DON MARIANO MARCOS MEMORIAL STATE UNIVERSITY

MID LA UNION CAMPUS

San Fernando City, La Union

COURSE GUIDE

SUBJECT : AC AND DC MACHINERY

COURSE NO. : MEAC 103

INSTRUCTOR/PROFESSOR : Engr. BONIFACIO C.

CABRADILLA JR

CONTACT DETAILS : 09778444425

1
INTRODUCTION

This series of instructional modules is aimed at providing basic instruction on the operation of AC
and DC machines.

The series covers single phase, three phase and DC motors and generators. Each module has been
designed to be able to "stand alone", i.e. trainees may select any module according to requirement.

It is assumed that learners have a working knowledge of both AC and DC operating

principles.

COURSE OUTCOME,
After completing this course, the students should be able to:

1. Explain the characteristics of different types of DC Generator.

2. Determine the effects of DC excitation upon the power delivered by an alternator.
3. Demonstrate how to synchronize an alternator to the electric power utility system.
4. Demonstrate the basic wiring connection of different types of Generator and Alternator.

COURSE CONTENT
This module is composed of five modules with 20 lessons. It is
structured as follows:

Module I - DC Generator
Lesson 1. History
Lesson 2 Principle of DC Generator
Lesson 3 Parts and functions
Lesson 4 Classification of DC Generator

Module II - DC Motors
Lesson 1 History
Lesson 2 Characteristics of DC Motor
Lesson 3 DC Motor Principle
Lesson 4 Classification of DC Motor
Lesson 5 Speed regulation and control.

Module III – AC Generator

Lesson 1 History
Lesson 2 Principle and Parts of AC Generator
Lesson 3 Alternator Regulation
Lesson 4 Parallel Operation

Module IV - Transformer
Lesson 1 History
Lesson 2 Parts and Construction

2
 Lesson 3 Equivalent Circuit of Transformer
Lesson 4 Open and Short Circuit test of Transformer

Module V- SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR

Lesson 1 Types of Synchronous Motor
Lesson 2 Construction of Synchronous Motor
LESSON 3 Torque Equation of DC Motor

3
MODULE 1: DC GENERATOR
Discussion:

Lesson 1

DIRECT CURRENT

The flow of electric charge that does not change direction. Direct current is produced
by batteries, fuel cells, rectifiers, and generators with commutators.

DC GENERATOR

A generator that only generates current which flows through one direction. A dc
generator is an electrical machine which converts mechanical energy into direct current
electricity.

HISTORY of DC GENERATOR

The generator as we know it today evolved from the work of Michael Faraday and
Joseph Henry in the 1830s. There is the existence of “Faraday’s Law”.

1831–1832 -He also built the first electromagnetic generator, called the Faraday disk; a type
of homopolar generator, using a copper disc rotating between the poles of a horseshoe
magnet. It produced a small DC voltage.

1832- One of the first dynamos was built by Hippolyte Pixii.

1844- The Woolrich Electrical Generator now in think tank, Birmingham Science Museum, is
the earliest electrical generator used in an industrial process.

1860s and 1870s- many inventors sought ways of using Faraday’s induction principle to
generate electricity mechanically.

1866- German Werner von Siemens, who designed improved DC generators and called them
dynamos.  

1867- even better generator was introduced by French Zénobe-Théophile Gramme., which
produced

substantially higher voltages than previous attempts. 

1871- he demonstrated a working model, and with Hippolyte Fontaine began

manufacturing them.

Gramme’s dynamos generated AC current and were widely used in arc lighting systems.

1872- von Siemens reemerged and invented what is essentially the modern type

of dynamo, referred to as the drum armature type of machine, which was a more efficient
design.

4
 Lesson 2:

WORKING PRINCIPLE of DC GENERATOR

Fleming’s right-hand rule

5
Lenz’s Law

The direction of the current induced in a conductor by a changing magnetic field is such that
the magnetic field created by the induced current opposes the initial changing magnetic field
which produced it. The direction of this current flow is given by Fleming’s right hand rule.

E = -N (dΦ/dt) (volts)

As the armature rotates, voltage generates in its coils, in generator, the emf rotation is called
“generated emf” or “armature emf”.

PZ ∅ N
E= 60 a ' ,
P= Number of poles of the machine

∅ = Flux per pole in weber

Z= Total number of armature conductors

N/S= Speed of armature in revolution per minute

A= Number of parallel paths in the armature winding

DC MOTOR CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION

A DC motor is comprised of a wound armature, commutator, brushes and magnets—all within

a totally-enclosed housing.

Rotation occurs when the magnetic field of the motor—created by the permanent
magnets in the housing—interacts with the commutator through graphite or carbon brushes.

6
Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction.

“When we put a conductor in a varying magnet field an induced EMF will generate and
this EMF will equal the rate of change of flux linkages”

First Law:

Whenever a conductor is placed in a varying magnetic field an EMF gets induced across the
conductor (called as induced emf), and if the conductor is a closed circuit then induced
current flows through it.

Magnetic field can be varied by various methods by moving magnet, by moving the coil and by
rotating the coil relative to magnetic field

Second Law:

The magnitude of induced emf is equal to the rate of change of flux linkages with the coil.
The flux linkages are the product of number of turns and the flux associated with the coil.

Lesson 3:
Parts and Functions

1.Magnetic Field System of DC Generator

It is the stationary or fixed part of the machine. It produces the main magnetic flux.

Magnetic Frame or Yoke

The outer hollow cylinder frame to which main poles and inter-poles are fixed by means of
which the machine is fixed to the foundation is known as yoke.

Purposes:

It supports the pole cores and provides mechanical protection to the inner parts of the
machines.

It provides a low reluctance path for the magnetic flux.

Field or Exciting Coils

Each pole core has one or more field coils (windings) placed over it to produce a magnetic
field. The enameled copper wire is used for the construction of field or exciting coils.

Pole Core and Pole Shoes

These are fixed to the magnetic frame or yoke bolts. Since the pole, projects inwards they
are called salient poles.

Purposes:

7
It supports the field and exciting coils.

They spread out the magnetic flux over the armature periphery more uniformly.

It increases the cross-sectional area of the magnetic circuit.

2. Commutator of DC Generator

Cylindrical in shape, and rotates with the armature.

Commutation of DC Generator

Process that converts the induced alternating current in the armature conductor into
unidirectional current in the external load circuits in DC Generator action by reversing each
half turn.

3. Brushes

Carbon brushes are placed or mounted on the commutator and with the help of 2 or more
carbon brushes current is collected from the armature winding.

4. Bearing and Shaft

Bearings- the ball or roller bearings are fitted in the end housing. The function of the
bearings is to reduce friction between the rotating and stationary parts of the machine.

Shaft- used to transfer mechanical power from or the machine. The rotating parts like
armature core, commutator cooling fans, etc. Are keyed to the shaft.

5. Armature

The rotating part of the DC machine or DC generator is called Armature. The armature
consists of a shaft upon which a laminated cylinder called Armature Core is placed.

8
Cylindrical in shape and keyed to the rotating shaft. At the outer periphery of the armature
has grooves or slots which accommodate the armature winding. The heart of the DC machine.
Place where conversion of power takes place.

Purposes:

It houses the conductors in the slots.

It provides an easy path for the magnetic flux.

The windings are classified into two types named as:

1. Lap Winding- The number of parallel paths are equal to the number of poles. Also, the
number of brushes is equal to the number of parallel paths.

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 2. Simplex Lap Winding

In simplex lap winding, the terminating end of one coil is joined to the commutator segment
and the starting end of the next coil is placed under the same pole. Also, the number of
parallel paths is similar to the number of poles of the windings.

3. Duplex Lap Winding

In duplex winding the number of parallel paths between the pole is twice the number of
poles. The duplex lap winding is mainly used for heavy current applications. Such type of
winding is obtained by placing the two similar winding on the same armature and connecting
the even number commutator bars to one winding and the odd number to the second winding.

10
 Progressive and Retrogressive Lap Winding

4. Wave Winding

The conductors are so connected that they are divided into two parallel paths irrespective of
the number of the poles of the machine.

11
 Formulas:

Lap Winding Wave Winding

PZ ∅ N PZ ∅ N
Eg= Eg=
60 a 60 a
a=Pxm a=2xm

m = Multiplicity Factor m = Multiplicity Factor

Types of Winding m

Simplex 1

Duplex 2

Triplex 3

Lesson 4:

Classification of dc Generator

1. SEPARATELY EXCITED DC GENERATOR

Those whose field magnets are energized from an independent external source of DC current.
When generator is switched off, a small magnetism is developed in rotor iron which induced
electromotive force in the armature due to which current is produced in the field windings.

Characteristic of Separately Excited DC Generator

A separate source of DC power is connected to the field winding. This source can be a
battery, a diode rectifier, another DC Generator or a controlled rectifier.

Applications of Separately Excited DC Generators

Separately excited generators operate in a stable condition with any variation in field
excitation. Because of this property they are used as supply source of DC motors, whose
speeds are to be controlled for various applications.

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2. Self-Excited DC Generator

Self-excited DC Generator is a device, in which the current to the field winding is supplied by
the generator itself. In self-excited DC generator, the field coils mat be connected in parallel
with the armature in the series, or it may be connected partly in series and partly in parallel
with the armature windings.

5. SHUNT-WOUND GENERATOR

The field windings are connected across or in parallel with the armature conductors and have
the full voltage of the generator applied across them.

6. SERIES-WOUND GENERATOR

The field windings are joined in series with the armature conductors As they carry full
load current, they consist of relatively few turn of thick wire or strips. Such generators
are rarely used except for special purposes

COMPOUND WOUND DC GENERATORS

It has two sets of field windings.

low-resistance windings and is connected in series with the armature circuit.

high-resistance wire and is connected in parallel with the armature circuit.

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Types of Compound Wound Generator

1. Long Shunt Compound Wound Generator- the shunt field winding is parallel with both
armature and series field winding

2. Short Shunt Compound Wound Generator- the shunt field winding is connected in
parallel with the armature winding.

Derivation of Formulas

1. Separately Excited DC Generator

KVL@ Loop 1

Eg= IaRa + VL

Pg= Eg Ia

Pg= Ia2Ra + IL2RL

PT = EgIa + Ia2Ra + VLRL

Po= VLRL

P output
% n¿ P input

14
Under Self Excited Dc Generator

2. Series Generator

It is a series circuit therefore currents are equal.

Ia= Ise =IL

KVL@ Loop 1

Eg= IaRa + IseRse + VL

Eg= Ia (Ra + Rse )+ VL

Pg= Pa+Pse+PL

Pg= Ia2Ra + Ise2Rse+ VLRL

Pg= Eg Ia = Pin

PT = Pg +Pa+Pse+PL

PLOSSES= Pa+Pse

Po= VLRL

P output
% n¿ P input

3. Shunt Genererator

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KCL @Node 1

Ia= If +IL

KVL@ Loop 1

Eg= IaRa + ILRL

Eg= IaRa + VL

KVL@ Loop 2

VL- Vf = 0

VL= Vf

Vf VL
If ¿ =
Rf R f
Pg= Pa+Pf+PL

Pg= Ia2Ra + If2Rf+ VLRL

Pg= Eg Ia = Pin

PT = Pg +Pa+Pf+PL

PT =EgIa+ Ia2Ra + If2Rf+ VLRL

Po= VLRL

PLOSSES= Pa+Pf

P output
% n¿ P input

Long Shunt Compound Wound Generator

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KCL @Node 1

Ia= Ise

Ia= If +IL

KVL@ Loop 1

Eg= IaRa + IseRse+ VL

Eg= Ia (Ra + Rse) + VL

KVL@ Loop 2

VL= Vf

Vf VL
If ¿ =
Rf R f

Pg= Pa+Pse+Pf+PL

Pg= Ia2Ra + Ise2Rse + If2Rf+ VLRL

Pg= Eg Ia = Pin

PT = Pg +Pa+ Pse +Pf+PL

PT =EgIa+ Ia2Ra + If2Rf+ VLRL

Po= VLRL

PLOSSES= Pa+Pse +Pf

P output
% n¿ P input

17
Short Compound Wound Generator

KCL @Node 1

Ise=IL

Ia= If +IL

KVL@ Loop 1

Eg= IaRa + IseRse+ VL

KVL@ Loop 2

-VL+ Vf – Vse =0

Vf= Vse + VL

Vf
If ¿
Rf

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 V se + V L
If ¿
Rf
I se R se + I L R L
If ¿
Rf
V L+ I se R se
If ¿
Rf

Pg= Pa+Pse+Pf+PL

Pg= Ia2Ra + Ise2Rse + If2Rf+ VLRL

Pg= Eg Ia = Pin

PT = Pg +Pa+ Pse +Pf+PL

PT =EgIa+ Ia2Ra + If2Rf+ VLRL

Po= VLRL

PLOSSES= Pa+Pse +Pf

P output
% n¿ P input

SERIES GENERATOR BEHAVIOR UNDER LOAD

Load Test AND Characteristics

LOAD TEST

The load test is conducted to draw internal and external characteristics

Load-test

To know the values of voltage generated with respect to the load current in order to draw the
curves vary the input voltage to the rated value and note the respective values.

Characteristics

The characteristics are generally considered to know the performance characteristics of the
machine. The internal and external characteristics of the dc series generator are drawn
between the voltage generated and load current and terminal voltage and load current. The
magnetization curve is drawn between the no-load voltage and the load current.

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The three Characteristics of dc series generator

1. Open Circuit or No Load

2. Internal
3. External

Open Circuit or No-Load CIRCUIT CHARACTERISTIC

Internal AND External characteristic

PARALLEL OPERATION OF DC GENERATOR

20
TWO SHUNT GENERATORS

Node 1

KCL @Node 1
I L 1+ I L 2=I L
where:
I a 1−I f 1=I L 1
I a 2−I f 2=I L 2
Substitute I L 1 and I L 2

I a 1−I f 1 + I a2 −I f 2=I L

USING NODAL NODE METHOD

VR=0

WHERE, V is the terminal voltage, sharing voltage or the bus bar voltage

V R + Eg 1 −I a 1 Ra 1−V =0

21
 E g 1−V
I a 1= E g 2−V
Ra1 I a 2=
Ra2
V R + Eg 2 −I a 2 Ra 2−V =0

USING OHM’S LAW

V =I f 1 R f 1

V
I f 1=
Rf 1

V =I f 2 R f 2

V
I f 1=
Rf 1

V =I L R L

V
I L=
L

POWER TOTAL / POWER

OUTPUT

PT =Pg 1 + Pg 2

where:
Pg 1 =VI L1
Pg 2 =VI L2
or
PT =VI L

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ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES
1. When a generator is being driven at 1,200 rpm, the generated emf is 125 volts. Determine the
generated emf 
a. if the field flux is decreased by 10 percent with the speed remaining unchanged, and
b. if the speed is reduced to 1,100 rpm, the field flux remaining unchanged.
 
Solution:                    
a. E(g)2 = 125 × 0.90 = 112.5 volts,
b. {E(g)1 / E(g)2} = (n1 / n2) or {(125) / E(g)2} = {(1,200) / (1,100)}
E(g)2 = {(1,100 × 125) / (1,200)} = 114.6 volts.

