the
machine. The field winding consumes a small percentage (0.5% to 2%) of the rated load power.

The field poles in a synchronous machine is excited by direct current which is fed to
the field winding from a d.c. power circuit or from a special d.c. machine called the exciter.
Low power synchronous machines may also be constructed with permanent magnets. In a
synchronous machine the field poles could be either on the stator or rotor, but in all practical
machines the rotor carries the field poles.

Stator.
It is the stationary part of the machine and is
built up of sheet-steel laminations having slots
on its inner periphery. The stator forms the
armature carrying a 3-phase winding wound for
the same number of poles as the rotor. All the
three phases have identical windings with the
same angular displacement between any pair of
phases. The 3-phase winding is placed in the
slots and serves as the armature winding of the
alternator. The armature winding is always
connected in star and the neutral is connected to
ground. In star connection phase
voltage V ph  Vl / 3 . Since the induced e.m.f. in the phase winding of an alternator is
directly proportional to the number of turns, a star-connected alternator will require less
number of turns than a delta-connected alternator for the same line voltage.
Rotor.

The rotor carries a field winding which is supplied with direct current through two slip rings
by a separate d.c. source. This d.c. source (called exciter) is generally a small d.c. shunt or
compound generator mounted on the shaft of the alternator.
Rotor construction is of two types, namely (i) Salient (or projecting) pole type, (ii) Non-salient
(or cylindrical) pole type.

Salient pole type

In this type poles are of projected type and are visible from outside. It is like a flywheel
which has a large number of alternate North and South poles mounted on a large circular
steel frame which is fixed to the shaft of the alternator as shown in figure. The magnetic
poles excited by small d.c generators, mounted on the shaft of the generator itself. The
individual field pole windings are connected in series in such a way that when the field
winding is energized by the d.c. exciter, adjacent poles have opposite polarities. The
magnetic wheel is made of cast iron or steel of good quality. Such rotors are used in
low and medium speed alternators which are characterized by their large diameters and
short axial lengths. Alternators driven by gas or diesel engines and gas turbines are
salient pole rotors. Slow and medium speed alternators (120-400 rpm) such as those
driven by diesel engines or water turbines have salient pole type rotors due to the
following reasons:
a. The salient field poles would cause an excessive windage loss if driven at high
speed and would tend to produce noise.
b. Salient-pole construction cannot be made strong enough to withstand the
mechanical stresses to which they may be subjected at higher speeds.
 Since a frequency of 50 Hz is required, we must use a large number of poles on the
rotor of slow-speed alternators. Low-speed rotors always possess a large diameter to
provide the necessary space for the poles. Consequently, salient-pole type rotors have large
diameters and short axial lengths.

Non-salient pole type.

In this type, the rotor is made of smooth solid forged-steel radial cylinder having a
number of slots along the outer periphery. The polar areas are surrounded by the field
windings placed in slots. The field windings embedded in these slots and are connected
in series to the slip rings through which they arc energized by the d.c. exciter.
The regions forming the poles are usually left solid as shown in figure. It is clear that
the poles formed are non-salient i.e., they do not project out from the rotor surface.
Such rotors run at very high speeds and are characterized by small diameters and very
long axial lengths. High-speed alternators (1500 to 3000 r.p.m) are driven by steam
turbines and use non-salient types rotors due to the following reasons:
a. This type of construction is mechanically robust and gives noiseless operation
at high speeds.
b. The flux distribution around the periphery is nearly a sine wave and hence a
better e.m.f waveform is obtained than in the case of salient-pole type.
Since steam turbines run at high speed and a frequency of 50 Hz is required, we need
a small number of poles on the rotor of high-speed alternators (also called turbo-
alternators). We can use no less than 2 poles and this fixes the highest possible speed. For
a frequency of 50 Hz, it is 3000 r.p.m. The next lower speed is 1500 r.p.m. for a 4-pole
machine. Consequently, turbo-alternators possess 2 or 4 poles and have small diameters
and very long axial lengths

Excitation :poles are excited by d.c. source at 125 to 600 Volts.

 poles are excited generally from a d.c. shunt generator which is belted or
mounted on the shaft of the alternator; as rotating supplied through slip rings.
As the exciting voltage is relatively small, the slip rings and brush gear are of
light construction. Recently brushless excitation systems have been
developed in which a 3 phase a.c. exciter and a group of rectifiers supply d.c.
to the alternator.

Comparison between dc machines and synchronous machines :

In d.c. generators 
1. Armature rotates and the current is supplied through +ve and –ve brushes
connected with commutator segments.
2. Field magnets are stationary and mounted on the stator.
3. Commutators are used to convert alternating current to unidirectional current.

