DESIGN GUIDE ON

HYDRAULIC
CYLINDERS

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brought to you by:

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HYDRAULIC CYLINDERS DESIGN GUIDE

Cylinders are responsible for converting hydraulic power into linear motion to do work
or move a load by applying pressure to the cylinder’s piston. These somewhat simple
devices usually feature a basic construction, including a piston inside a cylindrical or
rectangular tube or body, end caps and housings, as well as necessary bolts, nuts, plugs,
bearings, rod seals and wipers, and more.

The two most common designs are welded-tube and tie-rod cylinders. Welded cylinders
are constructed of a heavy-duty tube that is closed off with a welded-on cap. Mounting
anchors, including trunnion, side lug and side tapped, clevis, bolt, and flange types,
are usually attached to the welded cap. A threaded gland on the rod end allows these
cylinder types to be easily repaired. The simpler, but less durable tie-rod cylinder is ▼
designed with bolts and tie rods that hold two castings on each end of the barrel MARY GANNON
together. Also easy-repairable, this cylinder design is common on NFPA or ISO cylinders. Editor

In this Design Guide, the editors of Fluid Power World provide tips on sizing, selecting,
mounting and maintaining these workhorses of fluid power.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
What are hydraulic cylinders? .................................................................... 2

5 tips for cylinder maintenance ................................................................. 4 ▼

How do you specify a hydraulic cylinder? ................................................. 6 PAUL HENEY
VP, Editorial Director
How do hydraulic cylinders fail—contamination ...................................... 7

Hydraulic cylinder mounting options ........................................................ 8

What is the difference between tie-rod and welded cylinders? ............. 11

When should you use telescopic cylinders? ............................................ 12

How do you safely design and use hydraulic cylinders? ......................... 13

The business end of hydraulics: the cylinder .......................................... 14

Sponsored by:
How can you prevent hydraulic cylinder drift? ........................................ 16

What are cylinder stop tubes? ................................................................. 18