2. A four-pole generator has 500 conductors on the armature. If the generator is running at 1200 rpm,
find the average voltage generated between brushes for
a. a lap winding,
b. a wave winding. The total flux per pole is 106 lines.
 
Solution:                    
a. For a simplex lap winding, there are as many paths through the armature as there are poles.
Therefore, P = 4.
           E = (z/P) (ɸ/t) × 10–8 volts
             = {(500 × 106 × 10–8) / [4 × {(60) / (4800)}]} = 100 volts.
b. For the simplex wave winding, there are only two paths, regardless of the number of poles.
Therefore, P = 2.
           E = {(500 × 106 × 10–8) / [2 × {(60) / (4800)}]} = 200 volts.
3. A six-pole dynamo, with interpoles, requires 360 inductors on its armature, with three turns per coil
and two coil sides per slot.
a. Determine the number of coils, slots, and commutator bars.
b. Select suitable pitches for a simplex lap winding.
 
Solution:                    
a. 3 turns = 6 inductors per coil
            360 ÷ 6 = 60 coils = 120 coil sides
            60 coils require 60 commutator bars and
            2 coil sides per slot requires 60 slots
Therefore, coils = bars = slots = 60
b. 60 slots ÷ 6 poles = 10 slots, back pitch
Therefore, front pitch = 9 slots for progressive and 11 slots for retrogressive winding and Commutator
pitch = 1 bar
4. A 4-pole machine has lap winding with 36 winding elements.
a. What are the back and front pitches of this winding, expressed in commutator bars?
b. A 4-pole machine has wave winding with 37 winding elements. What are the three pitches of
winding expressed in commutator bars?
 
Solution:                    
a. Since there are 36 winding elements, the number of commutator bars is 36. The number of
commutator bars per pole is then (36 / 4) = 9, making the back pitch y b = 9; the front pitch is
given by the following equation:
           y = yb – yf
Hence, yf = yb–1 = 8 commutator pitches
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 b. Since there are 37 winding elements, the number of commutator bars is equal to 37. Winding
pitch, y is given by
           y = {(K ± 1) / (P / 2)}
where, K = no. of commutator bars
            P = no. of poles
          y = {(37 ± 1) / 2} = 18 or 19. The number of commutator bars per pole is (37 / 4) = 9.25.
            The back pitch is made yb = 9.
Therefore, from the equation: y = yb ± yf,
             yf = y – yb, the front pitch is either yf = 18 – 9 = 9 or 19 – 9 = 10, commutator pitches.
5. On a certain 8-pole d.c. machine rated at 1200-kW, 600-V, 500-rev/min, the average value of the
reactance voltage per coil is 4.4 V. The machine has a single-turn lap winding with 624 conductors.
The interpole length is 30 cm, and its air gap is 0.85 cm long. The armature diameter is 1.3 m. The
ratio of Bmax to Bav in the commutating zone is 1.4. Find the total number of turns required per pole
on the quadrature axis, allowing 10% extra magnetizing ampere-turns for the iron and slots.
 

                        
 
Solution:                    
Armature current per conductor Ic = (I / 2p)
          = {(1200 × 103) / (600)} × (1/8)
          = 250A
Armature AT/pole = (Ic / 2p) ∙ (Z/2) = {(250) / 8} × {(624) / 2} = 9750
            er = 2Bℓv
           4.4 = 2B × (30 / 102) × π × 1.3 × {(560) / (60)} from which B
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                = 0.216 Wb/m2.
This is the average value of the compole air-gap flux density. The maximum value is 1.4 × 0.216 = 0.302
Wb/m2 and the magnetizing ampere-turns allowing an extra 10% are H gℓg = {(0.302) / (4π / 107)} × {(0.85)
/ (102)} × 1.1 = 2250 AT. The total AT required on the quadrature axis 9750 + 2250 = 12,000. With full
armature current through each turn this would require 6 turns. For a machine without a compensating
winding (see Fig. 1), these turns would all be wound on the interpole. Otherwise there would usually be
three on each interpole and three turns per pole on the compensating winding. Ifthe number of turns had
not been an integer the winding could have been split into parallel circuits and small adjustments made
to the interpole air-gap length.

6. Assuming constant field excitation, calculate the no-load voltage of a separately excited generator
whose armature voltage is 150 V at a speed of 1800 rpm, when
a. the speed is increased to 2000 rpm.
b.  the speed is reduced to 1600 rpm.
 
Solution:                 
   Eg = K' 'S at constant field excitation, and
Therefore,
      (Efinal / Eorig) = (Sfinal / Sorig)
a. Efinal = (Eorig) (Sfinal / Sorig) = (150 V) {(2000) / (1800)} = 166.7 V.
b. Efinal = (150 V) {(1600) / (1800)} = 133.3 V.

7. A d-c machine has the following constants and ratings:

      voltage = 250            J = 1.2 n-m-sec2
line current = 95 amperes
     speed = 863 rpm
     armature resistance = 0.10 ohm
     field resistance = 225 ohms
The d-c machine is to be used as a separately excited generator. It is to deliver a full load current of 95
amperes at a voltage of 250 when driven at a constant speed of 900 rpm. The field is supplied from a
constant voltage source of 250 volts. Determine,
a. the gross field circuit resistance and field current for the stated full load conditions,
b. the electromagnetic torque and power, (c) the no load terminal voltage and the voltage
regulation in percent.
 
Solution:                    
a. The rated load armature generated voltage is
           EA = VA + RAIA = 250 + (0.10) (95) = 259.5 volts
The generator speed,
ω = {(2πN) / f}
= {(900) / (60)} (2π) = 30 π rad/sec
    I1 = {(EA) / (MA1ω)} = [(259.5) / {(2.4) (30π)}] = 1.144 amp
  R1 = {(250) / (1.144)} = 218.3 ohms
b. Tg = MA1I1IA = (2.4) (1.144) (95) = 261 newton-meters
           Pg = Tgω = (261) (30π) = 24,650 watts
c. At no load, VA =   EA = ωMA1I1 = (30π) (2.4) (1.144) = 259.5 volts
    voltage regulation = {(259.5 – 250) / (250)} (100) = 3.8%.
8.  A 10-kW 250-V self-excited generator, when delivering rated load, has an armature-circuit voltage
drop that is 5% of the terminal voltage and a shunt-field current equal to 5% of rated load current.
Calculate the resistance of the armature circuit and that of the field circuit.
 
25
Solution:                   
V = 250 V, rated value
    = 10,000 ÷ 250 = 40 A, rated load current.
 If = 0.05 × 40 = 2 A, field current.
 From the equation, Ia = I + If,
  Ia = 40 + 2 = 42 A
            raIa = 0.05 × 250 = 12.5 V
            ra = 12.5 ÷ 42 = 0.298 Ω the resistance of the armature circuit.
            rfIf = 250
            rf = 250 ÷ 2 = 125 Ω, the resistance of the field circuit.
9. A 250-kw 230-volt compound generator is delivering 800 amp at 230 volts. The shunt-field current is
12 amp. The armature resistance is 0.007 ohm, and the series-field resistance is 0.002 ohm. The
stray power at this load is 5,500 watts. The generator is connected long-shunt. Determine generator
efficiency at this load.
 Solution:                    
Output = 230 × 800 = 184,000 watts.
          Shunt-field loss = 230 × 12= 2,760   watts.
          Armature loss = 8122 × 0.007= 4,615   watts.
          Series-field loss = 8122 × 0.002 = 1,319   watts.
          Stray power = 5,500   watts.
          Stray-load loss, 0.01 × 184,000 = 1,840   watts.
          Total loss = 16,034 watts.
          Eff = {(184,000) / (184,000 + 16,034)} = {(184,000) / (200,034)}
               = 0.920, or 92.0%
10. A 125-kW, 250-V, 1800-rev/min, cumulative compound d-c generator has the following winding
resistances: ra = 0.025Ω, rse = 0.010Ω, rf = 30Ω. The machine is long-shunt connected. Its stray-power
loss at rated voltage and 1800 rev/min is 5000 W. When operated at rated speed, load, and terminal
voltage, the shunt-field current is 5A. Find the efficiency and input horsepower requirements under
these conditions.
 
Solution:                    
Pout = 125,000 W
           shunt-field copper loss = If2rf
               = 25 × 30 = 750 W.
            Ia = Ise = Iload + If
             = {(125,000) / (250)} + 5 = 505 A
            Series-field copper loss = Ise2rse
                 = 5052 × 0.01 = 2550 W.
            ACL = Ia2ra = 5052 × 0.025 = 6380 W.
            Brush-drop loss = 2Ia = 1010 W.
            Stray load loss = 1 percent of 125 kW
                   = 1250 W.
           Prot ≡ stray-power loss = 5000 W.
           Total losses = 16,940 W.
           Efficiency = {(Pout) / (Pout + losses)} = {(125,000) / (141,900)} = 88.1%.
The drive motor must supply the field rheostat power as well as those losses involved in the efficiency
calculation. The total shunt-field-circuit power is 5A × 250 V or 1250 W. Subtracting the field copper loss
gives 500 W lost in the rheostat. The input power is, then,
          Pin = Pout + efficiency losses + rheostat losses
             = 125,000 + 16,490 + 500 = 141,990 W or 190.3 hp
   For this machine, maximum efficiency would result with an armature current given by the following
26
equation:
    stray-power loss + shunt field copper loss
              = 5000 + 750 = Ia2(ra + rse) = Ia2 × 0.035.
           Ia = √ (164,000) = 405 A. which is about 80 percent of full load.
11. Two compound generators are operated in parallel. If generator A has a series-field resistance of
0.0015 ohm is adjusted to take 30 percent of the line load while generator B with a series field
resistance of 0.001 ohm takes the remainder of the load, determine the current flow in the two
series fields and the equalizer when the load is 230 kw at 230 volts.
 

            
 
 
Solution:                   
 I = IA + IB = {(230,000) / (230)} = 1000 amp
Now,
       (IA / IB) = {(0.001) / (0.0015)},
            IA = 400amp, series-field current and
           IB = 600amp, series-field current.
           IA = 0.3 × 1000 = 300amp, machine A armature.
         IB = 1000 – 300 = 700amp, machine B armature.
          IE = 400 – 300 = 100 amp in the equalizer after adjustment.

Learning Activity 1
1. A four-pole d-c generator has an armature winding containing a total of 648 conductors connected in
two parallel paths. If the flux per pole is 0.321 × 106 maxwells and the speed of rotation of the
armature is 1,800 rpm,
            (a) calculate the average generated voltage,
(b) calculate the rated current in each conductor (per path) if the power delivered by the
armature is 5 kw.
2. A 4-pole commutator machine has 124 lap coils each having two turns. The flux per pole is 0.015
weber. Calculate:
(a) The d.c. voltage appearing across quadrature brushes when running at 1500 rev/min in a steady field.
(b) The r.m.s. voltage with three sets of brushes per pole pair for 3-phase working and with relative field
/ conductor speed = 1400 rev/min.
3.  A simplex lap wound dc dynamo has 800 conductors on its armature, a rated armature current of 1000
A and 10 poles. Calculate the number of pole face conductors per pole to give full armature reaction
compensation, if the pole face covers 70 per cent of the pitch.
4. A d-c machine has the following constants and ratings:
voltage = 250            J = 1.2 n-m-sec2
27
 line current = 95 amperes
speed = 863 rpm
armature resistance = 0.10 ohm
field resistance = 225 ohms
The d-c machine is to be used as a separately excited generator. It is to deliver a full load current of 95
amperes at a voltage of 250 when driven at a constant speed of 900rpm. The field is supplied from a
constant voltage source of 250 volts. Determine, (a) the gross field circuit resistance and field current
for the stated full load conditions, (b) the electromagnetic torque and power, (c) the no load terminal
voltage and the voltage regulation in percent.
4. A long-shunt compound generator has a shunt field winding of 1000 turns per pole, and a series field
winding of 4 turns per pole. In order to obtain the same (rated) voltage at full load as at no load,
when operated as a shunt generator, it is necessary to increase the field current 0.2 A. The full-load
armature current of the compound generator is 80 A and the series field resistance is 0.05 ohm.
Calculate:
   (a) The number of series field ampere-turns (At) required for flat-compound operation.
   (b) The diverter resistance required for flat-compound operation.
5. A 20-kw 220-volt shunt generator, having an armature resistance of 0.096 ohm, is delivering 85 amp at
222 volts its speed is 920 rpm, and the field current is 2.24 amp. Determine: (a) no-load conditions
under which generator must be operated (as motor) in order that its no-load stray power may be
equal to that which exists under given conditions of operation; (b) value of stray power if armature
    input at no load is 4.02 amp at 230.4 volts; (c) efficiency of generator under given operating
conditions.

Module II- DC MOTOR

LESSON 1

DISCUSSION:

HISTORY OF DC MOTORS

1800

ALESANDRO VOLTA invented the world’s first battery.

1820

HANS CHRISTIAN OERSTED discovered that electric currents create magnetic fields.

1825

WILLIAM STURGEON invented electromagnet.

May of 1834

Russian Engineer MORITZ JACOBI creates the first real rotating electric motor. His motor was
powerful enough to drive a boat with 14 people across a wide river.

1886

FRANK JULIAN SPRAGUE invented the first practical DC MOTOR , a non-sparking motor capable of
constant speed under variable loads.

28
LESSON II- CHARACTERISTIC OF DC MOTOR

DC MOTOR

As motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy and dc motor converts dc current into
mechanical output. DC motor works on the simple principle, whenever a current is flowing in the
conductor and it is placed in the magnetic field, it experiences a torque which compels the armature of
the motor to rotate.

DC stands for “direct current,” and they were the first type of motors that were commonly used because
they could be powered from a pre-existing power distribution system. The speed in a DC motor can be
adjusted through the intensity of its current.

The current is carried through an armature or stator. The armature contains the coiled (star-formation
for a stator) copper or aluminum wiring (commonly referred to as “windings”), and they both provide
points for the wire to connect to the rest of the motor so that the electricity can continue to flow
properly.

Main Types of DC Motors

There are 4 main types of DC motors:

1. Permanent Magnet- uses a permanent magnet to create field flux. This type of DC motor provides
great starting torque and has good speed regulation, but torque is limited so they are typically
found on low horsepower applications.
2. Series DC Motors
In a series DC motor, the field is wound with a few turns of a large wire carrying the full armature
current. Typically, series DC motors create a large amount of starting torque, but cannot regulate
speed and can even be damaged by running with no load. These limitations mean that they are
not a good option for variable speed drive applications.
3. Shunt DC Motors- the field is connected in parallel (shunt) with the armature windings. These
motors offer great speed regulation due to the fact that the shunt field can be excited separately
from the armature windings, which also offers simplified reversing controls.

4. Compound DC Motors- like shunt DC motors, have a separately excited shunt field. Compound DC
motors have good starting torque but may experience control problems in variable speed drive
applications.

COUNTER-ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE

Also known as back-electromotive force (back emf).

Is the emf or “voltage” that opposes change in current which induced it.

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

A basic law of electromagnetism predicting how magnetic field will interact with an electric circuit to
produce an electromotive force (emf).

It is the production of electromotive force (i.e., voltage) across an electric conductor in a changing
magnetic field.

29
It is the fundamental operating principle of transformers, inductors, and many types of electric motors,
generators and solenoids.

Also known as “Faraday’s Law of Induction”.

When armature conductor cuts the magnetic field, emf induces in the conductor.