In synchronous machines 

1. Armature is stationary and mounted as stator.
2. Field magnets are mounted on rotor. Rotor is like a fly wheel having alternate N
and S poles fixed to its outer rim.
 3. Alternating current are supplied from the stator through terminals

Speed and frequency :

The frequency of induced e.m.f in the armature conductors depends upon speed and the number
of poles.

S N S

Let N = rotor speed in r.p.m., P = number of rotor poles , and f = frequency of e.m.f.
in Hz.
Consider a stator conductor that is successively swept by the N and S poles of the rotor,
If a positive voltage is induced when a N pole sweeps across the conductor, a similar
negative voltage is induced when a S-pole sweeps by. This means that one complete
cycle of e.m.f. is generated in the conductor as a pair of poles passes by. The same is
true for other armature conductors.

 Number of cycles/revolution = No of pole pairs = P / 2

Number of revolutions/sec = N / 60
P N PN
Then number of cycles/second f    Hz .
2 60 120

It may be noted that N is the synchronous speed. For a given alternator, the number of
rotor poles is fixed and, therefore, the alternator must run at synchronous speed to give
the desired frequency. For this reason, an alternator is sometimes called synchronous
generator.

for a frequency of 60 Hz
Induced E. M. F. Equation

Z = No. of conductors or coil sides in series / phase

= 2T , where T is the no. of coils or turns/phase (1 turn or coil has 2 sides).
N= rotor r.p.m, P = No. of poles, f = frequency of e.m.f in Hz.
= flux / pole in Wb (Webers.
kd = distribution factor, kc = pitch or coil span factor.
Kf = form factor = 1.11 (for sinusoidal e.m.f)
There are N rev in 60 sec, therefore, time for 1 rev is 60 sec.
N
In 1 rev each conductor is cut by a flux of P webers,
Now, therefore, d   P and dt  60N sec

d P  NP
average e.m.f induced per conductor =   ,
dt 60 / N 60
, d    P . 120 f  2 f Volts .
dt 60 P
If there are Z conductors in series / phase,
then average e.m.f / phase = 2 f  .Z  4 fT Volts ,
Now, the r.m.s value is obtained by multiplying the average value by form factor 1.11.
 R M S value / phase = 1.11 4 f  T  4.44 f T . But for practical alternators two
correction factors are introduced as follows.
1. The coils of armature winding are generally short pitched and induced e.m.f is slightly
less than that of full pitched windings. Because of this a correction factor of kc is introduced.
2. The conductors in the stator are not concentrated or bunched together but is distributed
uniformly over the entire armature and because of this induced e.m.f is slightly less. A
correction factor of kd is introduced.
To account for the non-ideal conditions discussed above the r.m.s value for induced
e.m.f. is multiplied by kc : the pitch factor and kd : the distribution factor.
Hence, the Induced E.M.F /phase (r.m.s) = 1.11 4 f  T  4.44 k c k d f T Volts.
 Problems on Alternators :
1.

2.
3.

4.
5.

Module – ll
Voltage Regulation
Terminal voltage of an alternator changes with changes in load. The magnitude of this change
depends on the load and load power factor as well
for Small machines
In case of small machines, the regulation may be found by direct loading. The alternator
is driven at synchronous speed and the terminal voltage is adjusted to its rated value V. The
entire load is then cult off while the speed and field are kept constant. By measuring the open
circuit or no load voltage Eo regulation can be obtained as
E V
% regulation = o .
V
for Large machines
For large machines loading and cutting off the load is very difficult and the cost of
finding the regulation by direct loading is very high. Hence indirect methods are used.
The three indirect methods are
Synchronous Impedance or E.M.F method.
The Ampere-turn or M.M.F method.
Zero Power Factor or Potier method.
All these methods require
Armature(or stator) resistance Ra

Ra is measured directly by voltmeter and ammeter method. Under working

conditions, the effective value of Ra is increased (about 60%) due to skin effect.
Generally, a value of 1.6 times the dc value is taken.
Open-circuit or no-load characteristics.
O.C.C plotted by running the machine on no load and by noting the values of induced
voltage and field excitation current

Short circuit characteristic. S.C.C obtained by short circuiting the armature (i.e.,
the stator) windings with a low resistance ammeter. The excitation is so adjusted as to
give 1.5 to 2 times the value of full load current. During this test the speed is kept
constant.

Synchronous Impedance Method :

i) open circuit curve is plotted, and ii) the Short circuit curve is also drawn. Both curves are
drown on common field current base
C

C
S
h
o

n
c

e
r

r
r
t

i
t

E1
Then for any arbitrarily chosen field current
O.C.C
If , the open circuit voltage E1 and short
S.C.C circuit current I1 is obtained.
Open Circuit E.M.F

I1 It is assumed that voltage E1 is used circulate

the short circuit current I1 for the chosen
field current If .