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WHAT ARE HYDRAULIC CYLINDERS?
C ylinders allow hydraulic systems to apply linear motion and
force without mechanical gears or levers by transferring the
pressure from fluid through a piston to the point of operation.
Hydraulic cylinders are at work in both industrial applications
(hydraulic presses, cranes, forges, packing machines), and
mobile applications (agricultural machines, construction
equipment, marine equipment). And, when compared with
pneumatic, mechanical or electric systems, hydraulics can be
simpler, more durable, and offer greater power. For example,
a hydraulic pump has about ten times the power density of
an electric motor of similar size. Hydraulic cylinders are also
available in an impressive array of scales to meet a wide range
of application needs.
Selecting the right cylinder for an application is critical to
attaining maximum performance and reliability. That means
taking into consideration several parameters. Fortunately, an
assortment of cylinder types, mounting techniques and “rules of
thumb” are available to help.
CYLINDER TYPES
The three most common
cylinder configurations are
tie-rod, welded and ram
styles. Tie-rod cylinders use
high-strength threaded steel
tie-rods, typically on the outside of
the cylinder housing, to provide additional
stability. Welded cylinders feature a heavy-duty
welded cylinder housing with a barrel welded directly to the end
caps, and require no tie rods. Ram cylinders are just what they
sound like—the cylinder pushes straight ahead using very high
pressure. Ram cylinders are used in heavy-duty applications and
almost always push loads rather than pull.
For all types of cylinders, the crucial measurements include
stroke, bore diameter and rod diameter. Stroke lengths vary
from less than an inch to several feet or more. Bore diameters
can range from an inch up to more than 24 in., and piston rod
diameters range from 0.5 in. to more than 20 in. In practice,
however, the choice of stroke, bore and rod dimensions may
be limited by environmental or design conditions. For example,
space may be too limited for the ideal stroke length. For tie-rod
cylinders, increasing the size of the bore also means increasing
the number of tie rods needed to retain stability. Increasing
the diameter of the bore or piston rod is an ideal way to
compensate for higher loads, but space considerations may not
allow this, in which case multiple cylinders may be required.
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CYLINDER MOUNTING METHODS
Mounting methods also play an important role in cylinder
performance. Generally, fixed mounts on the centerline of the
cylinder are best for straight line force transfer and avoiding
wear. Common types of mounting include:
Flange mounts—Very strong and rigid, but have little tolerance for
misalignment. Experts recommend cap end mounts for thrust loads
and rod end mounts where major loading puts the piston rod in
tension.
Side-mounted cylinders—Easy to install and service, but the
mounts produce a turning moment as the cylinder applies force
to a load, increasing wear and tear. To avoid this, specify a
stroke at least as long as the bore size for side mount cylinders
(heavy loading tends to make short stroke, large bore cylinders
unstable). Side mounts need to be well aligned and the load
supported and guided.
Centerline lug mounts —Absorb forces on the centerline, but
require dowel pins to secure the lugs to prevent movement at
higher pressures or under shock conditions.
Pivot mounts —Absorb force on the cylinder centerline and
let the cylinder change alignment in one plane. Common
types include clevises, trunnion mounts and spherical bearings.
Because these mounts allow a cylinder to pivot, they should be
used with rod-end attachments that also pivot. Clevis mounts
can be used in any orientation and are generally recommended
for short strokes and small- to medium-bore cylinders.
KEY SPECIFICATIONS
Operating conditions—Cylinders must match a specific
application in terms of the amount of pressure (psi), force
exerted, space requirements imposed by machine design, and
so forth. But knowing the operating requirements is only half
the challenge. Cylinders must also withstand high temperatures,
humidity and even salt water for marine hydraulic systems.
Wherever temperatures typically rise to more than 300° F,
standard Buna-N nitrile rubber seals may fail—choose cylinders
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(continued)
What are hydraulic cylinders?
with Viton synthetic rubber seals instead. When in doubt,
assume operating conditions will be more rugged than they
appear at first glance.
Fluid type—Most hydraulics use a form of mineral oil, but
applications involving synthetic fluids, such as phosphate esters,
require Viton seals. Once again, Buna-N seals may not be
adequate to handle synthetic fluid hydraulics. Polyurethane is also
incompatible with high water-based fluids such as water glycol.
Seals —This is probably the most vulnerable aspect of a
hydraulic system. Proper seals can reduce friction and wear,
lengthening service life, while the wrong type of seal can lead to
downtime and maintenance headaches.
Cylinder materials —The type of metal used for cylinder
head, base and bearing can make a significant difference. Most
cylinders use SAE 660 bronze for rod bearings and medium-grade
carbon steel for heads and bases, which is adequate for most
applications. But stronger materials, such as 65-45-12 ductile iron
for rod bearings, can provide a sizable performance advantage
for tough industrial tasks. The type of piston rod material can be
important in wet or high-humidity environments (e.g., marine
hydraulics) where17-4PH stainless steel may be more durable than
the standard case-hardened carbon steel with chrome plating
used for most piston rods.
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HYDRAULIC CYLINDERS DESIGN GUIDE
QUESTIONS TO CONSIDER:
What is the maximum pressure range for the application?
Keep in mind pressures may vary greatly depending on the
specific job the system is doing. Cylinders are rated for both
nominal (standard) pressure and test pressure to account for
variations. System pressure should never exceed the nominal
rated design pressure of the cylinder.
Push or pull—or both (double acting)? The answer to this
question may require a specialized double-acting cylinder if
the hydraulic system is doing “double duty.” (Single-acting
cylinders extend the piston under hydraulic pressure; double-
acting cylinders extend and retract the piston under pressure.)
In a push application, it is extremely important to size the rod
diameter properly to avoid rod buckling. In a pull application,
it is important to size the annulus area (piston diameter area
minus the rod diameter area) correctly to move the load at the
rated design pressure of the cylinder.
What push or pull tonnage is required? Always assume peak
loads will require additional strength. The rule of thumb is to
choose a cylinder with a tonnage rating of 20% more than
required for the load.
What stroke length will be required? Space may not be
available for the ideal length. A telescopic configuration
may be required, or even a radial configuration allowing the
cylinder to move in more than one axis. Long-stroke cylinders,
which are more at risk for bending or misalignment, require
additional support.
What mounting method is being used? Flange mounting is
often the best solution because the load is transferred along
the centerline of the cylinder. Non-centerline mounting calls for
additional support to avoid misalignment.
How much support will the piston and cylinder require?
Depending on stroke length, a stop tube may be required
to prevent excessive wear and jack-knifing. However, a stop
tube will not prevent rod bending — an oversize rod may
be required, based on Euler calculations. Perhaps the most
common error in hydraulic design is under-specifying the piston
rod, making the cylinder more prone to stress, wear and failure.
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5 TIPS FOR
CYLINDER
MAINTENANCE
P roper, consistent cylinder maintenance is necessary to keep
your fluid power systems running smoothly and efficiently.
Following these five tips is a step in the right direction.
1. KEEP YOUR OIL CLEAN. This should go without saying,
but I wouldn’t have to say it if the majority of hydraulic failures
weren’t still from contaminated oil. Filter your danged oil. Dirt
particles love to move back and forth inside a cylinder, so it’s
especially important to ensure oil is clean the first time it makes
its way into your cylinder.
Install high-efficiency filters in your hydraulic system, and ensure
they’re changed when required. A differential pressure gauge
or pop-up indicator can tell you when a filter is clogged, which
will allow you to change it out before it goes into bypass, a
condition when oil passes through the housing unfiltered.
Differential pressure
gauges indicate when a
filter is clogged, which
will allow you to change
it out before it goes into
bypass. Image courtesy
of Noshok
2. INSPECT YOUR CYLINDER REGULARLY. Have a look at the
condition of the rod for corrosion, pitting and uneven wear.
Corrosion could signal excessive moisture, either ambient or
within the fluid. The latter scenario is worse, as it spells disaster
for your entire hydraulic system. Rod corrosion will accelerate
seal wear, as friction damages the rod seal and wiper. Pitting
on the rod can occur from corrosion, but also from physical
damage, which will also lead to seal damage.
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Careful inspection of cylinders
is necessary on a regular basis
to check for corrosion, pitting
and uneven wear.
Uneven wear of the rod is often a result of misalignment. Side
load causes the rod to rub on one side of the bearing, which
can prematurely wear the bearing, seal(s) and rod itself. In most
cases, a corroded and damaged rod can be re-chromed and/
or polished to refinish it. If the rod can’t be repaired, it can be
manufactured by any cylinder repair shop. Before re-installation,
it would be wise to remedy the problem causing the damage
in the first place, or you will find yourself in the business of
changing the cylinder often.
3. ROTATE YOUR CYLINDERS. If downtime is an absolute
impossibility, you may want to keep a set of spare cylinders you
rotate into service on a regular basis. This will keep your cylinders
fresh in spite of high risk particle contamination or extreme
operating conditions. Once one cylinder is removed from service, it
can be disassembled, inspected and repaired if required.
When a cylinder is in pieces, it’s a good idea to replace all seals,
since they’re typically very economical. Inspecting the internals
of your cylinders on a regular basis also gives you clues to the
condition of the rest of your hydraulic system. The occurrence of
varnish, for example, could mean your oil is running continuously
hot, and you may need to address operating temperature.
Also, a physical inspection of the piston and cap can tell you if
particles have been trapped within the cylinder. If it looks like
someone was beating your piston with a ball peen hammer,
then I can guarantee a chunk of metal has been slapping around
inside for months or years. And if it made its way into your
cylinder, it existed elsewhere in the system, too.
4. SERVICE YOUR ACCESSORIES. The brackets, clevises, rod
eyes, ball joints or other connections to a hydraulic cylinder are
nearly as important as the cylinder itself. When a pivot pin or
clevis is worn, there is excessive slop and play in the joints of
the cylinder. This will cause misalignment, which could lead to
rapid wear or catastrophic damage in some cases.
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 HYDRAULIC CYLINDERS DESIGN GUIDE
(continued)
5 tips for cylinder maintenance

If you have a high precision machine, even a few thousandths

extra clearance between each joint can cause jerky, inaccurate
motion and vibration. When a cylinder is removed for servicing,
it is a best practice to inspect and replace the accessories,
if needed. A pin is only a few bucks, and is meaningless
compared to a thousand dollar NFPA cylinder. Just as with
other parts of your hydraulic machine requiring lube, grease the
cylinder joints on a regular basis to prevent uneven or excessive
wear. An ounce of prevention goes a long way.