The direction of the back emf induces in the conductor is given by the Fleming’s right hand rule

On applying the right-hand rule, it is seen that the direction of the induces emf is opposite to the supply
voltage.

Back emf opposes the supply voltage because of the “Lenz’s Law”.

30
LENZ’S LAW

Named after the physicist Emil Lenz (who formulated it in 1834)

It states that the direction of the current induced in a conductor by a changing magnetic field is such
that the magnetic field created by the induced current opposes the initial changing magnetic field,

This is signified in the formula by the negative sign (-), given the formula:

Eb =−N ( ∆∆φt )
ADVANTAGES OF BACK EMF IN DC MOTOR

1. The energy conversion in DC motor is possible only because of the back emf.

2. The back emf makes the DC motor self-regulating.

SPEED CHARACTERISTICS OF A DC MOTOR

N=60(a)(Eb) E=kN φ
PZφ

Where: N= speed (RPM)

a=number of armature current paths
P=number of poles

31
 Z= number of conductors
φ= flux per pole (weber)
Eb= back emf (volt)
k= proportionality constant

Torque Developed in the Armature

T=9.55(Pd/N)

PZƟI a
T=
6.23 a '
Pd=EbIa

T=kIaφ

Where: T=torque developed (newton-meter)

Ia= armature current (ampere)

N=speed of armature rotation (rpm)

Pd= power developed in the armature (watt)

a= number of armature current paths

P= number of poles

Z= number of conductors

φ= flux per pole (weber)

k= proportionality constant

Mechanical Power Output

Hp=2πNT Hp=2πNT

33,000 44,760

Where: Hp= mechanical power output (horsepower)

N= speed of armature rotation (rpm)

T= torque developed

LESSON 3
PRINCIPLE OF DC MOTOR AND PARTS

32
DC motor working is based on the principle that when a current carrying conductor is placed in a
magnetic field, the conductor experiences a mechanical force.

The basic parts for DC motors are as follows:

1 Stator-the stator carries the field winding and Poles. The stator together with the rotor
constitutes the magnetic circuit or core of the machine. It is a hollow cylinder.
2 Rotor-It carries the armature winding. The armature is the load carrying member. The rotor is
cylindrical in shape.
3 Armature Winding- this winding rotates in the magnetic field set up at the stationary winding
(Field winding). It is the load carrying member mounted on the rotor. An armature winding is a
continuous winding; that is, it has no beginning or end. It is composed of a number of coils in
series.
4 Field Winding- this is an exciting system which may be an electrical winding or a permanent
magnet and which is located on the stator.
5 Commutator- the coils on the armature are terminated and interconnected through the
commutator which comprised of a number of bars or commutator segments which are insulated
from each other. The commutator rotates with the rotor and serves to rectify the induced voltage
and the current in the armature both of which are A.C.
6 Brushes- these are conducting carbon graphite spring loaded to ride on the commutator and act
as interface between the external circuit and the armature winding.
7 Poles- the field winding is placed in poles, the number of which is determined by the voltage and
current ratings of the machine.
8 Slot/Teeth- for mechanical support, protection from abrasion, and further electrical insulation,
non-conducting slot liners are often wedged between the coils and the slot walls. The magnetic
material between the slots is called teeth.

33
WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DC MOTOR AND DC GENERATOR?

The basic internal structure of the motor and the generator are the same and works on the
Faraday’s laws of induction.

The generator has a mechanical energy input and gives a DC current output while the motor
has a DC current input and a mechanical output.

Both uses commutator mechanism. DC motors use the commutators to change the polarity of
the magnetic field while the DC generator uses them to counter the effect of the polarization
and turn the output from the armature into a DC signal.

The Electric Motor and Generator are differentiated on various factors like the main principle

of working or function of the motor and generator. Consumption or production of electricity,
its driven element, the existence of the current in the winding. Fleming’s rule followed by
the motor and generator.

Lesson 4
CLASSIFICATION OF DC MOTOR

1. SEPARATELY EXCITED- as the name signifies, the field coils or field windings are
energized by a separate DC source.

34
2. SELF EXCITED- in case of self-excited DC motor, the field winding is connected either
in series or in parallel or partly in series, partly in parallel to the armature winding.

a. SERIES WOUND DC MOTOR- the entire armature current flows through the field
winding as it’s connected in series to the armature winding.

35
b. SHUNT WOUND DC MOTOR- the field windings are exposed to the entire
terminal voltage as they are connected in parallel to the armature winding.

36
c. SHORT SHUNT DC MOTOR- if the shunt field winding is only parallel to the
armature winding and not the series field winding then it’s known as short
shunt DC motor.

37
 Short Shunt Compound Motor

I se =I s , Series

I s=I a + I f

V s−I se Rse
If =
Rf

Eb =V s−I se R se−I a Ra

Perform KCL at Node 1

I s=I f + R a

Perform KVL at Loop 1

V s −Rse I se −I f R f =0

I f Rf =V s −Rse I se

V s−Rse I se
If =
Rf

38
Perform KVL at Loop 2

V s −I se R se −I a Ra −Eb=0

Eb =V s−I se R se−I a Ra

P¿ =V s I s

Pout =E b I a

d. LONG SHUNT DC MOTOR- if the shunt field winding is parallel to both the
armature winding and the series field winding then it’s known as long shunt
type compounded wound DC motor.

Long Shunt Compound Motor

I se =I a

I s=I a + I f

Vs
I s=
Rf

Eb =V s−I a ( Ra + R se )

Perform KCL at Node 1

I s=I f + I a

39
V f =I f Rf

Vf Vs
If = =
R f Rf

Perform KVL at Loop 1

V s −I se R se −I a Ra −Eb=0

Eb =V s−I se R se−I a Ra

Eb =V s−I a ( R se + Ra )

Pout =E b I a

P¿ =V s I s

SPEED REGULATION AND CONTROL

If the load is applied to the DC motor or machine, the speed of the motor decreases
automatically. Thus, to maintain the constant speed, the difference between no load and full
load speed called as Speed Regulation should be maintained very less.

The motor is said to be at good regulation if they maintain the constant speed at variable
load. The range of the speed regulation of permanent dc motor is from 10% to 15%. If the
range is less than 10% then the motor has poor dc regulation. For compound dc motor the
regulation range is 25% and for differential compound motor it is 5%. Thus, to understand the
speed regulation first we should know the speed of the DC Motor.

SPEED REGULATION OF DC MOTOR

N nl −N fl
Per unit speed regulation=
N fl

N nl −N fl
Percent speed regulation= x 100 %
N fl

40
 ILLUTRATIVE EXAMPLES

1. A 115-volt shunt motor has an armature whose resistance is 0.22 ohm. Assuming a
voltage across the brush contacts of 2 volts, what armature current will flow

a. when the counter emf is 108 volts?

b. if the motor load is increased so that the counter emf drops to 106 volts?

Solution:                   

 IA = {(VA – EC) / RA} amp,

                        where

                                    IA = armature current

                                    VA = applied voltage

                                    EC = counter emf

                                    RA = armature resistance

                        (a) IA = [{(115 – 2) – 108} / {0.22}] = 22.7 amp.

                        (b) IA = [{(115 – 2) – 106} / {0.22}] = 31.8 amp.

2.  A six-pole, 30-slot dc commutator generator has a lap wound armature winding. The

armature constant, Ka is 9.55. The generator is operated with a separately excited
field such that the field flux per pole is 0.04 weber/pole. The generator is driven at a
speed of 3000 rpm. The no-load armature voltage is 418.9 V, the above generator is
now operated as a motor. The flux is 0.04 weber/pole. It is desired to supply a load
requiring a torque of 50 n–m at 4000 rpm. Armature circuit resistance is 0.075 ohm.
Calculate:

a. the back emf

b. the required armature current and voltage to supply this load.

Solution:                    

a. The back emf is

               E = Ka ɸp V

                  = 9.55 × 0.04 × 418.9 = 160 V

        The armature current can be found directly from the following equation:

41
              Td = Ka ɸp Ia   N – m

          which gives,

                                                Ia = 50 / (9.55 × 0.04) = 130.9 A

The necessary armature voltage is,

        V = E ± Ia Ra

          = 160 + 130.9 × 0.075 = 160 + 9.8 = 169.8 V

3.  In a motor the armature resistance is 0.1 ohm. When connected across 110-volt mains
the armature takes 20 amp, and its speed is 1,200 rpm. Determine its speed when the
armature takes 50 amp from the same mains, with the field increased 10 percent.

Solution:                    

S = K [{V – IaRa} / ɸ]

          (S2 / S1) = [(k {(110 – 50 × 0.1) / ɸ2}) / (k {(110 – 20 × 0.1) / ɸ1})]

                        = [{(105) / ɸ2} / {(108) / ɸ1}] = {(105) / ɸ2} ∙ {ɸ1 / (108)},

           S1 = 1,200 rpm

  Therefore,

          S2 = 1,200 {(105) / (108)} ∙ (ɸ1/ɸ2)

   But,

         ɸ2 = 1.10ɸ1.

   Therefore,

         S2 = 1,200 {(105) / (108)} [ɸ1 / {1.10ɸ1}] = 1,061 rpm.

4. A 25-hp 240-volt series motor takes 93 amp when driving its rated load at 800 rpm.
The armature resistance is 0.12 ohm, and the series-field resistance is 0.08 ohm. At
what speed will the motor operate if the load is partially removed so that the motor
takes 31 amp? Assume that the flux is reduced by 50 percent for a current drop of 66
2/3 percent and that the brush drop is 2 volts at both loads.

Solution:                  

S = [{Va – IaRa} / kɸ] rpm

         800 = [{(240 – 2) – 93(0.12 + 0.08)} / {kɸFL}]

        Sx = [{(240 – 2) – 31(0.12 + 0.08)} / {k (0.5 × ɸFL)}]

42
        {Sx / (800)} = [{232.8/k (0.5 ɸFL)} / {219.4/kɸFL}]

              = [{231.8} / {219.4 × 0.5}]

        Therefore,

         Sx = 800 × [{231.8} / {219.4 × 0.5}] = 1,690 rpm.

5. A certain load to be driven at 1750 r/min requires a torque of 60 lb. ft. What
horsepower will be required to drive the load?

Solution:                    

Horse power = [{2π × T × N} / {33,000}]

                  = {(2π × 60 × 1750) / (33,000)} = 20 hp.

6. The field winding of a shunt motor has a resistance of 110 ohms, and the voltage
applied to it is 220 volts. What is the amount of power expended in the field
excitation?

Solution:                    

The current through the field is

         If = (Ef/Rf) = {(220) / (110)} = 2 amperes.

 Power expended is

        Es If = 220 × 2 = 440 watts,

  The same results will also be obtained by using the equation

        (Es2/Rf) = Pf = {(2202) / (110)} = 440 watts.

7. Assume that the dc motor shown in Fig. 1 draws a current of 10 amperes from the line
with a supply voltage of 100 volts. If the total mechanical loss (friction, windage, etc.)
is 90 watts, calculate the,

a. Copper losses in the field.       

b. Armature current.

c. Copper losses in the armature.

d. Total loss.           

e. Motor input.

f. Motor output.

43
 g. Efficiency.

                        

Solution:                    From the foregoing data,

                        (a) The copper losses in the field are

                                    If2 × Rf = l2 × 100 = 100 watts.

                        (b) The armature current is

                                    10 – 1 = 9 amperes

                        (c) Copper losses in the armature are

                                    Ia2 × Ra = 92 × 1 = 81 watts

                        (d) The total loss is

                                    100 + 81 + 90 = 271 watts

                        (e) Motor input is

                                    Ea × IL = 100 × 10 = 1000 watts

                        (f) Motor output is

                                    input – losses = 1000 – 271 = 729 watts

                        (g) The efficiency is

{(output) / (input)} × 100 = {(729) / (1000)} × 100 = 72.9 percent

44
 8. The nameplate rating of a shunt motor is 150 hp, 600 volts, 205amp, 1,700 rpm. The
resistance of the shunt field circuit is 240 ohms, and the total armature circuit
resistance is 0.15 ohm. The motor has a commutating winding, and armature reaction
is neglected.

a. Calculate the full-load efficiency of the motor and the speed regulation.

b. Calculate the efficiency and the delivered torque when the motor draws half-load
current from the line.

c. If the motor is to deliver full-load torque at 1,200 rpm, what value of resistance
must be added to the armature circuit?

Solution:                    

a. At full load

           Motor input    = {VI / (1,000)} kw

                    = {(600 × 205) / (1,000)} = 123.0 kw

           Motor output = 150 × 0.746 = 111.9 kw

          Motor losses (input – output) = 11.1 kw

          Efficiency = {(111.9) / (123.0)} × 100 = 91.0%

   The losses are

         Shunt field     = [(600 × {(600) / (240)}) / (1,000)] = 1.50 kw

         rm. copper   = {(I2R) / (1,000)} kw.

                = [{(205 – 2.5)2 × 0.15} / {1,000}] = 6.15 kw

         Stray power = remainder = 3.45 kw

   Total losses = 11.10 kw

  The no-load current to the motor will be that required for the field and the

  stray-power losses, that is,

          no-load current = 2.5 + {(3,450) / (600)} = 8.25 amp

  The generated voltages are

     Eg full-load = 600 – (205 – 2.5) × 0.15 = 569.6 volts

     Eg no-load = 600 – (8.25 – 2.5) × 0.15 = 599.14 volts

   whence the no-load speed is

     1,700 × {(599.1) / (569.6)} = 1,790 rpm

45
    and

          speed regulation = [{1,790 – 1,700} / {1,700}] × 100 = 5.3

The delivered torque at full load is 463 lb-ft, obtained from the horsepower equation. The
developed torque is 478 lb-ft and includes the stray-power loss.

b. At half-load current, the motor draws 102.5 amp, of which 100amp flow through the
armature circuit. The field and stray-power losses assume to remain constant, but the
new armature copper loss is 1.5 kw. The total losses are 6.45 kw, the motor input is
61.5 kw, the output is 55.05 kw, and the motor efficiency is 89.6%. The generated
voltage for the new condition is 585 volts, the speed is 1,746 rpm, and the delivered
torque is 222 lb-ft.

c. With constant flux, full-load torque requires full-load armature current of 202.5 amp.
Hence, Eg at 1,200 rpm = {(1,200) / 1,700)} × 569.6 = 402 volts and the resistance to
be added in the armature circuit is {(600 – 402) / (205 – 2.5)} – 0.15 = 0.83 ohm.

LEARNING ACTIVITY 2
1. A 220 V dc shunt motor runs at 500 rpm when the armature current is 50 A. Calculate
the speed if the torque is doubled. Given: Ra= 0.2 ohm.

2. A 25 KW, 250 V dc shunt generator has armature and field resistance of 0.06 ohm and
100 ohms respectively. Determine the total armature power developed when working
a) as a generator delivering 25 KW output b) as a motor taking 25 KW input.

3. A dc series motor takes 40 A at 220 V and runs at 800 rpm. If the armature and field
resistance are 0.2 ohm and 0.1 ohm respectively and the iron and friction losses are 0.
5 KW, find the torque developed in the armature. What will be the output of the
motor?