Field Current If

According to assumption E  I Z , Z  E1 (open circuit) ,

11 s s
I1 (short circuit)

Now, assuming ZS  R iXS , the

synchronous reactance is obtained
as,
synchronous reactance X  Z 2  R2 .
S s a
The percentage regulation is now
determined as follows
Synchronous Impedance
It is clear that for the same field excitation , terminal voltage is decreased from its no-
load value E0 to V (for a lagging power factor). This is because of following changes due to
increase in load current.
Drop due to armature resistance, IRa : This resistance is the total resistance of
the conductors in the armature windings.
Drop due to leakage reactance, IXL : This reactance is due to the leakage flux that
does not cross the air gap but completes its path in the stator or is otherwise lost.
Hence, armature winding is assumed to possess leakage reactance XL .
Drop due to armature reaction, IXa : The drop in voltage due to armature reaction
(discussed below) is accounted for by assuming the presence of a reactance Xa in
the armature winding. The value of Xa is such that IXa represents the voltage drop
due to armature reaction.
The leakage reactance XL and the armature reactance Xa combined together is known
as the synchronous reactance XS . Hence, X S  X L  X a * .
Therefore, total voltage drop in an alternator under load is
I .Ra  I . jX S  I ( Ra  jX S )  IZS , where ZS is known as synchronous impedance of
the armature. The word synchronous is used as an indication that it refers to the working
condition. Hence, the vector difference between no-load voltage EO and terminal
voltage V is equal to IZS .

Calculation of Voltage Regulation

D
From the diagram OD = E0 ,
I Xs
 E  OB2  BD2 ,
0
I Ra
E0
 Vcos  IRa 2   Vsin  IXs 2 ,
then % regulation  E0 V 100 .
V Vsin

 V
O A B
Vcos

Limitations of Synchronous
Impedance Method

(i) Value of Zs is not constant but varies with saturation. At low saturation value is larger.
At short circuit condition saturation is low (armature m.m.f is demagnetizing).
(ii) Zs is obtained from the current at short circuit test.
(iii)Armature reactance Xa is not considered separately (but with leakage. )

Armature Reaction
At no load, only flux F due to field excitation only exists in the machine. However, when
the armature is loaded, the armature current also produces flux A . The action of A on F
is called armature reaction. The actual flux  in the loaded alternator is the phasor sum of F
and A . With lagging power factor loads, which usually exist with alternators, the effect
of armature reaction is to reduce the resultant flux  and hence the generated e.m.f. The
armature reaction effect is accounted for by assuming a reactance X a in the armature
winding. Xa varies with p.f because armature reaction depends on load p.f.

Generators are operated in parallel from following considerations.

1. Flexibility / Reliability : if one is out the others may continue.
2. Physical size : sizes may not be according to demand, number of units may be
added to meet the demand.
3. Maintenance : units can be put out for maintenance one by one and not all together.
4. Future growth : due to increase in demand extra units may be added in future.
5. Efficiency : during period of low demands one or more units can be put out as
required, running the system at higher efficiency.

Running alternators in parallel is not the same and easy as in case of d.c generators.
The following conditions must be met.
(i) Terminal voltage must be same as that of busbar voltage.
(ii) Generator frequency and busbar frequency must be same.
(iii) Phase of the alternator voltage must be identical with the busbar voltage

Synchronizing of Alternators

Let machine 2 be synchronized with machine

1 or busbar.
It is assumed that E1 and E2 are equal and in
L1 L2 phase opposition.
But if the frequencies are different then there
will be phase difference between the voltages
even when they are equal in magnitude.
Phase difference changes with changes in
Machine 1 : E1 Machine 2 : E2 frequency. The resultant voltage difference
will change between maximum and
minimum. The currents between lamps will change, lights will flicker with frequency (f1-f2).
Lamps will light and dark. Synchronizing is done at middle of dark period. Synchronizing is
also done at maximum bright (at double voltage).
 Synchronizing current
When synchronized properly, two alternators run in synchronism. Any tendency by
one to drop out of synchronism is immediately counteracted by production of a
synchronizing
torque, which brings it back to synchronism.
When in exact synchronism, two alternators have
equal terminal potential difference but in opposition
(shown in adjacent circuits). Hence there is no current in
circulation. E1 E2

Now let E2 fall back due to change in speed. E1 and E2 still same but phase angle changes.
Er
Due to change in angle, the resultant of E1
E2 and E2 is now Er with circulating current Isy  E ,
  ZS
E1
1 where ZS is the synchronous impedance of both the
ISy machines. Also tan  X S , but Ra is negligibly
R
a
0
small and so θ 90 . So Isy lags Er by 90 and is nearly in phase with E1 .
Now since Isy is in same direction with E1 , it has the generating effect on m/c 1. And
as Isy is in opposite direction with E2 , the m/c 2 acts as motor. (It is known that when current
flows in same direction as e.m.f, then the alternator acts as generator, and when it flows in
the opposite direction, the machine acts as a motor ). The current Isy then sets up a torque,
which tends to retard the generating m/c E1 and accelerate the motoring m/c E2. Similarly if
E1 tends to fall back, opposite action takes place. The current Isy is known as synchronizing
current and it restores synchronism by retarding the leading m/c and accelerating the lagging
one.