5. INSPECT YOUR LUBE OIL SYSTEM. If you are running

pneumatic cylinders, which often need their own source of
lubrication, inspect and service your lubrication system, as
needed. A basic system will have a lubricator built into the filter/
regulator assembly, which is fairly reliable. However, no lube
oil can be provided when the reservoir is empty. Inspect the oil
level regularly, and top off as needed.

Even a reservoir full of oil provides no guarantee your lubricator

is working, so you may need to test your oil line exiting the FRL
Inspecting your lube oil system is critical when using pneumatic
by hooking up a blow gun and spraying a white paper towel. cylinders. FRLs are reliable sources of lubrication, but you should
If there is a patch of oil on the towel, you’re good to go. If it is inspect them regularly and top off as needed. Image courtesy
of Clippard Instrument Laboratory
dry, you may have to remedy a clog in the lubricator, or replace
it if it cannot be fixed.

When testing any lubrication system, check that excessive

amounts of oil aren’t being introduced into the system. I’ve seen
lube systems introducing so much oil as to hydrolock a pneumatic
cylinder, preventing it from cycling full stroke rapidly. Only a fine
mist is required to help an air cylinder overcome friction.

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HOW DO Image courtesy

YOU SPECIFY
of Yates Cylinders

A HYDRAULIC
CYLINDER?

H
ydraulic cylinders are specified by the force required to After piston area is calculated, simply multiply its area by the
be pushed and moved, and they are specified by their available system pressure:
method of mounting. There are subordinate functions to
F=PxA
be considered when specifying a hydraulic cylinder, such fluid
F = Force in pounds
type, column strength and material construction. However, 90% of
P = Pressure in psi
cylinder applications are not exotic, and simply identifying force A = Area in square inches
and mounting requirements will suffice, leaving all else standard.
Let’s take an example to help with the math. We have a 4-in. bore
The first step in specifying a hydraulic cylinder is calculate the cylinder, and our system pressure is capable of 3000 psi:
required force. Factors required to determine force are the mass
of the load, direction of cylinder travel and angle of the force A = 3.14 x r²
vector. The mass is easiest to know, in most cases. The direction of A = 3.14 x 2²
A = 3.14 x 4
cylinder travel is also easy to determine; will the cylinder push or
A = 12.56 in²
pull on the load? It is important to consider the difference because
a cylinder pulls with less force than it pushes, due to the area F=PxA
taken up on the piston by the rod. The angle the cylinder pushes F = 3000 psi x 12.56 in²
on the load at affects the force required, but because this part of F = 37,680 pounds
the discussion requires trigonometry, I’ll leave it out for now. Let’s
just say that if you’re not pushing at ninety degrees to the load, it
requires more force.

Once the force requirement is defined, you will have to

calculate the require bore of cylinder. The bore is inside
diameter of the barrel, but also describes the outside diameter
of the piston. The hydraulic fluid acts upon the piston, imparting
force energy against it, and the larger the area of the piston or
the higher the pressure you exert, the more force is generated.
Are and force are calculated as such:

A = πr²
A = Area in square inches
π ≈ 3.14
r = Piston radius (1/2 diameter)