4. A 4 pole series motor has 944 wave connected armature conductors. At a certain load,
the flux per pole is 34.6 x 10-3weber and the total mechanical torque developed is 209
N-m. Calculate the line current taken by the motor and the speed at which it will run
with an applied voltage of 500 V. Total motor resistance is 3 ohms.

5. A 4 pole, 240 V wave connected shunt motor gives 11.19 KW when running at 1000 RPM
and drawing armature and field currents of 50 A and 1.0 A respectively. It has 540
conductors. Its resistance is 0.1 ohm. Assuming a drop of one volt per brush Find: a)
total torque b) useful torque c) useful flux/pole c) rotational losses d) efficiency.

Module III: TRANSFORMER

LESSON 1

46
HISTORY

A transformer is used to bring voltage up or down in an AC electrical circuit. A transformer

can be used to convert AC power to DC power.

Who invented it?

Ottó Bláthy Miksa Déri Károly Zipernowsky

Lucien Gaulard Sebst Ferranti Ian William Stanley

William stanley’s first transformer built in 1885. single phase ac power

47
Stanley’s first transformer which was used in the electrification of great barrington,
Massachusetts in 1886.’

LESSON 2
PARTS AND CONSRUCTION
CONSTRUCTION OF A TRANSFORMER
1.TRANSFORMER’S CORE- the core of the transformer is constructed from laminations of sheet
steel or silicon steel assembled to provide a continuous magnetic path.

The purpose of the laminations is to reduce certain losses

 2 main shapes of cores used in laminated-steel-core transformers:

Core Type Transformers- the core is shaped with a hollow square through the center.

48
Shell-Core Transformers- each layer of the core consists of E- and I-shaped sections of metal

COILS- made up of copper coated with very

thin layer of insulation.

TRANSFORMER INSULATION- consist of fluid—either liquid or gas—together with solid

materials. E.g. Insulating oil, Insulation paper, Insulating tape.

CONSERVATOR TANK- this is a cylindrical tank mounted on supporting structure on the roof
the transformer main tank. It conserves the transformer oil. It is an airtight, metallic,
cylindrical drum that is fitted above the transformer.

BREATHER- when the temperature of the transformer rises, the insulating oil in the
transformer gets heated up. This oil expands and contracts. When the oil heats up and
expands the transformer breaths air in and thus the oil gets cooled and the level of oil goes
down and the air is absorbed in it. This process of taking air in and out is called breathing of
the transformer

EXPLOSION VENT-the explosion vent is a thin aluminum pipe placed at both the ends of the
transformer to prevent the transformer from the damage. When the temperature increases in
the transformer drastically and the excessive pressure is created inside the transformer, the
explosive vent helps in releasing the pressure.

BUCCHOLZ RELAY- protective device container housed over the connecting pipe from the
main tank to the conservator tank. It is used to sense the faults occurring inside the
transformer.

49
LESSON 3
Equivalent Circuit of An Ideal Transformer

Under certain conditions, the transformer can be treated as an ideal transformer. The

assumptions necessary to treat it as an ideal transformer are:
(a) Primary and secondary windings have zero resistance. This means that ohmic loss
(I2 R loss), and resistive voltage drops in windings are zero.
(b) There is no leakage flux, i.e. the entire flux is mutual flux that links both the primary and
secondary windings.
(c) Permeability of the core is infinite this means that the magnetizing current needed for
establishing the flux is zero.
(d) Core loss (hysteresis as well as eddy current losses) are zero.

E1= (4.44) (N1)(f1)( Φm1) E2=(4.44)(N2)(f2)( Φm2)

Equating E1 and E2

E1 = E 2

gives us

(E1/ E2)= (N1/N2)= a

50
Where a= turn ratio

Also using current ratio

(I1/ I2)= (N1/N2)= 1/a

Using Impedance ratio

(Z1/ Z2)= (N1/N2)2 = a2

Equivalent Circuit of An Ideal Transformer at Full Load

Under certain conditions the transformer can be treated as an ideal transformer. The
idealizing assumptions are listed below:
(a) Both primary and secondary windings have zero resistance. This means, no ohmic power
loss and no resistive voltage drop.
(b) No leakage flux, i.e. all the flux produced is confined to the core and links both the
windings
(c) Infinite permeability of the core. This means no zero magnetizing current is needed to
establish the requisite amount of flux in the core, i.e. Im = 0.
(d) Core-loss (hysteresis as well as eddy-current loss) is zero, i.e. Ic = 0.

POWER LOSSES AND EFFICIENCY

η= (Pout) / (Pin)

finding Pout

Pout= (V2) (I2)

51
finding Pin

Pin= Pout + Pcore + Pcopper

WHERE:

Pcopper= I12R1 + I22R2

Also

Pcore =Peddy + Physteresis

MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY

The efficiency of transformer is defined as the ratio of output power to input power. It is
denoted by ἠ.
 
As the output power is always less than the input power due to losses in the transformer,
practically the transformer efficiency is always between 0 and 1 i.e. 0% and 100% but it can
never be 1 or 100%.
 
The efficiency of an ideal transformer is equal to 1 or 100% since the losses in the ideal
transformer are zero.
 

 
The graph of output power versus efficiency of transformer is shown in the figure. The figure
shows that the efficiency increases with the increase in the output power up to a certain
value and after a particular value of output power, the transformer efficiency decreases.
 
The value of transformer efficiency will be maximum when the copper losses will be equal

52
to iron losses in the transformer. The value of maximum efficiency can be found by taking
total losses equal to 2Pi. It also depends on load power factor and has the maximum value at
a power factor of unity.
 
The transformer on which load is variable (like distribution transformer) is designed to give
maximum efficiency at about 75% of full load.
 
And if it is continuously operated near the full load (like power transformers), then it is
designed to give maximum efficiency at or near the full load.
 

The transformer has no moving parts so the losses due to friction and windage are absent
therefore its efficiency is very high. It can be at least equal to 90%. Its output and input are
almost of the same value. Hence their ratio cannot be found accurately by measuring input
and output power.
 
To overcome this problem it is better to measure the transformer losses separately and then
find the transformer efficiency by the transformer efficiency formula. The iron
losses and copper losses of can be determined very easily and accurately by no-load
test and short-circuit test on transformer respectively.

53
All Day Efficiency of Transformer

The efficiency discussed so far is the ordinary or commercial or power efficiency of the
transformer. But for the distribution transformer, it does not give the true idea about the
transformer performance because the load on distribution transformer fluctuates throughout
the day. This transformer is energized for twenty-four hours, but for the major portion of the
day, it delivers the very light load.
 
Thus iron losses take place for the whole day but copper losses take place only when the
transformer is loaded.
 
Hence, the performance of such transformer (like distribution transformer) cannot be judged
by the power efficiency. But it can be judged by the special type of transformer efficiency
known as energy efficiency or all-day efficiency. The all-day efficiency is computed on the
basis of energy consumed during the period of twenty-four hours.
 
The all day efficiency of transformer is defined as the ratio of output energy (in kWh) to input
energy (in kWh) for twenty-four hours.

Where:

WOUT = Totaloutput energy

Wcore = Total energy losses due to core losses

Wcu = Total energy losses due to copper losses

t= time of usage

LESSON IV
Open and Short Circuit Test of Transformer

Open Circuit or No-Load Test on Transformer

This test is performed to find out the shunt or no-load branch parameters of equivalent
circuit of a transformer. This test results the iron losses and no-load current values, thereby
we can determine the no load branch parameters with simple calculations.

As the name itself indicates, secondary side load terminals of the transformer are kept open
and the input voltage is applied on the other side. Since this test is carried out by without
placing any load, this test is also named as no load test.

The OC test is carried out by connecting LV side (as primary) of the transformer to the AC
supply through voltmeter, ammeter and wattmeter instruments. The secondary side or HV
side terminals are left open and in some cases a voltmeter is connected across it to measure
the secondary voltage.

The primary side voltmeter reads the applied voltage to the transformer, ammeter reads the
no load current, wattmeter gives the input power and the variac used to vary the voltage

54
applied to transformer so that rated voltage is applied at rated frequency. The OC test
arrangement of a transformer is the rated value of the primary voltage is adjusted by varying
test, we get rated

When single phase supply is given to the transformer, the rated value of the primary voltage
is adjusted by varying the variac. At this rated voltage, the ammeter and wattmeter readings
are to be taken. From this test, we get rated voltage Vo, input or no-load current Io and input
power Wo.

As we know that when the transformer is on no load, the no load current or primary current is
very small, typically 3 to 5 percent of the rated current value. Thus, the copper loss in the
primary winding is negligible. In OC test, transformer is operated at rated voltage at rated
frequency so the maximum will be the flux in the core. Since the iron or core losses are at
rated voltage, the power input is drawn to supply the iron losses by the transformer under no
load.

Wo = Iron losses

The no load shunt parameters are calculated from the OC test as the no load power factor,
Cos Φo = Wo/VoIo

Once the power factor is obtained, the no load component currents are determined as

Magnetizing component of no-load current, Im = Io sin Φo

Core loss component of no-load current, Im = Io cos Φo

Then, the magnetizing branch reactance, Xo= Vo / Im

Resistance representing core loss, Ro = Vo / Ic

This test is performed to find series branch parameters of an equivalent circuit such as
equivalent impedance (Zo1 or Zo2), total winding resistance (Ro1 or Ro2), and total leakage
reactance (Xo1 or Xo2). Also, it is possible to determine copper losses at any desired load and
total voltage drop of the transformer referred to primary or secondary. In this test, usually LV
winding is shorted by a thick wire. And the other side, i.e. HV side this test is conducted.

In this test, the primary or HV winding is connected to the AC supply source through
voltmeter, ammeter, wattmeter and a variac as shown in figure. This test is also called as
reduced voltage test or low voltage test. This is because as the secondary winding is short

55
circuited, at rated voltage the transformer draws a very large current due to its very small
winding resistance.

Such high current can cause the overheating and also burning of the transformer. Thus, to
limit the high current, the primary winding must be energized with a low voltage which is just
enough to produce the rated current in the transformer primary.

The SC test is conducted on HV side due to the two main reasons. The first one is, the SC test
conducted by applying rated current and the HV side rated current is much less than the LV
side. Therefore, the rated current is easily achieved at HV side (due to the low current value)
as compared to the LV side.

On the other hand, if we short the HV terminals by connecting measuring instrument on LV

side, voltage in the secondary is zero. Therefore, the current flow through HV side is very
high (as VA rating is constant) compared to the LV side and hence it will cause to burn the
transformer.

During this test, by varying the variac slowly, we apply a low voltage to the primary typically
5 to 10 percent of the rated voltage to cause a rated current to flow in both primary and
secondary windings that we can observe on ammeter reading (some cases secondary is
shorted through an ammeter). At this rated current, we are to record the voltmeter (V sc),
ammeter (Isc) and wattmeter (Wsc) readings.

In this test, the current flow is rated value and hence no-load current is very small and is 3 to
5% percent of rated current. In other words, the voltage applied to the primary winding is
very low, thereby the flux level in the core is very small. In turn there is negligible core loss.
Therefore, the no load shunt branch is considered as absent in equivalent circuit of this test
as core loss is negligible.

As the iron or core losses are function of voltage, these losses are very small. Therefore, the
wattmeter reading shows the power loss or I2 R loss equal to the full load copper losses of the
whole transformer.

Wsc = Full load copper losses

From the test results we determine the series branch parameters of an equivalent circuit as

Equivalent resistance referred to HV side, Re= Wsc/ Isc2

Equivalent impedance referred to HV side, Ze= Vsc / Isc

Equivalent leakage reactance referred to HV side, Xe = √ (Z201 – R201)

And also, short circuit power factor, Cos Φsc = Wsc/VscIsc

Calculation of Efficiency from O.C. and S.C. Tests

The practical transformer has two types of major losses namely copper and core losses. The
temperature of the transformer rises due to these losses which are dissipated as heat. Due to
these losses, input power drawn by the primary no longer equal to the output delivered at
secondary. Therefore, the efficiency of the transformer is given as

56
Efficiency, η = Power output in KW/ Power input in KW

= Power output in KW/ (Power output in KW + Losses)

= Power output in KW/ (Power output in KW + Copper loss + Core loss)

The core loss Pcore remains constant from no load to full load as the flux in the core remains
constant. And the copper losses depend on the square of the current. As the winding current
varies from no load to full load, copper losses are also varied.

Consider that the KVA rating of the transformer is S, a fraction of the load is x and the power
factor of the load is Cos Φ. Then

The output power in KW = xSCos Φ

Suppose the copper loss at full load is Pcu (since x =1),

Then copper loss at x per unit loading = x2Pcu

Therefore, the efficiency of the transformer is

Efficiency, η = xSCos Φ / (xS Cos Φ + x2 Pxcu + Pxcore)

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES
1. A transformer has a primary coil and a secondary coil with the number of loops are 500
and 5000. Input voltage is 220 V. What is the output voltage?

Given:

Primary coil (NP) = 500 loops

Secondary coil (Ns) = 5000 loops

Primary voltage (VP) = 220 Volt

Rqd: Secondary voltage (VS)

Solution:

Vs / Ns =Vp / Np

Vs / 5000 = 220 / 500

Vs / 5000 = 0.44

Vs = (0.44) (5000)

Vs = 2200 Volt

57
 2. A transformer has primary coil with 1200 loops and secondary coil with 1000 loops. If
the current in the primary coil is 4 Ampere, then what is the current in the secondary
coil.

Given:

Primary coil (NP) = 1200 loops

Secondary coil (NS) = 1000 loops

The current in the primary coil (Ip) = 4 Ampere

Rqd: The current in secondary coil (IS)

Solution:

Is/Ip = Np/Ns

The current in the secondary coil:

Is4 = 1200/1000

Is/4 = 1.2

Is = 1.2 (4)

Is = 4.8 Ampere

3. The secondary voltage is 220 Volt and primary voltage is 110 volts, then a comparison
of the secondary coil and primary coil is…

Given:

Secondary voltage (VS) = 220 Volt

Primary voltage (VP) = 110 Volt

Rqd: Ns / Np

Solution:

VS/VP = Ns/Np

220/110 = Ns/Np

22/11 = Ns/Np

2/1 = Ns/Np

12/6 = Ns/Np

4. Based on figure below, what is the primary voltage of the transformer.

58
Given:

Secondary voltage (Vs) = 24 Volt

Primary turns (Np) = 11 turns

Secondary turns (Ns) = 1 turn

Rqd: Primary voltage (Vp)

Solution:

Vs / Ns= Vp / Np

24 / Ns = Vp / 11

24 / 1 = Vp / 11

24 = Vp / 11

Vp = (24)(11)

Vp = 264 Volts

5. Based on figure below, what is the input voltage of the transformer.

Given:

Primary coil (Np) = 21 coils

Secondary coil (Ns) = 3 coils

Secondary voltage (Vs) = 20 Volts

Rqd: Primary voltage (Vp)

Solution:

Vs/ Ns= Vp / Np

20 / 3 = Vp / 21

20 / 1 = V1 / 7

59
20 = Vp/ 7

Vp= (7)(20)

Vp = 140 Volt

6. According to figure below, what is the amount of the secondary loops of the
transformer.

Given:

Primary voltage (Vp) = 220 Volt

Primary loops (Np) = 200 loops

Secondary voltage (Vs) = 1100 Volt

Rqd: Secondary loops (Ns)

Solution:

Vs / Ns = Vp / Np

1100 Volt / Ns = 220 Volt / 200 loops

1100 / Ns = 220 / 200

1100 / Ns = 1.1

Ns = 1100 / 1.1

Ns = 1000 loops

7. According to figure below, what is the amount of the secondary loops of the
transformer.

Given:

60
Primary voltage (VP) = 220 Volt

Primary loops (NP) = 200 loops

Secondary voltage (VS) = 1100 Volt

Rqd: Secondary loops (NS)

Solution:

Vs / Ns = Vp / Np

1100 / Ns = 220 / 200

1100 / Ns = 22 / 20

1100 / Ns = 1.1

Ns = 1100 / 1.1

NS = 1000 loops

8. Given:

Transformer Np Ns Vp Vs Ip Is

1 1000 120 12 0.4 2

2 80 8 20 2 2.5

Based on the above table, if the efficiency of both transformers is the same, 50%, Determine
N

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Ns1 and Ip2

Solution:

The equation of transformer 1 efficiency:

Calculate Ns1 of the transformer 1:

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Calculate Ip2 of the transformer 2:

9.

