Conflict in Multi-Ethnic Societies
Loss of Foreign Investments (Economic)
Sri Lanka – Causes of Conflict
1. Lack of Citizenship Rights (Political)
+Ceylon Citizenship Act of 1998
+Criteria to be a citizen of Sri Lanka
--Born in Sri Lanka
--Forefathers born in Sri Lanka
+Indian Tamils (and/or their forefathers) were not born in Sri Lanka
--Thus they were considered “stateless”
+They lost their basic rights
--Education, jobs, housing, voting
||The criteria was not fair as they already lived there for very long
||The Indian Tamils felt worried and angry at the criteria
||There were protests and some joined the LTTE
2. Sinhala Only Policy (Economic)
+In the past, under British rule, English was the official language
+The Tamils minority were English educated
--Were civil servants, more chance of promotion and had powerful jobs
+The Sinhalese majority could not read or write English
+After independence in 1956, Sinhala became the official language
+The Tamils were given 3 years to learn the Sinhala language
+If they could not do so, they would be dismissed
||This would affect their life and their future
||The Tamils felt discriminated and upset about policy
||There were protests and some joined the LTTE
3. Resettlement (Social)
+In the 1950s, poor Sinhalese peasants were resettled to Tamil areas
--E.g. Jaffna
+The Sinhalese were given land to cultivate padi
+Buddhist monks and Sri Lankan Army also occupied land
||The Tamils felt insecure that another religion was being practiced
||The Tamils felt frustrated as they could not do anything
||There were protests and some joined the LTTE
4. Unfair University Admission Criteria (Economic)
+Before 1970s, admission was based on merit
+Examinations were in English (Following the British)
+This benefitted Tamils, who were more English-educated
+More Tamils went to university than Sinhalese
+After 1970s, even until today, admission was not based on merit
+There were reserved places for Sinhalese
+Tamils had to score significantly higher than Sinhalese
+The number of Tamils entering university fell
||This affected their life and their future
||The Tamils felt discriminated and angry at this unfair admission
||There were protests and some joined the LTTE
Sri Lanka – Consequences of Conflict
1. Armed Conflict (Political)
+Unsatisfied Tamil youths formed the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam
+Believed in violence to achieve their aims of an independent state
+The Tamil Tigers (AKA LTTE) and the Sinhalese engaged in conflict
--Armed conflict, bombings of buildings
+July 1983 riots saw 13 Sinhalese soldiers killed by the Tamils
||Caused panic in society and loss of many innocent lives
||Led to homelessness and suffering of the people
||Economy also suffered as a result
||Buildings and properties were greatly damaged
2. Foreign Intervention (Political)
+The Sinhalese-Tamil conflict attracted the attention of India
+Initially, India played the role of mediator in response to 1983 riots
+In 1987, India sent 20 Indian ships to Jaffna to provide resources
+Sri Lankan Navy stopped them, so India sent help by air
+India also pressurised Sri Lankan government to sign a peace accord
+Stressed the need for a cease fire between both sides
||Peace accord failed and Indian peacekeepers made things worse
||India violated Sri Lankan air space
||Challenged the sovereignty of the Sri Lankan government
||Reduced the legitimacy of the Sri Lankan government’s rule
||It made them look like they could not rule their own people well
3.
+Foreign investments are needed in Sri Lanka
+One of the main sources of Sri Lanka’s revenue
+Potential foreign investors avoided Sri Lanka as there were violence
+There was also political instability in Sri Lanka
||Economy of Sri Lanka suffered
||Led to unemployment
4. Unemployment (Economic)
+Massive unemployment as thousands lost their jobs in the 1983 riots
+Many jobless people were Sinhalese and also took part in the rioting
||They had no income or decreased income
||Families suffered and the economy also suffered
||People lost hope in the government as the problems were not solved
5. Fall in Number of Tourists (Economic)
+Tourism is one of Sri Lanka’s major source of income
+With the conflict, lesser people dared to go to Sri Lanka
+The tourism rate started to decline exponentially
||Businesses suffered and the economy was weakened
||There was lesser income for the country
6. Displacement of People (Social)
+Conflict has led to large-scale displacement of the people
+Many Tamils fled to Tamil Nadu in South India to escape the 1983 riots
+In the early 1990s, the Sri Lankan Army set up High Security Zone
+Was an attempt to keep the LTTE away
+Many Tamils were forced out of their homes
+They had to live in overcrowded refugee camps even until today
||There were many homeless people
||Living conditions were very poor
||Many ended up leaving Sri Lanka to India
||Indian government started having trouble due to influx of refugees
Northern Ireland – Causes of Conflict
1. Divided Loyalties
+The Catholics were loyal to Ireland
+They hated the history of English conquest of the country
+However, the Protestants were loyal to Britain
+Protestants were afraid of reunion with Ireland, a Catholic country
||The Catholics and Protestants did not trust each other
||The mutual suspicion led to the treatment of hostility
||Fights broke out easily
2. Unequal Allocation of Housing
+Government subsidised public housing
+City councils who provided housing were mostly Protestants
+Protestants were often given priority while Catholics were delayed
--They had to wait many years to get a proper home
--They had to live in poor, crowded makeshift homes
||This affected their daily lives
||The Catholics felt discriminated and angry
||They protested against this unfairness
3. Unequal Employment Opportunities
+There were competition for jobs, but religion became a criteria
+Catholics could be equally qualified as Protestants
+They might still not be able to get the job
+It was rare that Catholics got promoted or held senior positions
+Unemployment amongst Catholics was high
||This affected the Catholics’ life and future
||They felt discriminated and offended
||There protested and conducted marches
4. Lack of Voting Rights
+Each household was entitled to 2 votes
+Companies could vote more depending on their size
+Most houses and companies were owned by Protestants
+Catholics had a disadvantage
+Catholics wanted someone to represent their voice in government
+They could not do so due to this unfairness
+Voting districts were also drawn to have larger portions of Protestants
||The Catholics had no say in governance
||They felt discriminated and furious
||There were protests and some joined the IRA
5a. Lack of Social Interaction (Education System)
+Curriculum in school were different
+Catholics were taught Irish history, language and culture
+Catholics played Irish sports such as hurling
+Catholics saw Britain as a foreign country
+Protestants were taught British history, language and culture
+Protestants played British sports such as rugby, hockey and cricket
+Protestants were very loyal to Britain
||The Catholic and Protestant children felt awkward near each other
||Misunderstandings happened often which led to fights
||Violence, fights and injuries led to deeper hatred
5b. Lack of Social Interaction (Residential Areas)
+They lived in different areas for a very long period of time
||The Catholics and Protestants could not understand each other
||They were suspicious of each other
||They often found fault with the other party and picked fights
||Led to injuries and deaths
Northern Ireland – Consequences of Conflict
1. Social Segregation
+Due to the conflict, thousands were injured or killed
+This led to atmosphere of tension and violence
+Resulted in social segregation of the two communities
+Segregated in the way they live, work and play
||The Protestants and Catholics hardly interacted
||They did not understand each other
||Miscommunications often happened
||Fights broke out frequently
2. British Army Became Involved
+Britain sent troops down to Northern Ireland to reinforce peace
+Catholics initially welcomed them as they thought peace would come
+British troops abused the internment laws
+Arrested Catholics and searched their homes
||Catholics felt that British troops were unfair and were a threat
||Catholics hated the British government even more
||The conflict became harder to resolve
3. Declining Economy
4. Political Reforms
Bonding Singapore – Possible Causes of Conflict
Bonding Singapore – Strategies Taken by Singapore