Image courtesy of Yates Cylinders

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HOW DO HYDRAULIC
CYLINDERS FAIL—CONTAMINATION
T
oday’s fluid-power users, for the most part, are well aware
that keeping hydraulic fluid clean is essential in preventing
premature failures and unexpected downtime. Nonetheless,
contamination remains a major cause of hydraulic-cylinder failure,
particularly because it leads to seal failure and leaks. And it can
come from several different and unexpected sources.
Internal contamination is one obvious source. Particulate
contaminants include dirt, wear particles from pumps and valves,
and debris from internal breakdown of hoses. Contributing factors
include clogged filters and dirty assembly areas.
Such contamination results in scored rods and cylinder-bore
surfaces and excessive seal wear. This causes leaks past the
cylinder rod and head and into the environment. And it can
increase internal leakage past the piston seals, which reduces
efficiency. It can even exacerbate erosion problems, where
contaminants abrade the seal as media travels from the high-
pressure to low-pressure side of the seal.
Damaged cylinder rods and bores can usually be repaired,
but users should first determine the root cause or the problem
will soon return. Proper filtration keeps fluid clean and helps
prevent problems due to internal contamination.
Also ensure proper flow through the cylinder. If the volume of oil
in a cylinder exceeds that of the hose between the cylinder and
directional valve, it may not flow efficiently to the reservoir for
filtration. Instead, particulates remain in the cylinder and attack
the seals. Here, a fix is to mount the valve closer to the cylinder
to ensure efficient circulation. Proper installation and alignment
of the cylinder will also reduce the rate at which the cylinder itself
generates fluid contaminants, by minimizing seal and bearing wear.
External contaminants are another consideration. Hydraulic
cylinders are constantly exposed to external contaminants
ranging from dust, mud and abrasive grit to metal chips and
weld spatter. Fluid contaminants include coolants, washdown
water and rain. Dirt and fluid contaminants can be drawn into
a cylinder during rod retraction via a faulty wiper seal, so the
proper specification and installation of a rod wiper/scraper is
recommended. Likewise, a well-designed tank breather/filter
keeps water and dirt out the system.
Under particularly dirty conditions, consider installing boots
or bellows over the moving rod. A pleated bellows/boot can
protect finished rod surfaces from wear-causing elements,
reduce downtime and lengthen cylinder life. These protective
devices are often made of elastomer-covered fabric, as well as
flexible vulcanized and injection-molded materials. The covers
can be held in place by collars and hose clamps or flanges.
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Water is a common contaminant in petroleum-oil based systems
that degrades fluid-performance properties and accelerates
oxidation and additive depletion. Exposing some seal materials
to water—especially at elevated temperatures—also lowers their
physical properties. That translates to seals that lose strength,
harden, crack or even disintegrate.
Polyurethane seals, for example, are subject hydrolysis effects
in high-water-content fluids at temperatures above 50°C. That
leads to loss of hardness and tensile strength, in turn allowing
fluid leakage past the rod seal.
Users should ensure that seal materials are compatible with
the fluid and system operating temperature. And experts
recommend that users minimize water ingression through
suitable wipers and desiccant-style breathers. Finally,
maintenance technicians should routinely test for the presence
of water in the hydraulic fluid. Water-removal filters or
dehydrators are recommended to control water content.
Air is often overlooked as a fluid contaminant. Hydraulic fluid
always contains some dissolved air that causes no problems.
However, if air mixes with the hydraulic fluid and forms
bubbles, that’s another story, as it can physically damage
the seals. Causes include air drawn past the rod seals; rapid
decompression; high flow through an undersized port,
generating turbulence; and overrunning loads.
Air bubbles can lead to scoring, nibbling and other physical
damage to the seal. Pressure shocks, particularly in cylinders
cycling at high speeds, can cause air bubbles to become
heated, a condition often referred to as dieseling. The
combination of high temperature and high pressure can
ignite oil fumes inside the bubble and burn the seal face, and
consequently lead to leaks and quick cylinder failure. Minimizing
aeration of the fluid through proper design and operation, as
mentioned above, is a helpful option.
Pleated bellows can
protect finished rod
surfaces. They are often
made of elastomer-
covered fabric, as well Installing boots or
as flexible vulcanized bellows like these from
and injection-molded Dynatect Manufacturing
materials. Photo in particularly dirty
courtesy of Dynatect conditions can help
Manufacturing.
lengthen cylinder life .
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HYDRAULIC
CYLINDER
MOUNTING
OPTIONS
H
ydraulic cylinders are available in a variety of styles
and can be mounted in numerous ways. Here’s a
look at some of the most common options and their
advantages and disadvantages.
The venerable hydraulic cylinder is the most effective means
of creating linear force in the mechanical kingdom. They are
efficient and reliable, and although little of their basic design
has changed significantly in eons, they are still relevant to
the industries to which they cater. Hydraulic cylinders are
manufactured to either the standards of their designer or the
standards of the geographic bureaucracies of the manufacturer’s
continent, such as NFPA or ISO.
Although some cylinders are manufactured with a generally
poor build quality, such as with cast iron caps and heads, higher
quality cylinders are typically constructed with forged steel. The
“welded” type cylinder is very common, and even though the
specifications for their dimensions, sizes and rod treatments
aren’t part of an industry standard, they are common enough in
construction that many manufacturers build them the same way.
The welded cylinder is simply a barrel with a cap welded to
the bottom, and then with the mounting treatment welded to
that cap, typically a cross tube or dual tangs to mimic a clevis.
The piston and rod are installed into the cylinder, and then a
threaded head is slid over the rod and torqued onto the barrel.
Finally, the rod treatment is added to the cylinder, which is
sometimes a cross-tube welded directly to the tip, or if the rod
end was threaded, any other rod treatment common to the
industry, such as a clevis or a rod eye.
Cast tie-rod cylinders and welded cylinders make up a fair
portion of the cylinder market, especially in the mobile
equipment industry, but the NFPA and ISO standards for tie-
rod cylinders are the most common in any high-end hydraulic
machine. The metric ISO standard for cylinders is quite similar
to the National Fluid Power Association’s standard using
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Image courtesy
of Yates Cylinders
imperial units, except of course for the difference of measuring
technique. ISO and NFPA even use the same 3-character
alphanumeric code for mounting options, such as MT1 for head
trunnion or MP1 for fixed clevis.
For the remainder of this missive, I will refer to standard NFPA
and ISO variants as simply tie-rod cylinders. The advantage to
the standard tie-rod cylinder is in the modular nature of the parts
used to create a finished product, such as the cap, barrel, head
and rod sizes, which allow a cylinder to be assembled in a few
days from off-the-shelf parts.
Opposite to the rod side is the cap, which is essentially a block
of forged steel machined with a deep ring to accept the barrel,
which seals with an O-Ring. The cap end is typically very simple,
with just a port machined to direct fluid into the piston side, the
four drillings for the tie-rods and sometimes a cushion screw.
Opposite to the cap is the head, which is more complex and
consisting of more parts. Besides the parts mirrored by the cap—
the port, the tie-rod and sometimes a cushion—the cap must
also contain the bushing, gland and the rod seal package.
The standards for tie-rod cylinder design apply mostly to the
mounting dimensions, and less so for the internal design of
the cylinder, which can vary significantly from manufacturer to
manufacturer. These differences can exist with piston design, head
design, rod gland and seal design etc., but the exterior mounting
dimensions must remain the same, such as retracted length, clevis
pin diameter or trunnion dimensions, if so equipped.
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 HYDRAULIC CYLINDERS DESIGN GUIDE
(continued)
Hydraulic Cylinder Mounting Options