Based on the above figure, which of the following statements about the figure above is
correct.

A. Figure 1 is a step-up transformer and figure 2 is a step-down transformer

62
B. Figure 1 is a step-down transformer and figure 2 is a step-up transformer

C. Figure 1 and 2 are a step-down transformer

D. Figure 1 and 2 are a step-up transformer

Solution

Step-up transformer serves to raise the electrical voltage while the step-down transformer to

reduce electrical voltage. In Figure 1, the primary voltage is greater than the second voltage
(20 Volts > 5 Volts) so that Figure 1 is a step-down transformer. In Figure 2, the primary
voltage is smaller than the second voltage (5 Volts < 40 Volts) so that Figure 2 is a step-up
transformer.

The correct answer is B.

10.

If the primary coil has 800 loops, then determine the secondary coil.

Given:

Primary loops = Np = 800 loops

Primary voltage =VP = 220 Volt

Secondary voltage = VS = 55 Volt

Rqd: Secondary loops (NS)

Solution:

Vs / Ns = Vp / Np

55 / Ns = 220 / 800

55 / Ns = 22 / 80

Ns = (80)(55) / 22

NS = 4400 / 22

Ns = 200 loops

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 11.

The correct statement about transformer P and Q is…

A. P is a step-down transformer because of Is < Ip

B. P is a step-up transformer because of Vp < Vs

C. Q is a step-up transformer because of Vp > Vs

D. Q is a step-up transformer because Is > Ip

Solution

P is step-up transformer because primary voltage (Vp = 110 V) < secondary voltage (Vs = 200
V).

Q is step-down transformer because primary voltage (Vp = 220 V) > secondary voltage (Vs = 110
V).

The correct answer is B.

12. Transformer all day efficiency

Transformers are on operation 24/7 whether they are partially or heavily loaded for a
particular length of time. It is, therefore, for this consideration that a transformer must be
evaluated for its 24 hours efficiency which is the ratio of energy output and energy input for
24 hours period:

A 500KVA, 1ph, 13.8/4.160kV, 60hz transformer has a primary resistance of R 1 = 0.8 ohms and
secondary resistance of R2 = 0.04 ohms. The iron loss is 3,000 watts. Calculate the copper loss
and the full load efficiency when the transformer's daily load is 3hrs @ full load, 5hrs @ 3/4
load and 7hrs @ 1/4 load.

Solution:

Ipri = Rated kVA x 1000/Rated primary voltage = 500 x 1000/13,800 = 36.2 Amp

Copper losspri = (Ipri)2x R1 = 36.22 x 0.8 = 1,048 watts

64
Isec = Rated kVA x 1000/Rated secondary voltage = 500 x 1000/4,160 = 120.2 Amp

Copper losssec = (Isec)2 x R2 = 120.22 x 0.04 = 578 watts

Total full load copper loss = 1,048 + 578 = 1,626 watts

Since the input is equal to the output + the total losses, the all day efficiency is:

Output x 100/Output + losses; with the copper loses varying directly as the square of the
fractional load.

Assuming a 100% power factor, the output energy is:

Energyoutput = (500 x 3hrs) + (500 x 3/4 x 5hrs) + (500 x 1/4 x 7hrs) = 2, 750 kw-hrs

Thus, the Energy input = energy output + loses

Energyinput = Output + total loses loss

Total copper and iron losses = (1.626kw x 3hrs x 12) + (1.626kw x 5hrs x 0.752) + (1.626kw x
7hrs x 0.252) + (3kwiron loss x 24hrs)] = [4.878 + 6.40 + 0.711 + 72 = 84kw-hr

All day efficiency = (2,750/2,750 + 84)100% = 97%

Typical efficiency calculation is: (500/500 + 3+ 1.048 + 0.578)100% = 99.3%

13. Parallel operation of transformers with different ratings

Explain how two single phase transformers of different ratings can be connected in parallel on
both the primary and secondary for them to share a common load in proportion to their kva
ratings.

Answer: The following should be strictly observed:

1. Ensure that the transformers' reactance and resistance ratio are the same.

2. The transformers must have the same transformation ratios; E pri/Esec i.e., for both the
primary and secondary voltage.

3. The transformers must have the same %regulation, i.e., the reduction in the voltage level
of both transformers in the primary and secondary are the same when they are loaded.

Question-3: Utilizing a 3ph transformer for 1ph service

For a particular service, a single-phase transformer is needed but what's available is one
three-phase transformer. If the available transformer has the same voltage ratio and
frequency, (1) how can you configure the three-phase transformer for a single-phase service
for the maximum single-phase output, and (2), what is the percentage of the three-phase kva
can be utilized?

Answer: The requirement of this set up must utilize the maximum power from the 3ph
transformer to which only 2/3 of the transformer's kva rating is possible:

1. Parallel the two windings of the transformer - say Phase-A and Phase-B - taking care that
polarity markings are observed; parallel their corresponding secondaries in same manner

65
2. The maximum load that can be utilized for 1ph service is 2/3 x 100% = 66.67%

14. Why transformers are rated in volt-amperes or kilovolt-amperes:

Explain why transformers are rated in volt-ampere (va) or kilovolt-ampere (kva)? Justify and
prove your answer.

Answer: The heat equivalent of current Idriven into the circuit by the voltage E is determined
by Joule's Law: Q = 0.24EI x time. Thus advantageous and practical to rate a transformer in
volt-amperes rather than in watts, because the crucial relationship of the primary and
secondary volt-ampere are equal when the core and copper losses amounting to about 1 to 3%
is neglected. Since the power factor of a transformer is unity or close to unity, the volt-
ampere rating provides the engineer the ease to calculate the output and input expeditiously.

On the other hand, if transformers are rated in watts or kilo-watts, the rating would not be
depictive of its actual performance. Consider the power conveyed by a three-phase
system:the Power = EI x 31/2 Cosø.

Note: The 31/2 is equivalent to square root of 3.

15. A 460-V:2400-V transformer has a series leakage reactance of 37.2 Ω as referred

to the high-voltage side. A load connected to the low-voltage side is observed to
be absorbing 25 kW, unity power factor, and the voltage is measured to be 450 V.
Calculate the corresponding voltage and power factor as measured at the high-
voltage terminals.

Power factor at primary terminals: cos (9.58) = 0.9861 lagging

  16. The resistances and leakage reactance of a 30-kVA, 60-Hz, 2400-V:240-V distribution
transformer respectively R1 = 0.68 Ω, R2 = 0.0068 Ω, Xl1 = 7.8    Ω, Xl2 = 0.0780 Ω, where
subscript 1 denotes the 2400-V winding and subscript 2 denotes the 240-V winding. Each
quantity is referred to its own side of the transformer.

a. Draw the equivalent circuit referred to (i) the high- and (ii) the low-voltage sides. Label
the impedances numerically.

b. Consider the transformer to deliver its rated kVA to a load on the low-voltage side with 230
V across the load. (i) Find the high-side terminal voltage for a load power factor of 0.85
lagging. (ii) Find the high-side terminal voltage for a load power factor of 0.85 leading.

66
 c. Consider a rated-kVA load connected at the low-voltage terminals operating at 240V. Use
MATLAB to plot the high-side terminal voltage as a function of the power-factor angle as the
load power factor varies from 0.6 leading through unity power factor to 0.6 pf lagging.

17. A single-phase load is supplied through a 35-kV feeder whose impedance is 95

+ j360 Ω and a 35-kV:2400-V transformer whose equivalent impedance is (0.23
+ j1.27) Ω referred to its low-voltage side. The load is 160 kW at 0.89 leading
power factor and 2340 V.

a. Compute the voltage at the high-voltage terminals of the transformer.

b. b. Compute the voltage at the sending end of the feeder.

Compute the power and reactive power input at the sending end of the feeder.

67
 

18. The following data were obtained for a 20-kVA, 60-Hz, 2400:240-V distribution
transformer tested at 60 Hz:

68
 a. Compute the efficiency at full-load current and the rated terminal voltage at 0.8
power factor.

b. Assume that the load power factor is varied while the load current and secondary
terminal voltage are held constant. Use a phasor diagram to determine the load power
factor for which the regulation is greatest. What is this regulation?

Solution:

a. Rated current on the HV side = 20 kVA / 2400 = 8.33 A. Therefore, total power loss
at full load current:

69
 19. A three-phase generator step-up transformer is rated 26-kV:345-kV, 850 MVA and
has a series impedance of 0.0035 + j0.087 per unit on this base. It is connected to a 26-kV,
800-MVA generator, which can be represented as a voltage source in series with a reactance
of j1.57 per unit on the generator base.

a. Convert the per unit generator reactance to the step-up transformer base.

b. The unit is supplying 700 MW at 345 kV and 0.95 power factor lagging to the system at the
transformer high-voltage terminals.

i. Calculate the transformer low-side voltage and the generator internal voltage behind its
reactance in kV.

ii. Find the generator output power in MW and the power factor.

70
71
Learning activity 3
1. A single-phase, 250-kVA, 11-kV/415-V, 50-Hz transformer has 80 turns on the secondary.
Calculate (a) the approximate values of the primary and secondary currents, (b) the
approximate number of primary turns, and (c) the maximum value of the flux. [Ans.: (a) 22.7
A, 602 A; (b) 2121; (c) 23.4 m Wb]

2. The primary winding of a 50-Hz transformer has 480 turns and is fed from a 6400-V supply.
Determine (a) the peak value of the flux in the core, and (b) the secondary voltage if the
secondary winding has 20 turns. [Ans.: (a) 0.06 Wb; (b) 266.4 V]

3. A single phase, 50-Hz transformer has 80 turns on the primary winding and 400 turns on
the secondary winding. The net cross-sectional area of the core is 200 cm. If the primary
winding is connected to 240-V, 50-Hz supply, determine (a) the emf induced in the secondary
winding, and (b) the maximum flux density in the core. [Ans.: (a) 1200 V; (b) 0.675 T]

4. A 10-kVA, single-phase transformer has its primary connected to a 2000-V supply. It has 60
turns on the secondary winding and voltage across it is found to be 240 V. Assuming the
transformer to be ideal, calculate (a) the number of turns on its primary winding; (b) the full-
load primary and secondary currents. [Ans.: (a) 500; (b) 5 A, 41.67 A]

5. A 200-kVA, 3300-V/240-V, 50-Hz, single-phase transformer has 80 turns on the secondary

winding. Assuming an ideal transformer, calculate (a) primary and secondary currents on full
load, (b) the maximum value of flux, and (c) the number of primary turns. [Ans.: (a) 60.6 A,
833.33 A; (b) 0.0135 Wb; (c) 1100]

6. A single-phase transformer with 10:1 turns-ratio and rated at 50 kVA, 2400-V/240- V, 50-Hz
is used to step down the voltage of a distribution system. The low tension (LT) voltage is to
be kept constant at 240 V. Find the value of the load impedance of the LT side so that the
transformer is loaded fully. Find also the value of the maximum flux inside the core if the LT
side has 23 turns. [Ans.: 1.152 Ω, 0.047 Wb]

7. The primary of a single-phase transformer takes 1 A at power factor of 0.4 when connected
to a 240-V, 50-Hz supply and the secondary is on open circuit. The number of turns on the
primary is twice that on the secondary. A load taking 50 A at a lagging power factor of 0.8 is
now connected across the secondary. What is now the value of the primary current? (Neglect
the voltage drops in the transformer.) [Ans.: 25.9 A]

8. A single-phase, 50-Hz transformer has 100 turns on the primary winding and 400 turns on
the secondary winding. The net cross-sectional area of the core is 250 cm2. If the primary
winding is connected to a 50-Hz, 230-V supply, calculate (a) the emf induced in the secondary
winding, and (b) the maximum value of the flux density in the core. [Ans.: (a) 920 V; (b)
0.414 T]

9. The no-load current of a single-phase transformer is 5.0 A at 0.3 power factor when
supplied from a 240-V, 50-Hz source. The number of turns on the primary is 200. Calculate (a)
the maximum value of the flux in the core, (b) the core losses, and (c) the magnetizing
current. [Ans.: (a) 5.4 m Wb; (b) 360 W; (c) 4.77 A]

10. A transformer on no-load takes 1.5 A at a power factor of 0.2 lagging when its primary is
connected to a 50-Hz, 230-V supply. Its transformation ratio (N2/N1) is 1/3. Determine the

72
primary current when the secondary is supplying a current of 300 A at a power factor of 0.8
lagging. Neglect the voltage drops in the windings. [Ans.: 14.5 A]

Module IV – AC GENERATOR
LESSON 1
HISTORY

The first electromagnetic generator, the Faraday disk, was invented in 1831 by British
scientist Michael Faraday.

The first public demonstration of a more robust "alternator system" took place in 1886.

Large two-phase alternating current generators were built by a British electrician, J.E.H.
Gordon, in 1882

Lord Kelvin and Sebastian Ferranti also developed early alternators, producing frequencies
between 100 and 300 Hz.

In 1891, Nikola Tesla patented a practical "high-frequency" alternator (which operated around
15 kHz)

Later alternators were designed for varying alternating-current frequencies between sixteen
and about one hundred hertz, for use with arc lighting, incandescent lighting and electric
motors.

LESSON II

PRINCIPLES AND PARTS OF AC GENERATOR

Alternators may be classified by method of excitation, number of phases, the type of

rotation, cooling method, and their application.

ALTERNATOR COMPONENTS

Alternators typically consist of front plate, back plate, stator, rectifier, rotor,

front bearing, back bearing, pulley, and a regulator.  These are the main parts of an
alternator.

73
Parts of alternator current generator

FRONT AND BACK PLATE

The front and back plate of an alternator is used to enclose the alternator together.  With the
through bolts properly installed you will have the two halves tightly secured.  Many times
these are two aluminum castings, but sometimes the back plate is just a plastic cover or tin
to pretty much cover up the back of the alternator.

STATOR

The stator is the alternator component that is stationary inside of the casing.  Its purpose is
to be the other half of the electrical power source.  They commonly have a 3-phase wire set
up with laminated iron plates.  Then the wires connect to the rectifier.

74
ROTOR

The rotor is yet another major part of an alternator.  This is the other half of the electrical
power source, only instead of remaining stationary, this part is rotating with engine RPM.  As
the rotor is turns it induces a current in the stator windings to be stored in the cars battery.