This may be repeated, and the oscillation about the synchronous speed, is called
hunting, as the rotors attempt to find their synchronous positions. This haunting of alternators
is exactly equivalent to those of synchronous motors under similar conditions.

Summary of operations
Conditions
 1. Field control does not affect the division of load, it affects only the reactive power
carried by the alternators.
2. Division of load is accomplished by controlling fuel to the prime movers.
3. Both exciter field and prime mover changes cause a circulating current to produce a
synchronizing power to maintain stability of operation.
Uses :
Both synchronous and induction machines possess reversibility and may operate either
as generator or motors. Synchronous machines are mainly used as alternators for production of
ac power at electric power stations. They are also widely used as synchronous motors and
synchronous condensers, which are synchronous motors operated without load to improve the
power factor
Possible Question
1. What is meant by synchronising the alternators?
2. What is the basic principle of alternators?
3. What is meant by turbo alternators?
4. What is the basic principle of alternators?
5. What are the various types of rotors used in the alternators?
6. Define Pole Pitch and coil span.
7. What are the advantages of providing damper winding?
8. What are the various methods to determine the voltage regulation of the large alternators?
9. Describe the synchronous impedence for the alternator. Classify the alternator based on
the driven prime mover
10.What is voltage regulation ? Describe the process of synchronizing of alternators
Why alternator i s called S ynchronous generator?
11.Write the Comparison between dc machines and synchronous machines

12. A 800kVA,230V,60 Hz,three phase star connected alternator has

armature resistance of 1 per Phase. A field current of 20A produces a short-
circuit current of 110A and and open circuit e.m.f of 900V line to line.Find
the voltage regulation on(1)full -load 0.7 p.f. lagging (2) full -load 0.8 p.f.
leading

13. The effective resistance of a 1200V,50 Hz,23 0KVA, I- phase alternator

is 1O ohm short circuit, a field current of 40A gives the full -load current of
200A.The voltage on open -circuit with same field excitation is
1200V.Calculate (1)synchronous impedence (2)synchronous reactance

14. Describe the construction of Rotor

15.What is armature reaction? Write the condition of p arallel operation of
alternator
Module lll
Some comments :
1. Rotor displacement increases from 5° to 50° i.e., Eb fall back in phase considerably.
2. ER increases from 35 to 338 V/phase .
3. Ia increases from 3.5 A to 33.8 A .
4. Angle ϕ increases from 2.5° to 25.1° , and p.f decreases from 0.999 to 0.906.
5. Increase in power is almost directly proportional to increase in load angle. Not only
power, even Ia , ER and ϕ also increases in proportion to α .
. re
the
Moduel IV
Possible Question
1. Define the synchronous capacitor . Describe the operation of synchronous condenser
2. Define the synchronous motor. Show the power stage of synchronous motor
3. Describe the effect of the field excitation of the synchronous motor
4. With a phasor diagram show the effect of increasing the field current of a generator supplying a
constant real power and connected to a grid system

5. A 25-hp 220V 60Hz four pole Y-connected synchronous motor is rotating with a light load. The
angle between the rotor and stator fields is 3o. The excitation is adjusted for a generated
armature voltage per phase of 110V. (a) what is the resultant armature voltage per phase? (b)
what is the angle between resultant voltage (ER) and terminal voltage (V

6. A 75 kW, 3-phase, Y-connected, 50 Hz, 440 V cylindrical rotor synchronous motor operates at
rated condition with 0.8 power factor leading. The motor efficiency, is 95% and XS=2.5 ohm.
Calculate:
(i) mechanical power developed, (ii) armature current, (iii) back emf, (iv) power angle,
and (v) maximum or pull-out torque of the motor
Module-V
(Module – Vl)

Possible Question
1. What are the differences between single-phase and three-phase induction motor constructionally?
2. Define a split phase induction motor.
3. Why is phase splitting necessary in a single phase induction motor?
4. Draw the torque vs speed curve for a resistance-start split phase induction motor.
5. Draw the torque vs speed curve for a capacitor-start induction run motor.
6. what are the differences between resistance-start and capacitor-start single-phase induction
motors?