A basic cylinder comes with no end treatments; however, by
simply drilling and tapping two threads each in the cap and
head, we create the MS4 Side Flush Mount cylinder, just one
of many choices. Each mounting style has its advantages and
disadvantages, and although there are many options, the most
popular choices are as follows:
• MP1 – Fixed Clevis
• MP2 – Detachable Clevis (not pictured)
• MF1 – Front Flange Mount
• MF5 – Front Flange Extra Size Mount
• ME5 – Front Head Flange Mount (not pictured)
• MF2 – Rear Flange Mount
• MF6 – Rear Flange Extra Size Mount
• ME6 – Rear Head Flange Mount (not pictured)
• MS2, MS3 and MS7 – Side Lug, Center Lug and End Lug
Mounts, respectively
• MT1, MT2 and MT4 – Front Trunnion, Rear Trunnion and
Trunnion Mounts, respectively<
MP1 (fixed clevis) and MP2 (detachable clevis) are one of the
most common types of mounting options used, especially in
applications where the cylinder must pivot through an arc as it
extends and retracts, such as with a boom crane or bin tipper.
The fixed clevis is a part of the cap itself—a detachable clevis
is bolted to the cap, and both allow engagement to a clevis
mounting bracket with a steel pin held in place with cotter
pins or snap rings. Clevis mounts require attention when being
applied, however, as they are highly prone to side load and
column strength issues, which I will discuss later.
The lug mounting options use rectangular tabs machined from
the same block of steel as the head and cap, although they
are sometimes welded on. The four MS2 side lugs are on the
bottoms of the head and cap, the MS3 center lugs are mid way
up the head and cap, and the MS7 end lugs are mounted to the
front bottom of the head and back bottom of the cap, reaching
fore and aft like sphinx paws. Because of the fixed mounting,
lug style cylinders are very rigid, although the nature of dual
mounting points can add worries of misalignment between the
front and rear lugs, especially related to bending or torquing of
the mounting surface.
Finally, the MT1, MT2 and MT4 front, rear and intermediate
trunnion mounts, respectively, are an alternative to the clevis
style pivot. They allow the rod to move through an arc as it
extends and retracts, although they have a slight advantage in
column strength and precision of movement over a clevis mount,
especially the MT1 (front trunnion) and MT4 (intermediate
trunnion). The MT2 (rear trunnion) mount is slightly weaker,
especially if the rod isn’t rigidly guided. Trunnion cylinders
experience smoother movement because the trunnion on either
side of the cylinder is fixed to the machine with special mounting
brackets and bushings, and has less sloppy play in the joint
compared to a clevis.

MF1 (front flange mount), MF5 (front flange extra mount) and
ME5 (front head flange mount) are all methods of mounting the
cylinder off of, or part of, the head itself. MF1 has a rectangular
flange attached to the head, which protrudes from the sides of
the cylinder, and the MF5 has a larger square flange protruding
in all directions, which provides extra strength. The ME5, instead
of a flange being mounted to the head, uses an extra thick and
wide head, which itself attaches directly to the machine. These
options require the cylinder to be stationary and this fixed
centerline mounting provides them with high column strength.

The MF2, MF6 and ME6 rear flange mounts are similar to the
front flange family, except their respective locations are off the
cap rather than the head. The MF2 has a rectangular flange
attached to the head, but protrudes only on the sides, the MF6
uses the same larger flange as the MF5 and the ME6 has a
beefy cap containing mounting holes for direct attachment to
the machine. Being fixed centerline type mounts, they offer the
same strength advantage of the front flange versions.
Image courtesy of Yates Cylinders

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 HYDRAULIC CYLINDERS DESIGN GUIDE
(continued)
Hydraulic Cylinder Mounting Options
All cylinders require consideration for stable Image courtesy of Yates Cylinders
and reliable operation, especially as it relates
to the rod as it extends towards the end
of cylinder stroke. If you’re like me, you’ve
wasted time discovering how many feet you
can get a measuring tape to extend out
into free air before it bends, dropping with
a boing-clank sound. This analogy loosely
translates into one of the issues experienced
by hydraulic cylinders. The longer the cylinder
stroke and the farther the cylinder extends
along its stroke, the higher the potential for
two common cylinder problems: side loading,
and column bending.

Side loading occurs when a mass or force

pushes the rod up, down or to the side. A
cylinder is happy when the in and out forces of
compression and tension are applied, but any
bending force can cause accelerated wear at
best, and a bent rod at worst. When a cylinder
is retracted, it has the highest resistance to
side load, not only because the torque effect
is low when the rod extends a little past the
rod bushing, but because the other end of the
rod is supported by the piston deep inside the
cylinder bore.

As a cylinder extends, the moment arm

extends as well, increasing the torque
potential on the rod, as well as moving
the piston closer to the head, reducing the
capacity for the piston to act as a bearing.
Side loading also causes uneven wear, as the
rod pushes into one side of the bushing, and
the piston drags with more force across one
side of the barrel.
Column strength refers to the capacity of a cylinder to resist
bending when under compression, and is affected by the
distance between the load and the mount, the diameter of the
rod, and the class of mount itself. The distance between load
and rod can be explained by my measuring tape example; the
farther the tape is extending, even upward, the less you can
push the tip against a wall before it buckles. When a cylinder
is mounted at the cap end (think MP1) and not prevented from
moving around, the column strength is extremely low, and
the rod is prone to bending under compression. Because of
this concern, the clevis mount cylinder can often operate at a
quarter of the pressure as one of the more rigid mounts, such as
MF1 front flange.
The strength of any cylinder can be improved in regards to
both side load and column strength. A larger rod diameter
simply improves the strength of the rod itself, which is less
susceptible to bending, although the accelerated wear of side
loading can still be a problem. The other technique is to add
a stop tube, which is simply a tube inserted inside the cylinder
and around the rod. The stop tube prevents the cylinder from
extending all the way, increasing the effect of the piston to
share the load and avoid bending. When applying a stop tube,
don’t forget to subtract usable stroke length, as every inch of
stop tube is subtracted from every inch of stroke. There are a
lot of factors to understanding cylinder column strength, but
most major tie-rod cylinder manufacturers have configuration
software that will provide you with the maximum pressure rating
of the cylinder you choose.

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WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
TIE-ROD AND WELDED CYLINDERS?

A
lthough both types of cylinders are used
in fluid power systems, the end caps used
to hold the cylinder together make the
difference. Welded cylinders are designed
with each end cap welded to the barrel. Mounts and
other fittings will also be welded to a cap. Static
seals are used to seal the head or gland of a welded
cylinder. These designs are permanent.

Tie-rod cylinders are held together by four or more

threaded tie bolts that run the length of the entire
cylinder tube. These bolts hold the baseplate and
Tie-rod cylinders.
head together. Tie-rod cylinders are more common Image courtesy of Yates Cylinders
in the U.S. They usually feature static seals to prevent
leakage between the barrel and end-cap interface.