75
TWO TYPES OF ROTOR USED IN AN AC GENERATOR / ALTERNATOR

A. SALIENT POLE TYPE

Salient pole type rotor is used in low and medium speed alternators. This type of rotor
consists of large number of projected poles (called salient poles), bolted on a magnetic
wheel. These poles are also laminated to minimize the eddy current losses. Alternators
featuring this type of rotor are large in diameters and short in axial length.

B. CYLINDRICAL TYPE

Cylindrical type rotors are used in high speed alternators, especially in turbo alternators. This
type of rotor consists of a smooth and solid steel cylinder having slots along its outer
periphery. Field windings are placed in these slots. The DC supply is given to the rotor
winding through the slip rings and brushes arrangement.

C. RECTIFIER

The rectifier is an alternator part that converts the alternating current into a direct current.
This way the electricity that is produced can be sent to your car battery the proper way.  The
rectifiers has diodes that make this process possible.  This also allows the current to flow in
one (and only one) direction.

76
 D. ALTERNATOR PULLEY

The alternator pulley is attached to the drive end of the rotor.  This allows the rotor to be
hooked up to the engines belt also referred to as the serpentine/drive belt.  This makes a
good way for your vehicle to run and charge itself at the same time.

77
 E. REGULATOR

Time for the last main alternator part to be mentioned.  This is the regulator.  This part
helps regulate the current that flows from the alternator to the battery.  This is in most
alternators today, however you do still have alternators that are not equipped with a
regulator.  In those cases the cars computer regulates the current that flows from the
alternator to the cars battery.

On the back side of the alternator you'll find several terminals (or connecting points in
an electrical circuit).

S terminal - Senses battery voltage

IG terminal - Ignition switch that turns the voltage regulator on

L terminal - Closes the circuit to the warning lamp

B terminal - Main alternator output terminal (connected to the battery)

F terminal – Full- field bypass for regulator

78
REVOLVING FIELD AND GENERATED VOLATAGE

ROTATING-FIELD ALTERNATORS

The rotating-field alternator has a stationary armature winding and a rotating-field winding as
shown in figure. The advantage of having a stationary armature winding is that the generated
voltage can be connected directly to the load. A rotating armature requires slip rings and
brushes to conduct the current from the armature to the load. The armature, brushes, and
slip rings are difficult to insulate, and arc-overs and short circuits can result at high voltages.
For this reason, high-voltage alternators are usually of the rotating-field type.

Since the voltage applied to the rotating field is low voltage dc, the problem of high voltage
arc-over at the slip rings does not exist. The stationary armature, or stator, of this type of
alternator holds the windings that are cut by the rotating magnetic field. The voltage
generated in the armature as a result of this cutting action is the AC power that will be
applied to the load.

79
Generated Voltage

An average of 1 volt is generated in one turn of wire if the flux passing through that
turn changes at the rate of 100,000,000 (10⁸) maxwells per second

GENERATED VOLTAGE FORMULA

AVERAGE GENERATED VOLTAGE

EAVE =N𝞍/(t )x10⁻⁸ volts

WHERE:

N= number of turns in a coil

𝞍=flux per pole

t= time , seconds

80
General induced emf equation

EAVE =4fN𝞍x10^-8

EFFECTIVE VALUE OF INDUCED EMF

E=4.44fN𝞍x10^-8

LESSON 3: Alternator Voltage Regulation and phasor diagram

81
82
83
84
85
86
VOLTAGE DROP

WHAT IS VOLTAGE DROP?

Voltage drop is defined as the amount of voltage loss that occurs through all or part of a
circuit due to impedance. ... The national electrical code recommends limiting the voltage
drop from the breaker box to the farthest outlet for power, heating, or lighting to 3 percent
of the circuit voltage.

FORMULA OF VOLTAGE DROP

Voltage drop = IaRa + IaXLa

Where:

Ia=     armature current

Ra=     armature resistance

XLa    =     armature inductive reactance

87
CAUSE OF VOLTAGE DROP

Voltage drop is not caused by poor connections, bad contacts, insulation

problems, or damaged conductors; those are causes of voltage loss. It's important to
distinguish voltage drop from voltage loss. You can have both voltage drop and voltage
loss in any circuit.

VOLTAGE REGULATION

Voltage Regulation is the percent rise in the terminal voltage of the alternator
when the alternator load is removed.

%VR= Ep-Vp/Vp

Where:

Ep= Generated emf per phase (volts)

Vp= Terminal Voltage per phase (volts)

LESSON 4- EFFICIENCY AND PARALLEL OPERATION

88
CONDITIONS

The same phase sequince

Equal magnitude of terminal voltage

Equal of operating frequency

89
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES:
1. A 60-cycle alternator has 2 poles.

a. What is the speed of the alternator?

b. A 60-cycle alternator has a speed of 120 rpm and how many poles have it?

 Solution:            

a. f = [PS / (120)] cycles/sec                                                      

                        Where: f = frequency, P = number of poles, S = rpm

                          S = [(120f) / P]

                             = [(120 × 60) / 2]

                                                = 3600 rpm

b. This may be solved without using Eqn. (1) directly. The 2-pole, 60-cycle alternator
rotates at 3,600 rpm. Therefore the 60-cycle, 120 rpm alternator must have

                            [(3,600) / (120)] 2 = 60 poles

2. An a-c generator has six poles and operates at 1,200 rpm.

a. What frequency does it generate?

b. At what speed must the generator operate to develop 25 cycles? 50 cycles?

c. How many poles are there in a generator that operates at a speed of 240 rpm and
develops a frequency of 60 cycles?

                                                

90
                                                

 Solution:                    

a. f = [(P × rpm) / (120)]

 f = [(6 × 1,200) / (120)] = 60 cycles/sec.

b. rpm25 = [(120 × 25) / 6] = 500.

               rpm50 = [(120 × 50) / 6] = 1,000.

c. P = [(120 × f) / (rpm)] = [(120 × 60) / (240)] = 30 poles

The diagrams in the figure represent graphically the manner in which the

number of cycles per revolution increases with an increase in the number

of poles.

3. The effective voltage for a 5-turn coil on a 6-pole generator is 10.6 volts. The flux per
pole is 0.00795 weber. Calculate the frequency and the speed of the machine, and write
the equation for the voltage per coil assuming it to be sinusoidal.

 Solution:  

 The average voltage per conductor is

          Eavg = [(Eeff) / (number of turns × 2 × 1.11)]; 

91
Also,

          Eavg = (ɸ / t) volts per conductor

 Eavg = [(10.6) / (5 × 2)] × [1 / (1.11)] = [(0.00795) / t] volts per conductor

                                    = 0.00833 second per half cycle

                                 f = (1 / 2t) = 60 cycles per second

 Now,

             f = (P / 2) × [(rpm) / 60] cycles per second.

               = [(6 × rpm) / (2 × 60)] cycles per second

Therefore,

               speed = 1,200 rpm and

               e = 10.6√ (2) sin 2π60t

               = 15 sin 377t volts

If the average voltage per turn is used, the time taken to change the flux through the loop
from maximum to zero is 0.00417 sec, corresponding to (1 / 4) cycle. Whereas one conductor
moves one pole pitch of 180 electrical degrees in cutting the flux of one pole, the coil (of
two conductors) need move only 90 electrical degrees to cut the same flux. An alternate
method of solution is to use the expression for the maximum voltage generated. The
maximum voltage generated m a coil of N turns is

                  Emax = Nωɸ

                   √2(0.6)   = 5 × 2πf (0.00795)

                  f = [15 / (0.25)] = 60 cycles per second

4. Assume the cross-sectional area of the poles in the figure to be 800 square centimeters,
and that the flux density is 5,000 lines of induction per square centimeter.

a. What is the pressure between the brushes when the single loop armature makes 3,600
rotations per minute?

b. How many inductors will have to be connected in series if the electromotive force in
part (a) is to be 48 volts?

c. A six-pole generator operating at a speed of 900 revolutions per minute has 960
inductors on the armature.

92
 d. What will be the electromotive force developed if a two-circuit winding is used and if
the flux emanating one pole is 1,200,000 lines?

                                                

Solution:      

a.  E = [(2nZ ɸ) / (60 × 108)] volts

n = 3,600 rpm

Z=2

ɸ = 5,000 × 800 = 4,000,000 = 4 × 106 maxwells.

    Then,

E = [(4 × 106 × 3,600 × 2 × 2) / (60 × 108)]

= 9.6 volts.

b. Two inductors in series generate 9.6 volts. Hence one inductor generates 4.8 volts. To
generate 48 volts will require 48 ÷ 4.8 = 10 inductors, or a loop of 5 turns.

c.  E = [(pɸZn) / (a’60 x 108)]    

           p=6

               a’= 2

             ɸ = 1,200,000 = 1.2 × 106

              n = 900 rpm

93
               Z = 960

   Then,

              E = [(6 × 1.2 × 106 × 960 × 900) / (2 × 60 × 108)]

= 518.18 volts

5. A 60-kva 220-volt 60-cycle alternator has an effective armature resistance of 0.016 ohm

and an armature leakage reactance of 0.070 ohm. Determine induced emf when the
machine is delivering rated current at a load power factor of unity.

Solution:                    

The current

                I = [(60,000) / (220)] = 273 amp,

 Armature resistance drop is

                IR = 273 × 0.016 = 4.37 volts,

 Armature leakage reactance drop is

                IX = 273 × 0.070 = 19.1 volts,

 The induced emf is then given by

                 Ea = √ [(V + IR)2 + (IX)2]

                      = √ [(220 + 4.4)2 + (19.1)2]

= 225 volts.

6. A six-pole generator has a lap winding. If there are 300 inductors on the surface of the
armature, and if the flux is 900,000 lines per pole,

a. what will be the voltage between the brushes at a speed of 1,500 revolutions per
minute?

b. What voltage will the generator in part (a) develop if the winding be wave connected,
other conditions remaining as before?

Solution:            

a.  E = [(pnZɸ) / (a’ × 60 × 108).

94
              p = 6.

               n = 1,500 rpm.

               ɸ = 900,000 = 9 × 105

               a’ = 6.

               Z = 300.

   Then

               E = [(6 × 1,500 × 9 × 105 × 300) / (6 × 60 × 108)]

                  = 67.5 volts.

b. All the conditions are the same as before, except q which is 2

                        instead of 6, hence

        E = [(6 × 1,500 × 9 × 105 × 300) / (2 × 60 × 108)]

             = 202.5 volts.

7. 1. A four-pole generator has a total of 500 inductors on its armature and is designed to
have 2 × 106 lines of magnetic flux per pole crossing its air gap with normal excitation.
What voltage will be generated at a speed of 1800 rpm

a. if the armature is simplex wave wound,

b. if the armature is simplex lap wound?

c. If the allowable current is 5 amp per path, what will be the kilowatts generated by
the machine in each case?

    2. A six-pole generator is driven at a speed of 1200 rpm. the flux per pole is 5 ×
106 maxwells. Calculate the inductors necessary to generate 250 volts when armature is

a. simplex lap wound and

b. duplex wave wound.

c. If the normal generation capacity is 100 kw, what must be the current capacity per
path for each type of winding?

Solution:                    

1. E = [Z / (Paths)] × ɸ × Poles × [(rpm) / 60] × 10–8 volts

95
Where,

Z = Number of inductors

a. E = [(500) / 2] × 2 × 106 × 4 × [(1800) / 60] × 10–8

                   = 600 volts, for wave-wound machine

b. E = [(500) / 4] × 2 × 106 × 4 × [(1800) / 60] × 10–8

                      = 300 volts for lap-wound machine

c. Total current = 5 × 2 = 10 amp for wave winding

                   Kilowatts = [(10 × 600) / (1000)] = 6

                   Total current = 5 × 4 = 20 amp for lap winding

                   Kilowatts = [(20 × 300) / (1000)] = 6

2. a. 250 = (z / 6) × 5 × 106 × 6 × [(1200) / 6] × 10–8 volts from which

                 Z = 250 inductors

               b. For the duplex wave winding, there being four paths, only 167

                        inductors will be required for the same voltage per path.

c. Line current = 100,000 ÷ 250 = 400 amp

For lap winding

              Current capacity per path = [(400) / 6] = 66(2 / 3) amp

For wave winding

              Current capacity per path = [(400) / 4] = 100 amp

Note that the kilowatt values here given would not represent the power that the generator
could supply to an external load, since an appreciable part of the power generated would be
absorbed in overcoming internal losses in the machine itself.

8. A 72-slot three-phase stator armature is wound for six poles, using double-layer lap coils
having 20 turns per coil with a (5 / 6) pitch. The flux per pole is 4.8 × 106 lines, and the
rotor speed is 1200 rpm. Calculate:

a. The generated effective voltage per coil of a full- pitch coil.

b. The total number of turns per phase.

c. The distribution factors.

96
 d. The pitch factors.

e. The total generated voltage per phase from (a), (c), and

f. above, and by the following equation:

                        Egp = 4.44 ɸ NpfKpkd × 10–8 V                                  

Solution:                    

a.  Eg/coil = 4.44 ɸNcf × 10–8 V

                      = 4.44(4.8 × 106) (20) [(6 × 1200) / (120)] × 10–8

                       = 256 V/coil

b. Np = [(CNc) / p]

                    = [(total armature coils × turns/coil) / (number of phases)]

                    = 72 coils/3 phase × 20 turns/coil

                     = 480 turns/phase

c. kd = [{sin (nα / 2) / (n sin(nα / 2))}]

where

          n = [(72 slots) / (3 phase × 6 poles)]

                = 4 slots/pole-phase

  and

            α = [(6 poles × 180°/pole) / (72 slots)] = 15°/ slot

           kd = [{sin [(4 × 15) / 2]} / {4 sin (15 / 2)] = [(sin 30°) / (4 sin 7.5°)] = 0.958

d. kp = sin (p° / 2) = sin [(5 / 6) × {(180) / 2}] = sin 75° = 0.966

e. Egp = 4.44 × 480 turns/phase × 4.8 × 106 × 60 × 0.966× 0.958 × 10–8

                   = 5680 V [from Eq. (1)]

           Egp = 256 V/coil × 24 coils/phase × 0.966 × 0.958

              = 5680 V/phase [from (a), (c), and (d)].

9. A 3-phase, 4-pole machine stator has 36 slots. The winding

97
                                                is double-layered and short pitched, being made up of 6-turn

                                                coils whose pitch is 140° electrical. Determine the winding

                                                factor K1w and the effective turns per phase Nse.

                                                

                                                            

Solution:                  

 Since there are 36 slots with two coil-sides per slot, there will be 36 coils in the winding,
giving 12 coils per phase. Thus

          Ns = 6 × 12 = 72 turns

 The winding is 4-pole; there will, therefore, be three coils per pole per phase and three slots
in a phase belt. The angle subtended by one slot pitch at the rotor axis is (2π / 36) radians =
(4π / 36) electrical radians = 20° electrical. The coil pitch is 140° electrical, so that each coil
spans seven slot pitches. The arrangement of the coil sides of phase "a" in the slots will
therefore be

as shown in Fig. (a).