Welded cylinders tend to be more complex but

offer several advantages. They are typically more
compact and usually can withstand higher pressures,
often greater than 5,000 psi, so are often used on
mobile machinery where space is at a premium.
They also are more durable, so thus are used in
harsh environments where longer lifecycles are
required, such as hydraulic presses, steel mills and
offshore settings. These designs are also more easily
customizable for each application. However, they are
generally more difficult to repair.

Tie-rod cylinders are usually a bulkier design but

are more often offered as standard series with short
delivery times, so are more readily available. High-
strength threaded steel rods are used, so most
cylinders of this design are rated for no higher than
3,000 psi. These designs are most often used in
plastics or machine tools for industrial use.
Welded cylinders.
Image courtesy of
Tie-rod cylinders are typically built to NFPA Yates Cylinders
standards so can be easily interchanged. They also
offer the advantage of being easily disassembled
and replaced in the field by using a standard wrench.

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When should
you use T
elescopic cylinders are a unique type of actuator able
to extend far longer than a traditional rod-style cylinder.

telescopic
Telescopic cylinders are manufactured using two or
more nested tubes inside one another, and these tubes
act as both the rod and barrel. Telescopic cylinders have as
many as seven stages or more, providing a compact footprint

cylinders?
with a surprisingly long stroke length. A cylinder with 120 in. of
stroke only needs 50 in. of retracted space, while a traditional
cylinder will always be longer than whatever its stroke length is.

The most common use for telescoping cylinders is for dump

bodies, dump trailers or other dump applications such as
garbage or vacuum trucks. Because the dump bed pivots
as it lifts, so too must the cylinder freely travel through an
arc as it extends, necessitating a pivoting mount such as
cross tube, trunnion or rod eye. As well, some telescopic
cylinders are configured “upside-down” where the rod is
fixed to the chassis as the cap end lifts into the air. Telescopic
cylinders are manufactured as either single- or double-acting,
although single-acting cylinders are much more common. For
applications where a dump box or machine goes over center, a
double acting cylinder can pull it back to align with gravitational
retraction. All telescopic cylinders have ports at only the bottom
end mounted close to the chassis, since running hoses up
through 10 to 20 ft of stroke and an arc of rotation would be
exceedingly difficult. In fact, double-acting telescopic cylinders
run both ports through the head — one into the many bodies,
and the other through the hollow core.

The stroke length of a telescopic cylinder ranges from less

than 80 to more than 300 in. From a technical standpoint,
a telescopic cylinder can be viewed as multiple cylinders in
the same envelope rather than a homogenous product. Each
cylinder stage extends sequentially based on its effective area.
These cylinders aren’t immune from the physics of fluid power,
so the stage with the largest area will also provide the path of
least resistance as it extends.

Because the effective area lessens as bore diameter shrinks

when each stage comes online, pressure jumps upward to
compensate for the reduced surface area. It’s important to
consider how this affects the cylinder’s ability to move a load
… the cylinder must be sized accurately to continue to supply
enough force to lift the load when it reaches its final stage.
The first stage may see less than 1,000 psi to get the dump
bed moving but could rise to over 3,000 psi at the final stage,
depending on the design and settings of its hydraulic system.

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HOW DO YOU SAFELY DESIGN
AND USE HYDRAULIC CYLINDERS?
M
any of the failures in a hydraulic system show
similar symptoms: a gradual or sudden loss of high
pressure, resulting in the loss of power or speed in
the cylinders. In fact, the cylinder may stall under
a light load or may not move at all. Often the loss of power
is accompanied by an increase in pump noise, especially as
the system tries to build up pressure. Any major component,
including the pump, the relief valve, directional control valve, or
the cylinder, could be at fault.
In a sophisticated system, other components could be to blame,
but this could require the service of an experienced technician. By
following an organized step-by-step testing procedure in an orderly
fashion, the problem can be traced to a general area, and then if
necessary, each component in that area can be tested or replaced.
In this article though, we want to discuss the safety tips
concerning cylinder design and use. What are some of the
suggested things we should be looking for when selecting the
right cylinder for the job? Answering these questions before
installation is a start to safe and optimal cylinder design.
1. Is the cylinder rated for the work to be done? Using the F = P
x A formula (Force = Pressure x Area) will ensure that the cylinder is
sized properly to do the work at the required system pressure.
2. Is the cylinder designed to handle the load? With so many
manufacturers today, choosing a cylinder that will hold up to the
load requirements is important. Be sure to evaluate the seals and
guide bands being used for bearing loads. Agricultural equipment
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Knowing a cylinder’s load rating comes down to all of its parts
including seals and guide bands. This design from System Seals
provides more accurate piston and rod guidance inside the
cylinder under varying load conditions.
typically uses ag-type cylinders that feature cast end covers
bolted together with all thread and nuts onto a honed tube. They
also typically use O-rings for seals. These cylinders generally
operate around 1,500 to 2,000 psi and are designed to be either
quickly resealed or thrown away. Using this type of cylinder in a
construction application would prove to be dangerous and self-
defeating as it would be short lived for the work to be done and
may not hold up under the load requirements.
3. Tie-rod or welded? When is it appropriate to use a tie-
rod cylinder or a welded cylinder? The typical response is
that manufacturers of stationary equipment generally rely on
tie-rod cylinders, as they can be configured to fit most unique
applications and have many applicable valving blocks, making
them simpler to configure to machinery. This reduces other
possibly needed valves to accomplish work desired and helps
to reduce costs. Rated to NFPA standards, tie-rod cylinders
are easily inter-changeable with other manufacturers. Welded
cylinders are most common in mobile equipment where weight
and size of application work needs can be considered. These
heavier duty designs are usually rated to 5,000 psi or higher.
Featuring a barrel that is bolted or welded directly onto the end
caps, these designs do not require tie-rods, so thus are stronger
and more resilient in harsher environments.
Above all else, it is important to be sure to use a cylinder that
is rated for the job. Choosing a cylinder because of cost rather
than design can be a mistake in many ways. Seals, wear bands,
shaft seals, and porting all play an important part of selection.
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 The business end of hydraulics:
the cylinder
T
his article will talk about the business end of the hydraulic
system: The force produced by the cylinder. When using a
standard double-acting cylinder, there are three internal areas of
concern:
1. Piston area = transfer fluid pressure to force to extend piston rod
2. Net piston area minus piston rod area
3. Rod area = significant when cylinder is used in
regenerative action

To calculate cylinder force against a load, two

calculations are required:
• Force over piston area
• Opposing force over opposing piston area

For example:
• Extension force is 50 psi x 20 in.2 = 1,000 lb.
• Opposing force on rod side is 30 psi x 18 in.2 = 540 lb.

The net force the cylinder can exert against a load in the extension direction is:
1000 lb – 540 lb = 460 lb

It is important to remember and calculate in the added pressure required due to

packing friction, which in standard cylinders can amount to 5% (let’s say 10%, to
be safe) of the maximum force for which the cylinder is rated. This extra power is
consumed when the cylinder is in motion.

CYLINDERS ARE DESIGNED TO MOVE VARIOUS TYPES OF LOADS:

Vertical gravity load—a non-friction load that requires full cylinder force to be
produced throughout the stroke. Additional force will be required and calculated in
to accelerate the load and to overcome loss due to supply flow and friction losses.

Stall-out load—in cylinders that are used on either vertical or horizontal presses,
when the press contacts the work piece the cylinder stalls. During cylinder piston
movement, they usually run in “free traverse” for most of the stoke. During free
traverse, very little pressure is required on the cylinder piston and the pump
supplies only the hydraulic circuit losses due to fluid flow friction. At stall, all fluid
flow friction disappears. When calculating pressures required at the cylinder port,
allow 5% for packing friction losses even with no movement through the packing.

Horizontal friction loads—horizontal cylinders can be used for either push or pull
applications.
• Push application is acceleration away from source.
• Pull application is acceleration towards source.

The force required for moving a load horizontal is less than the force required to lift
it. To calculate for a horizontal load, you have to calculate the load times the static
coefficient of static friction (resistance to movement created by molecular attraction
between load and surface materials)

Static coefficient of materials can be obtained from a machinery handbook.

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 HYDRAULIC CYLINDERS DESIGN GUIDE
(continued)
The business end of hydraulics: the cylinder
Rolling loads—we all know how much a wheel makes it easier to move an object
across a surface. By replacing sliding resistance with rolling resistance, you require
a significant amount less force. With rolling load, there will be a breakaway force
required to set the load in motion; a force as little of 1⁄10 the load will break away
the load and then even less force is required to keep the load in motion. The
breakaway load is caused by the wheel as it applies a force on the surface material.
The displaced material from under the wheel is pushed out in front of the wheel.
As the wheel moves across the surface, it continually displaces the surface material
to the front of the wheel creating the rolling resistance. If you roll a wheeled chair
across the carpet, you can see the carpet bulge up in front of the wheel. Even
though we are rolling hardened steel across a steel surface, the steel will act just
like the carpet.

Punching loads—the cylinder application is used to punch, shear or notch a

work piece.

Use the following calculation:

A (area to be sheared) = (L + W + L + W) x T
All dimensions must be in inches

After calculating the number of square inches of metal to be sheared, multiply

that number times the shear strength of the material. This gives the cylinder force
needed to make the cut.

Shear strength for metal can be assumed to be about 75% of the metals rated
tensile strength and is expressed in psi. For accurate shear values, consult the
supplier of the material.

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HOW CAN YOU PREVENT
HYDRAULIC CYLINDER DRIFT?
▼

D
rift is the unintentional movement of a cylinder when it’s meant Because the fluid volume in the rod side of the cylinder is smaller
to be held in place by directional, PO check or counterbalance than the volume in the cap side of the cylinder, fluid has nowhere
valves. The objective of many cylinder applications is to move to go. You could literally remove the piston seals entirely, and the
a load to a predetermined position and maintain that position for cylinder will only drop a fraction of an inch as the pressure equalizes
various lengths of time. For example, a bucket lift used by utility inside the entire volume of the cylinder.
providers to work on power lines absolutely requires a cylinder to lift
to the desired position and stay there. Therefore, a drifting cylinder is
disconcerting at best and dangerous at worst.

A cylinder may drift for various reasons, most of which offer us

explanations for a drifting bucket lift application. First, assuming we
start with a cylinder facing rod upwards in our lift application, we
know pressurized fluid must remain in the cylinder’s piston side (cap
side) until directed to exhaust by the operator. So long as the fluid
is contained under pressure in the cylinder’s piston side volume, the
cylinder is stable.

Should any fluid leave or leak from the piston side volume, the
cylinder will lower (or drift) unintentionally. The cause of this drift
may be directly attributed to the path the fluid takes to exit. The
most likely culprit of cylinder drift is the valve located closest to the
cap side port. In most cases where the safe control of cylinders is
required, a counterbalance valve is that closest valve.

A counterbalance valve is essentially a pilot-operated relief valve

with a reverse flow check valve. As cap pressure exerts its force
upon the port of the valve, its spring holds the valve closed until
load pressure increases above the spring value. However, only in
rare circumstances does a counterbalance open directly from load
pressure. If such is the case, you need a higher pressure valve or
a larger actuator. A counterbalance valve should remain shut until
it receives a pilot signal from the opposing work port, piloting the
valve open to allow the cylinder to retract. Should any leakage occur
in the counterbalance valve, fluid may pass through to either the
downstream or opposite work ports allowing the cylinder to drift.
Leaking piston seals may also allow a cylinder to drift … but
sometimes not. With the above application using a single
counterbalance valve, it’s recommended to use a float or open
center spool in the directional valve, allowing the work ports to drain
to tank in neutral. Opening the work ports to the tank ensures the
counterbalance valve’s spring chamber remains drained and does
not allow pressure additive to the spring value. With the above
configuration, leaking piston seals will allow the cylinder to drift
down as fluid leaks from the piston to the rod side of the cylinder.
Stable cylinders are critical in lifting applications, where hydraulic
cylinder drift could pose a risk.
If your cylinder application employs a rod-down configuration, it
could absolutely drift to the bottom in some cases. This is because
fluid quickly moves from the rod side of the cylinder to the piston
side above when seals leak. This scenario may occur whether you
have a closed center valve, counterbalance valves or even dual PO
check valves, and is a sure sign your piston seals are shot.
The final example of cylinder drift occurs during a more unassuming
situation. There are circumstances where hydraulic fluid leaks into
a cylinder. Rare cases involve a positioning cylinder operated with
no other valves than simply a directional valve with a closed center
operated by a pressure compensated pump. Should pressure in the
tank line increase due to some restriction, fluid from the pressure
compensated pump may leak towards the cylinders and expose the
work ports to that fluid. Because of the differential area of the cylinder,
the force acting upon the piston side overcomes the force on the
annular area of the rod side, and the cylinder may drift forward.