The peak amplitude of the stepped wave produced by this winding [(Nsia) / p]. Since 6 coils
produce this amplitude, the amplitude of the rectangular wave produced by one coil is

98
[(Nsia) / 6p]. The amplitude of the fundamental component produced by one coil is thus (4 /
π) [(Nsia) / 6p] A. The vector diagram from which the resultant fundamental component may
be obtained is shown in Fig. (b), where it is seen that the fundamental component of the
stepped wave produced by the whole phase "a" winding

      (4 / π) [(Nsia) / 6p] (2 + 2 cos 20° + 2 cos 40°) A

 From the following equation:

            Fsgl = (4 / π) (Ns / p) is A

it is seen that the fundamental mmf amplitude for a concentrated winding of N s turns would
be (4 / π) [(Nsia) / p].

Thus,

 (K1W) = [(Fundamental mmf amplitude for distributed winding of Ns turns) / (Fundamental

mmf amplitude for concentrated winding of Ns turns)]

           = (1 / 6) (2 + 2 cos 20° + 2 cos 40°) = 0.902

  and

          Nse = K1W (4 / π) Ns

                   = 0.902 × (4 / π) × 72 = 83.5 turns.

  This paradoxical result, namely that Nse > Ns, is due to the fact that Nse is

                        calculated from the amplitude of the fundamental component.

10. If the windings of a 2500-kva, 3-phase, 60-cycle, 32- pole, 2300-volt alternator making
225 rpm are connected to a 3-phase supply, rated current will flow when 85 volts are
applied and the power supplied will be 31 kw. Determine the effective resistance and
armature leakage reactance for the machine if wye-connected; if delta-
connected. Ohmic resistance between terminals is 0.03149 ohm. What is the ratio of
effective to ohmic resistance? What is the per cent Ra, Xa, and Za?

Solution:                   

 I = [(2500 × 100) / {√ (3) × 2300}] = 627.57 line current in amps.

            Ip = [(627.57) / {√ (3)}] = 362.32 (delta-connected) amps.

 V = 2300line voltage = Vɸ(delta-connected) volts.

             Vp = [(2300) / {√ (3)}] = 1327.94 (wye-connected) volts.

99
             Power per phase = [(31,000) / 3] = 10,333 watts per phase

             Ra = [W / (Ia2)] = [(10,333) / (627.572)] = 0.02624 ohm for wye

              Ra = [W / (Ia2)] = [(10,333) / {(627.572) / [√ (3)]}] = 0.07872 ohm for delta

              R0 = (Rt / 2) = [(0.03149) / 2] = 0.01574 ohm for wye

              R0 = (3 / 2) Rt = (3 / 2) × 0.03149 = 0.04721 ohm for delta

              %Ra = [(0.02624 × 627.57 × 100) / (1327.94)] = 1.24%.

               Ratio (Ra / R0) = [(0.02624) / (0.01574)] = [(0.07872) / (0.04721)] = 1.67.

                Za = [{85 / [√ (3)]} / (627.57)] = 0.0780 ohm for wye

                Za = [85 / (362.32)] = 0.23460 ohm for delta

                 %Za = [(0.07820 × 627.57) / (1327.94)] × 100 = 3.70%.

                 Xa = √ (Za2 – Ra2)

              Xa = √ [(0.07820)2 – (0.02624)2] = 0.07367 ohm for wye

                Xa = √ [(0.2346)2 – (0.07872)2] = 0.22100 ohm for delta

              %Xa = [(0.07367 × 627.57) / (1327.94)] × 100 = 3.48.

      Summary      

        Per Phase        

  V I R0 Ra %Ra Xa %Xa Za %Za

Wye 1328 628 0.0157 0.026 1.24 0.073 3.48 0.078 3.7
2 7 2

Delt 2300 362 0.0472 0.078 1.24 0.221 3.48 0.234 3.7
a 7 0 6

11. A 50-kva 550-volt single-phase alternator has an open- circuit emf of 300 volts when the
field current is 14 amp. When the alternator is short-circuited through an ammeter, the
armature current is 160 amp, the field current still being 14 amp. The ohmic resistance of

100
 the armature between terminals is 0.16 ohm. The ratio of effective to ohmic resistance
may be taken as 1.2. Determine

a. synchronous impedance;

b. synchronous reactance;

c. regulation at 0.8 power factor, current lagging.

Solution:                    

The rated current I = [(50,000) / (550)] = 91 amp,

a. The synchronous impedance Zs is given by

              zs = (E1 / I1')

  where E1 is the open circuit emf and I1' is the short- circuit current.

                    Zs = [(300) / (160)] = 1.87 ohms.

  The effective resistance R = 1.2 × 0.16 = 0.192 ohm.

b. Xs = √(Zs2 – R2) = √[(1.87)2 – (0.192)2] = 1.86 ohms.

c. cos θ = 0.8, sin θ = 0.6.

   The armature induced emf,

                  Ea = √[(V cos θ + IR)2 + (V sin θ + IX)2]

                      = {[(550 × 0.8) + (91 × 0.192)]2 + [(550 × 0.6) + (91 × 1.86)]2 }(1/2)

                     = √ (209,000 + 249,000) = 677 volts.

 As the synchronous reactance was used in computing E, the armature reaction was taken into
consideration, so that the no-load voltage of the alternator is presumably 677 volts. The
regulation, therefore, is given by

Regulation = [(Ea – V) / V] × 100

                   = [(677 – 550) / (550)]100 = [(127) / (550)]100 = 23.1 per cent.

12.  A 2,000-kva 2,300-volt three-phase alternator operates at rated kilovolt-amperes at a

power factor of 0.85. The d-c armature-winding resistance at 75°C between terminals is
0.08 ohm. The field takes 72 amp at 125 volts from exciter equipment. Friction
and windage loss 18.8 kw, iron losses are 37.6 kw, and stray-load losses are 2.2 kw.
Calculate the efficiency of the alternator. (Assume that the effective armature-
winding resistance is 1.3 times the d-c value.)

101
 

Solution:                   

Output = 2,000 × 0.85 = 1,700 kw.

                     IL = [(2,000,000) / {√(3) × 2,300}] = 503 amp.

         RA (per phase) = [(0.08) / 2] × 1.3 = 0.052 ohm.

Losses Kilowatts

Friction and windage……………………….. 18.8

Iron……………………….………………….. 37.6

Field winding = (125 × 72) ÷ 1,000………. 9.0

Armature winding = 3 × (503)2 × 0.052….. 39.4

Stray load…………………………………… 2.2

Total…………………………………………. 107.0

                Per cent efficiency

                                      = [1 – {(kw losses) / [(kva output × PF) + (kw losses)]}] × 100

                                     = [1 – {(107) / (1,700 + 107)}] × 100 = 94.1.

LEARNING ACTIVITY 4
1. A three phase alternator has generated EMF per phase at 230 V with 10
percent third harmonic and 6 % fifth harmonic content. Calculate the
RMS line voltage for a) star connection b) delta connection. Find also
the circulating current in delta connection if the reactance per phase of
the machine at 50 hz is 10 Ω.
2. A 72 slot three phase stator armature is wound for six poles. Using
5
double layer lap coils having 20 turns per coil with pitch. The flux per
6
pole is 4.8 x 106 lines, and the rotor speed is 1200 RPM. Calculate:
a) The generated effective voltage per coil of a full pitch coil
b) The total no. of turns per phase
c) The distribution factor

102
 d) The pitch factor
e) The total generated voltage per phase.
3. A 250 KVA 60 cycle, 440 V, 3 phase, 8 pole altelnator has an ohmic
resistance between terminals of 0.038 Ω. The ratio of effective to
ohmic is 1.30. The friction and windage loss is 1900 watts; the core loss
corresponding to the resultant field at 0.8 power factor is 3800 watts;
the field takes 39 amperes at 125 V. At rated load and 0.8 power factor
lagging, determine a) the efficiency b)the horse power input c) the
torque on the driving shaft.
4. i) A 100 KVA. 4600 V three phase wye-connected alternator has an
armature resistance of 2 Ω per phase and synchronous armature
reactance, Xs’ of 20 Ω per phase. Find the full load generated voltage
per phase at: a)Unity power factor b) A power factor of 0.75 lagging ii)
Repeat part i) to determine the generated voltage per phase at full load
with: a) A leading load of 0.75 power factor b) A leading load of 0.4
power factor.
5. A 6 pole 3 phase 60 cycle alternator has 12 slots per pole and four
5
conductor per slots. The windind is pitch. There are 2,500,000
6
maxwells entering the armature from each north pole, and this flux is
sinusoidally distributed along the air gap. The armature coils are
connected in series. The winding is Y-connected. Determinete the open
circuit EMF of the alternator.
6. A given 3 MVA, 50 hz. 11KV, 3 phase Y-connected alternator when
supplying 100 A at zero power factor leading has a line to line voltage of
12, 370 V, when the load is removed, the terminal voltage falls down to
11,000 V. Predict the regulation of the alternator when supplying full
load at 0.8 power factor lagging. Assume an effective resistance of 0.4Ω
per phase.

103
Module V: SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS
LESSON 1-TYPES of SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR

Electrical motors are an electro-mechanical device that converts electrical energy to

mechanical energy. Based on the type of input we have classified it into single phase and 3
phase motors.

The most common type of 3 phase motors are synchronous motors and induction motors.
When three-phase electric conductors are placed in certain geometrical positions (i.e. in a
certain angle from one another) – an electrical field is generated. The rotating magnetic field
rotates at a certain speed known as the synchronous speed.

If an electromagnet is present in this rotating magnetic field, the electromagnet is

magnetically locked with this rotating magnetic field and rotates with the same speed of
rotating field.

104
This is where the term synchronous motor comes from, as the speed of the rotor of the motor
is the same as the rotating magnetic field.

It is a fixed speed motor because it has only one speed, which is synchronous speed. This
speed is synchronised with the supply frequency. The synchronous speed is given by:

Where:

 N= The Synchronous Speed (in RPM – i.e. Rotations Per Minute)

 f = The Supply Frequency (in Hz)

 p = The number of Poles

There are different types of synchronous motors based on the way they are excited

1. Non-Excited Synchronous Motors

2. Current Excited Synchronous Motors

Let us take a look at the different types one by one.

Non-Excited Synchronous Motor

105
The rotor is made up of steel. The external magnetic field magnetizes the rotor, and it
rotates in synchronism with it. The rotor is generally made of high retentivity steel such as
cobalt steel.

3. Non-excited motors are available in three designs:

Hysteresis Motor

single phase motors in which the rotor is made up of ferromagnetic material. The rotors are
cylindrical in shape and have high hysteresis loss property. They are generally made up of
chrome, cobalt steel or alnico. The stator is fed by single phase AC supply. The stator has two
windings:

1. main windings and

2. auxiliary windings.

The combination of the two produces a revolving magnetic field from single phase supply.
They are self-starting and do not need additional windings. When single phase AC supply is
given, a rotating magnetic field is produced. This rotating magnetic field induces eddy
currents in the rotor. The rotor starts to move initially with a slip. When the rotor reaches
synchronous speed, the stator pulls the rotor into synchronism. So initially the motor starts as
an induction motor and later runs as a synchronous motor.

Reluctance Motor

The reluctance motor is based on the principle that an unrestrained piece of iron will move to
complete a magnetic flux path where the reluctance is minimum. The stator has the main
winding and the auxiliary windings just like the hysteresis motor. These help to create a
rotating magnetic field. The rotor of a reluctance motor is a squirrel cage rotor with some
teeth removed to provide the desired number of salient poles. The reluctance becomes
minimum when the rotor is aligned with the magnetic field of the stator.

When single phase AC supply is given, the motor starts as an induction motor. The rotor tries
to align itself with the magnetic field of the stator and experiences reluctance torque. But
due to inertia, it exceeds the position and again tries to align itself during the next
revolution. In this manner, it starts to rotate. Once it reaches 75% of synchronous speed, the
auxiliary windings are cut off. When the speed reaches synchronous speed, the reluctance
torque pulls it into synchronism. The motor remains in synchronism due to synchronous
reluctance torque.

Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motors

The rotor is made up of permanent magnets. They create a constant magnetic flux. The rotor
locks in synchronism when the speed is near synchronous speed. They are not self-starting and
nee

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electronically controlled variable frequency stator drive.

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Direct Current Excited Motor

Direct current excited synchronous motors need a DC supply to the rotor to generate rotor
magnetic field. A direct current excited motor has both stator windings as well as rotor
windings. They can either have cylindrical rotors or salient pole rotors. They are not self-
starting and need damper windings to start. Initially, they start as an induction motor
andlater attains synchronous speed.

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LESSON II:
Construction of Synchronous Motor

Usually, its construction is almost similar to that of a 3phase induction motor, except the fact
that here we supply DC to the rotor, the reason of which we shall explain later. Now, let us
first go through the basic construction of this type of motor. From the above picture, it is
clear that how do we design this type of machine. We apply three phase supply to the stator
and DC supply to the rotor.

Main Features of Synchronous Motors

1. Synchronous motors are inherently not self-starting. They require some external

means to bring their speed close to synchronous speed to before they are
synchronized.

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 2. The speed of operation of is in synchronism with the supply frequency and hence for
constant supply frequency they behave as constant speed motor irrespective of load
condition

3. This motor has the unique characteristics of operating under any electrical power
factor. This makes it being used in electrical power factor improvement.

LESSON III
Torque Equation of DC Motor

When a DC machine is loaded either as a motor or as a generator, the rotor conductors carry
current. These conductors lie in the magnetic field of the air gap. Thus, each conductor
experiences a force. The conductors lie near the surface of the rotor at a common radius
from its center. Hence torque is produced at the circumference of the rotor and rotor starts
rotating. The term torque as best explained by Dr. Huge d Young is the quantitative measure
of the tendency of a force to cause a rotational motion, or to bring about a change in
rotational motion. It is in fact the moment of a force that produces or changes a rotational
motion.
The equation of torque is given by,

Where, F is force in linear direction.

R is radius of the object being rotated,
and θ is the angle, the force F is making with R vector

The DC motor as we all know is a rotational machine, and torque of DC motor is a very
important parameter in this concern, and it’s of utmost importance to understand the torque
equation of DC motor for establishing its running characteristics.
To establish the torque equation, let us first consider the basic circuit diagram of a DC motor,
and its voltage equation.

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Referring to the diagram beside, we can see, that if E is the supply voltage, E b is the back emf
produced and Ia, Ra are the armature current and armature resistance respectively then the
voltage equation is given by,

But keeping in mind that our purpose is to derive the torque equation of DC motor we
multiply both sides of equation (2) by Ia.

Now Ia2.Ra is the power loss due to heating of the armature coil, and the true effective
mechanical power that is required to produce the desired torque of DC machine is given by,

The mechanical power Pm is related to the electromagnetic torque Tg as,

Where, ω is speed in rad/sec.

Now equating equation (4) and (5) we get,

Now for simplifying the torque equation of DC motor we substitute.

Where, P is no of poles,
φ is flux per pole,
Z is no. of conductors,
A is no. of parallel paths,
and N is the speed of the DC motor.

Substituting equation (6) and (7) in equation (4), we get:

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The torque we so obtain, is known as the electromagnetic torque of DC motor, and
subtracting the mechanical and rotational losses from it we get the mechanical torque.
Therefore,

This is the torque equation of DC motor. It can be further simplified as:

Which is constant for a particular machine and therefore the torque of DC motor varies with
only flux φ and armature current Ia.
The Torque equation of a DC motor can also be explained considering the figure below.