However, if your cylinder is held aloft with just a closed center

directional valve, you might assume that a cylinder with leaking
piston seals could still drift downward. Fluid should travel from the
cap side volume to the rod side volume, right? Not at all, actually.

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(continued)
How can you prevent hydraulic cylinder drift?
PREVENTING DRIFT
So we know how cylinder drift may occur, so let’s discuss how to
prevent or remedy drift. The first step to prevent cylinder drift
comes at the design stage. Going back to our first example with the
counterbalance valve, you must understand how the valve interacts
with the cylinder. Because a counterbalance valve is essentially a
relief valve, there is always the chance it could crack open slightly if
load pressure is too close to the valve’s spring setting.
A cylinder too small for the application may experience periods of
load-induced pressure exceeding the maximum value of the spring
inside the counterbalance valve. It’s unlikely the load will drop
catastrophically, but the poppet or spool in the valve may begin to
crack open, allowing the cylinder to drift downward. Ensure that you
choose your cylinder bore and counterbalance valve pressure range
far enough apart never to experience pressure overlap.
Choosing the correct cylinder and seal package for your application
is also essential. Well-engineered and well-manufactured cylinders
offer tighter clearances between their piston outside diameter and
the cylinder barrel inside diameter. This tighter gap helps seals
better prevent leakage not only when new but especially when
worn. As well, higher quality cylinders are offered with better quality
finishes, such as a chromed and honed finish to the barrel ID.
The seal selection makes a difference because not all seal types
work as effectively at sealing, strangely enough. Some seals, such
as U-Cup or lip seals, offer low-friction designs better suited to
high velocity or low friction applications requiring little or no static
friction. As a result, they’re designed to break away from a stop
position more quickly and will “chatter” less in most applications.
Under low pressure, a lip seal also has a better chance of leaking
since they count on pressure pushing the lips out against the wall
surface, thereby improving their sealing.
An interference fit seal, such as a T-seal or crown seal, offers a
superior guard against leakage, especially at lower pressure.
However, it comes with more friction and the resulting reduction in
maximum cylinder velocity. However, many of the interference fit seal
options are considered “leak-free” and will hold a load indefinitely
should it be asked. And when these seals fail, you can get by in a
pinch by replacing them with O-rings supported with backup rings.
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HYDRAULIC CYLINDERS DESIGN GUIDE
It goes without saying that a cylinder must be adequately
maintained to ensure the sealing material is always fresh and ready
to do its job. If you neglect maintenance duties, such as proper
cooling and filtration, you can expect your seals to fail prematurely.
Even the most well-maintained machines will still see their cylinder
seals wear over time. To prevent leakage and drift from old, tired
seals, ensure you have in stock replacement seals to execute a quick
repair should cylinder drift become an issue.
Lastly, preventing leakage that causes cylinder drift comes down to
choosing and maintaining the correct valves, whether directional or
pressure. Although it’s not recommended to hold a load using only
a closed port directional control valve, cylinder drift may still occur in
applications, as discussed previously. Select high-quality spool valves
which are machined with tighter clearances that are less likely to leak
across any of its ports. If you’re ever curious about the quality of your
directional valve, plumb a 5-gallon accumulator to a work port charged
to system pressure and then see how long it takes to pressure to
decay. The faster the pressure decays, the more leakage it allows.
If you rely on counterbalance valves to hold a load, you may want to
select only poppet-based valves. Spool valves are inherently leaky, and
any sustained pressure at their work ports will result in some leakage.
Most reputable valve manufacturers publish the leakage rate of their
valves, so compare valves to ensure you’re getting the lowest leakage
valve possible. However, due to their cone and seat design, poppet
valves offer the lowest leakage rate for directional or pressure valves.
Always keep in mind that leakage in any form could result in drift.
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WHAT ARE CYLINDER STOP TUBES?

C
ylinder stop tubes are simply metal collars or tubes that strokes unnecessarily lengthens the cylinder and increases weight.
are placed around a hydraulic or pneumatic cylinder’s rod They also reduce a cylinder’s usable stroke length.
between the piston and head. They are designed for use
only when a cylinder will have extra long strokes. Used primarily in Sizing a stop tube is simple: installing 1 in. of stop tube is recommended
horizontal applications, they help to prevent side loading and other for every 10 in. beyond 40 in. They are available in a variety of materials,
column strength issues such as jackknifing or cylinder buckling. Side including steel, brass and aluminum, among others.
loading happens when the rod is retracted and pushed out of its
Other things to keep in mind when designing a cylinder with a
normal travel route by a mass or force. This up, down or side bending
stop tube in mind include: the weight of the load and the type of
force can cause rapid wear of a cylinder or even worse, a bent rod.
movement it is (one or two directions, etc.); the cylinder’s cycle rate;
The stop tube provides side load support during those long the cylinder’s piston rod diameter; and finally, mounting style.
extensions of the rod. Their use removes the risk of a piston
bottoming out and prevents the cylinder from extending too far.
This, in turn, avoids piston bending. Additionally, cylinder stop tubes
decrease the risk of bearing surface overloads.

They should be used in place of installing oversized rods, which can

cause misalignment and increased bearing loads.

Most often, cylinder stop tubes are recommended when cylinder

stroke will be greater than 40 in., though some manufacturers
recommend their use at 36 in. and above. Using them on shorter

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