Current/conductor Ic = Ia A
Therefore, force per conductor = fc = BLIa/A
Now torque Tc = fc. r = BLIa.r/A

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Hence, the total torque developed of a DC machine is,

This torque equation of DC motor can be further simplified as:

Which is constant for a particular machine and therefore the torque of DC motor varies with
only flux φ and armature current Ia.
Principle of Operation Synchronous Motor

Synchronous motors are a doubly excited machine, i.e., two electrical inputs are provided to
it. Its stator winding which consists of a We provide three-phase supply to three-phase stator
winding, and DC to the rotor winding.

The 3phase stator winding carrying 3 phase currents produces 3 phase rotating magnetic flux.
The rotor carrying DC supply also produces a constant flux. Considering the 50 Hz power
frequency, from the above relation we can see that the 3phase rotating flux rotates about
3000 revolutions in 1 min or 50 revolutions in 1 sec.

At a particular instant rotor and stator poles might be of the same polarity (N-N or S-S)
causing a repulsive force on the rotor and the very next instant it will be N-S causing
attractive force. But due to the inertia of the rotor, it is unable to rotate in any direction due
to that attractive or repulsive forces, and the rotor remains in standstill condition. Hence a
synchronous motor is not self-starting.

Here we use some mechanical means which initially rotates the rotor in the same direction as
the magnetic field to speed very close to synchronous speed. On achieving synchronous speed,
magnetic locking occurs, and the synchronous motor continues to rotate even after removal
of external mechanical means.

But due to the inertia of the rotor, it is unable to rotate in any direction due to that
attractive or repulsive forces, and the rotor remains in standstill condition. Hence a
synchronous motor is not self-starting.

Here we use some mechanical means which initially rotates the rotor in the same direction as
the magnetic field to speed very close to synchronous speed. On achieving synchronous speed,
magnetic locking occurs, and the synchronous motor continues to rotate even after removal
of external mechanical means.

Methods of Starting of Synchronous Motor

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 1. Motor starting with an external prime Mover: Synchronous motors are mechanically
coupled with another motor. It could be either 3 phase induction motor or DC shunt
motor. Here, we do not apply DC excitation initially. It rotates at speed very close to
its synchronous speed, and then we give the DC excitation. After some time when
magnetic locking takes place supply to the external motor is cut off.

2. Damper winding:In this case, the synchronous motor is of salient pole type, additional
winding is placed in rotor pole face. Initially, when the rotor is not rotating, the
relative speed between damper winding and rotating air gap flux is large and an emf is
induced in it which produces the required starting torque. As speed approaches
synchronous speed, emf and torque are reduced and finally when magnetic locking
takes place; torque also reduces to zero. Hence in this case synchronous motor first
runs as three phase induction motor using additional winding and finally it is
synchronized with the frequency.

Application of Synchronous Motors

1. Synchronous motor having no load connected to its shaft is used for power

factor improvement. Owing to its characteristics to behave at any electrical power
factor, it is used in power system in situations where static capacitors are expensive.

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 2. Synchronous motor finds application where operating speed is less (around 500 rpm)
and high power is required. For power requirement from 35 kW to 2500 KW, the size,
weight and cost of the corresponding three phase induction motor is very high. Hence
these motors are preferably used. Ex- Reciprocating pump, compressor, rolling mills
etc.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES
1. A 20 pole, 40 hp, 660 V, 60 Hz, three-phase, wye-connected, synchronous motor is
operating at no-load with its generated voltage per phase exactly equal to the phase
voltage applied to its armature. At no-load, the rotor is retarded 0.5 mechanical
degree from its synchronous position. The synchronous reactance is 10 ohms, and the
effective armature resistance is 1 ohm per phase. Calculate:

a. The rotor shift from the synchronous position, in electrical

                                                degrees

b. The resultant emf across the armature, per phase

c. The armature current, per phase

d. The power per phase, and the total power drawn by the motor from the bus

e. The armature power loss, and the developed horsepower.

2. Repeat part- 1 with a mechanical displacement of 5° between rotor and synchronous

position.

Solution:                

1. a. α = P (β/2) = 20 (0.5 / 2) = 5°

           b. Vp = (VL / √3) = {(660) / (1.73)} = 381 V;

             Egp = 381 V also, as given

             Er➙ = (Vp – Egp cos α) + j(Egp sin α)

                   = (381 – 381 cos 5°) + j(381 sin 5°)

  = 1.54 + j33.2 = 33.2 ∠87.3° V/phase.

c.  Zs➙ = Ra + jXs = 1.0 + j10 = 10∠84.3° Ω/phase

                   Ia➙ = (Er➙ / Zp➙) = {(33.2∠87.3°) / (10∠84.3°)}

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                                                = 3.32∠3.0° A/phase

              d. Pp = VpIa cos θ = 381 × 3.32 cos 3° = 381 × 3.32 × 0.999

                                                = 1265 W/phase

                                           Pt = 3Pp = 3 × 1265 W = 3795 W

e. 3 × Ia2Ra = 3 × (3.32)2 × 1.0 = 33 W.

                                    Horsepower = {(3795 – 33 W) / (746 W/hp)} = 5.3 hp.

                        

2. A. α = (Pβ / 2) = {(20 × 5) / 2} = 50° (electrical degrees).

                b. Er➙ = (Vp – Egp cos α) + j(Egp sin α)

                         = 381 – 381 cos 50° + j381 sin 50°

                            = 141 + j292 = 334∠64.2° V/phase.

                c.  Ia➙ = (Er➙ / Zp➙) = {(324∠64.2° V) / (10∠84.3° Ω)} = 32.4 ∠– 20.1° A.

                 d. Pp = VpIa cos θ = 381 × 32.4 cos 20.1° = 11,600 W.

                                      Pt = 3Pp = 3 × 11,600 = 34,800 W.

e.  3Ia2Ra = 3 × (32.4)2 1.0 = 3150 W

                         Horsepower = {(34,800 – 3150 W) / (746 W/hp)} = 42.5 hp.

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 3. A 75-HP, three-phase, six-pole, 60-Hz, Y-connected, cylindrical-rotor synchronous motor
has synchronous reactance of 9.6 Ω per phase. Its rated terminal voltage is 500 v per
phase.

a. Find the value of excitation voltage that makes maximum torque to be 120 percent
of rated torque.

b. The machine is operated with the excitation voltage set as in part (a). For rated
load torque, find the armature current, the power factor, and the torque angle.

                                                

Solution:                    

a. Synchronous speed is

              ωs = (4πf / p) = [{4π(60)} / 6] = 40π rad/sec

               Prated = 75 × 746 = 56,000 w

               Trated = {(56,000) / (40π)} = 446 nm

The excitation voltage can be found from the following equation:

              Tmax = {1 / (ω(x)m)} {(3VEf) / (Xs)}

              Tmax = {3(500) (Ef) / 40π (9.6)} = 1.2(446)

                 Ef = 430 v

b. The torque angle can be found from the following equation:

              P = {(3VEf) / (Xs)} sin δ

              P = [{3(500) (430)} / (9.6)] sin δ = 56,000

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             δ = 56.5°

For the equivalent circuit shown in the figure, Kirchhoff's voltage equation is given by the
following equation:

              Ef➙ = V➙ – jXsIa➙                                                                               (1)

Use the terminal voltage as the reference

               v➙ = 500∠0° v.

 For motor operation, the excitation voltage lags behind the terminal voltage by angle δ

              Ef➙ = 430∠– 56.5° v.

 Solve Eq. 1 for the armature current

          Ia➙ = {(V➙ – Ef➙) / (jXs)} = {(500∠0° – 430∠– 56.5°) / (j9.6)}

                   = 53.3 ∠ – 45.3° amp.

Thus,

Ia = 53.3 amp. The power factor is

            P.F. = cos 45.3° = 0.7 lagging.

4. a. Determine the resultant current when a three-phase, 2500-kva, 2300-volt

synchronous motor with Ra = 1.24 percent and Xs = 24.9 per cent is operating idle at 20
per cent overexcitation. The no-load losses are to be neglected. Assume wye connection
and Ec out of phase with V by 180°.

b. the machine in Part-(a) has normal excitation, and the shaft load causes the induced
electromotive force to fall back 8°. Determine the angles α, Δ, γ, and θ, and also
the power delivered (including the friction and windage), the power required, and the
copper losses, not neglecting the no-load losses.

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Solution:                  

a. IL = {(2500 × 1000) / (√3 × 2300)} = 627.57 amp

         Vp = {(2300) ÷ √3} = 1327.94 volts

          Xs = (VP / IL)

             = {(0.249 × 1327.94) / (627.57)} = 0.5269 ohm

           E0➙ = (V➙ + EC➙) = (1327.94 + j0) + (– 1327.94 + j0) × 1.2

                  = – 265.58 + j0 V

           I➙ = (E0➙ / Xs) = {(265.58 + j0) / (0 + j0.5269)} (R neglected)

            I➙ = 0 + j504

                I = 504 amp.

b. cos 8° = 0.9903                     sin 8° = 0.1392

          Ec➙ = – (0.9903 × 1327.94) + j (0.1392 × 1327.94)

                 = – 1315.06 + j184.85 V

           V➙ = 1327.94 + j0 V.

          E0➙ = (Ec➙ + V➙) = 12.88 + j184.85 V.

          I➙ = {(12.88 + j184.85) / (0.02624 + j0.5269)} = 351.18 – j6.96 amp.

                        Angle

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 (Fig. 1b) Sin Cos    

Α 8° 0.1392 0.9903 V = 1327.94 volts

Γ 86.1° 0.9976 0.0695 E0 = 185.30 volts

Δ 87.2° 0.9988 0.0488 EC = 1327.94 volts

Θ 1.1° 0.0198 0.9998 I = 351.25 amp

               Pcu = {(3 × 185.3 × 351.25 × 0.0488) / (1000)} = 9.5 kw (copper losses).

               P = {(√3 × 2300 × 351.25 × 0.9998) / (1000)} = 1399 kw (input).

               Pdel = [{3VpI cos (θ ± α)} / (1000)] kw

                               = [{3 × 1327.94 × 351.25 × cos (θ ± α)} / (1000)] = 1389 kw delivered.

c. A 2300-V, three-phase synchronous motor driving a pump is provided with a line

ammeter and a field rheostat. When the rheostat is adjusted so that the a-c line
current is a minimum, the ammeter reads 8.8A. Approximately what horsepower is
being delivered to the pump? How should the rheostat be adjusted so that the motor
is operating at 0.8 power-factor leading? How many kVARs is the motor supplying to
the system at 0.8 power factor leading?

Solution:                   

 At minimum line current, the power factor is unity. The power drawn from the line is thus

             P = √3 VLIL = √3 × 2300 × 8.8 = 35 kW

Neglecting losses, HP ≅ {(35,000) / (746)} = 47 hp. The a-c power is practically independent

of field current. Then at 0.8 power factor,

          S| = (P / p.f.) = {(35,000) / (0.8)}  = [{(√3 × 2300) × 8.8} / (0.8)]

                = {√3 × (2300)} × 11.0 VA

 Thus, the line current should be 11.0A. To make sure the power factor is leading, the d-c
field current should be increased until the a-c ammeter reads 11.0 amperes. This is
accomplished by decreasing the field rheostat resistance.

The kVARs supplied by the motor are given by

          Q  = |S| sin θɸm = |S| sin cos–1 (p.f.)

              = {(35 kW) / (0.8)} sin cos–1 0.8

= {(35) × (0.8)} × 0.6 = 26.25 kVAR

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 d. A 3-phase, 100-h.p., 440-V, star-connected synchronous motor has a synchronous
impedance per phase of 0.1 + j1Ω. The excitation and torque losses are 4 kW and
may be assumed constant. Calculate the line current, power factor and efficiency
when operating at full load with an excitation equivalent to 400 lines volts.

Solution:                   

  α = sin–1 (R / Zs) = sin–1 [(0.1) / √{(0.1)2 + 12}]

         = sin–1 {(0.1) / (1.005)} = 5.7°

           Gross output = 100 × 746 + 4,000 = 78,600 watts.

                                    

 δ can be found by using the figure and the following equation:

                  EfI cos (δ + θ) = {(VsEf) / Zs} sin (δ + α) – {(Ef2R) / (Zs2)}

                  78,600 = 3[{(440 / √3) (400 / √3)} / (1.005) sin (δ + 5.7 )°– {(400 / √3)2 × 0.1} /
(1.005)2]

                              = {(400 × 440) / (1.005)} [sin (δ + 5.7)° – {(400 × 0.1) / (440 × 1.005)}]

                     0.45 = sin (δ + 5.7)° – 0.0905

         from which δ = (sin–1 0.5405) – 5.7° = 27.1°

                      Ef➙ = 400(– cos δ + j sin δ) = 400 (– 0.89 + j0.455)

                       = – 356 + j182 V

                        I➙ = {(Vs➙ + Ef➙) / Zs➙} = {(440 – 356 + j128) / (0.1 + j1)} = 109 – j38.1

                             = 115.5A

                   cos θ = {(109) / (115.5)} = 0.945 lagging

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The answer can be checked by calculating √3VI cos θ – copper losses and comparing with the
gross mechanical output i.e. √3 × 440 × 109 – 3 × 115.5 2 × 0.1 = 83,000 – 4000 = 79,000 watts.
The error is only about 0.5% and is within slide rule accuracy. Efficiency = [{(746) × (100)} /
(√3 × 440 × 109)] = 89.6%.

LEARNING ACTIVITY 5
1. A 2300-V, three-phase synchronous motor driving a pump isprovided with a line
ammeter and a field rheostat. When the rheostat is adjusted so that the a-c line
current is a minimum, the ammeter reads 8.8A. Approximately what horsepower is
being delivered to the pump? How should the rheostat be adjusted so that the motor
is operating at 0.8 power-factor leading? How many kVARs is the motor supplying to
the system at 0.8 power factor leading?
2. A manufacturing plant takes 200 kw, at 0.6 power factor, from a 600-volt 60-cycle 3-
phase system. It is desired to raise the power factor of the entire system to 0.9 by
means of a synchronous motor, which at the same time is to drive a direct-current
shunt generator, requiring that the synchronous motor take 80 kw from the line.
What should be the rating of the synchronous motor in volts and amperes?
3. The load of an industrial concern is 400 kva at a power factor of 75 per cent,
lagging. An additional motor load of 100 kw is needed. Find the newkilovolt-ampere
load and the power factor of the load, if the motor to be added is (a) an induction
motor with a power factor of 90 per cent, lagging, and (b) an 80 per cent power
factor (leading) synchronous motor.
4. A three-phase, Y-connected load takes 50 A current at 0.707 lagging power factor at
220 V between the lines. A three-phase Y-connected round-rotor synchronous motor,
having a synchronous reactance of 1.27 ohm per phase, is connected in parallel with
the load. The power developed by the motor is 33 kW at a power angle of 30°.
Neglecting the armature resistance, calculate (a) the reactive kVA of the motor, and
(b) the overall power factor of the motor and the load.

Prepared by: Recommending Approval: Approved:

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BONIFACIO C. CABRADILLA JR. MELCHOR A. MEANA HARRISON R. FLORES
Instructor Program Chair Dean
July 6, 2020 July 13, 2020 July 13, 2020

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