Unit 1

Outcome of research
 Discovery ?
 Invention ?
 Innovation ?
Discovery and Invention
 A discovery is recognizing something that already exists for the first
time, that nobody has found before.
 Christopher Columbus -America.
 Discovery of a new species of plant.
 Galileo Galilei - Rings of Saturn

 An invention is creating something totally new with one’s own ideas and
development. Although an invention is completely new to the world, the
physical material needed for its production already exists, innovated from
the ideas and experiences of the individual.Thus making inventions
unique. Creating all the material into something with the concepts
of + − × and ÷ is what invention is all about. The combination of available
material has no limits,
 Thomas Edison invented the light bulb.
 Hans Lippershey patented Telescope
 BASIS FOR
DISCOVERY INVENTION
COMPARISON
Meaning Discovery refers to the act of Invention is creation or designing
finding or exploring something of an item or a process which has
which already existed but not never been existed before, with
perceived before. own ideas and developments.

What is it? Coming upon something, Developing something original

which is not yet and advanced.
acknowledged.
Represents Natural occurrences Scientific or human-made
artifacts, devices, processes

Involves Exploration Experimentation

Subject Discovered on purposely or Conceived on purposely.
accidentally.
Existence Pre-existent Non-existent
Patent No, it cannot be patented. Can be patented.
 What is research ?
 Why is it conducted?
 How does it help?
 Why is it referred as scientific inquiry ?
 Who conducts research (Scope) ?
 What does the researcher aims to find/explore ?
 Process *Motive *Means
Research
 Research is a systematic investigation to search for new facts
in any branch of knowledge.
 Research is often referred to as 'scientific inquiry’ into a
specific problem or situation.
 Research is the process of systematically obtaining accurate
answers to significant and pertinent questions by the use of
scientific method for gathering and interpreting information.
V. Clover and H.Balsley
 Research aims to….
 Discover new facts or verify and test old facts
(Ben Carson 1987- Conjoined twins )
 Analyse the relationship among the variables
(Promotion*Sales, Profits* market price of stock)
 Develop new scientific tools, concepts, theories, which
would facilitate reliable and valid study of human behavior.
 Nature/Characteristics of Research
 Scientific method (Inquiry or investigation)
• Ranking of 10 cars offering similar benefits. (Mileage, Capacity, safety
etc.)
• Evaluation criteria of academic institutions
• Judging a beauty pageant

 Objective & logical (Purposive)

• ‘Advertisements positively influence sales’

 Applied and basic research

• Business: a) declining sales, profits b) increasing cost
• Increasing insurance premium- Group insurance
• Social: Unemployment, Bride trade
• Economic: Economic slowdown
• Mathematics* Algorithms* Computers
 Empirical nature
• How can I solve the problem of acidity instantly?

 Controlled nature of basic research

• Factors influencing sales/ Market price of Co. stock

 Qualitative and quantitative

 To establish generalization
• Smoking * Cancer
• Law of supply/ Demand
• Law of gravity
• Inflation * Credit control/ demonetisation/Taxes
• AIDA
• Grit
• https://www.ted.com/talks/angela_lee_duckworth_grit_the_p
ower_of_passion_and_perseverance?language=en
Objectives of research/Multipurpose
activity
 To obtain information: Product/ consumer/ student
research
 To extend knowledge
 To find solution to problem
• B: Health care-‘ How can we reduce the cost of operating a
pathology lab? ’
• B: Aviation-‘ How can we reduce the cost of operating
airlines ?’
• ‘When flights fly lighter the cost of flying reduces’
• G: Water scarcity, unemployment, school dropouts etc.
• E: Attendance, employability
 To develop new principles and theories
• F. W. Taylor-- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RFkT_Is8aRw
• Herzberg’s two factor theory
• McGregor’s X & Y Theory

 To verify and test existing laws or theories

• Taste buds
• Theory Z
• International Trade theories (1776-1817)

 To analyze interrelationships
• Advertising* sales
• Sales promotion* sales
• Product performance* Market price of stock
• Corporate tie-ups of an academic institution * Demand for
undergraduate courses
 To predict events
• Investment Interest* market opportunities

• To develop innovative ideas

• Products: Impossible food, chair-less chair
• Improve products: Smart watches-Health managers
• Better technology: Sustainable transportation solutions
Lush II
• Unexplored utility of existing material-
Swachha foundation-Tiles
Nike- Shoes/garments
Landscape beautification- ‘Say Trees’ (automated drip irrigation &
vertical farming)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=saMnGcMRVec
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oskDPHzoJ60
Importance of Business Research
 Product development
 Reduction in costs
 Marketing mix decisions
 Customer relationships
 Dealer relationship
 Corporate image
 Competitive advantage
 Human resource planning and policies
 Financial management
Types of Business Research
 Applied Research
 Basic/Pure/Fundamental Research
 Empirical Research
 Scientific and Social Science Research
 Quantitative & Qualitative Research
 Historical Research
 Exploratory Research
 Descriptive Research
 Causal Research
 Types of Business Research
 Pure/ Basic
 Fundamental
 Purpose
 Foundation/ Basis
 Commercial
 Who conducts it ?
 Focus
 Form
 Contribution

 Applied Research
 Goal
 Example
 Empirical Research
 Based on____, ____,___
 Direct knowledge
 Hypothesis

 Qualitative & Quantitative Research

 Statistical Measurement
 Reasoning

 Scientific and Social Science Research

 Theories
 Process
 Evidence

 Deals
 Workable solutions
 Significance
 Historical Research
 Interpretation of past events

 Exploratory Research
 Undefined/ lack of clarity

 Descriptive Research
 Statistical Research
 Report-Data/Facts
 Objective
 Describe W’s
 Limitations
 Methods

 Causal Research
 Examine Relationship
Basic Research
 Pure/ fundamental research
 Extend/expand man’s knowledge
 Advances fundamental knowledge about the world
 Basic research lays foundation for the applied science that follows.
 No commercial value/angle
 It is the source of most new ideas and ways of thinking about the
world.
 It can be exploratory or descriptive .
 It generates new ideas, principles and theories, which may not be
immediately utilised. However, the new theories or ideas from the
basis of progress and development in different fields.
Basic/Pure/Fundamental Research
 To study the origin of the universe
 Mathematics- Algorithms- Computers
 Newton's contribution
Applied Research
 A study designed to solve practical problems, rather than
merely acquiring knowledge.
 Find solutions to everyday problems, and develop innovative
technologies.
 Goal- Improve human condition.
 Undertaken by Business/ Government/ Social organisations
Applied
Business:
 Market research carried on for developing a new market for
existing product or for studying the post purchase experience
of customers.
 To identify the causes of decline in sales/ non acceptance of
product.
Social:
 To study the problem of unemployment in rural areas.
 To study the level of job satisfaction among non-teaching staff
at colleges affiliated to Mumbai university
 Empirical Research
 Research based on experimentation or observation .
 Empirical Research can be defines as “research done on the basis
of experimentation or observation alone without due regards to
system and theory.
 Empirical research is a way of gaining knowledge by means of
direct and indirect observation experience or experimentation or
observation.
 Such research is conducted to test Hypothesis
Empirical Research
 An agriculture scientist desires to study the impact of application
of a particular chemical fertiliser(say urea) on the yield of crop.
 He selected two identical plots of land in farm. All conditions- soil
fertility, climate, irrigation seed, cultural practices are the same.
 Thus all variables are kept constant.
 In the experimental plot alone, he applied chemical fertilisers.
 This is only variation between the two plots
 Hence the difference in yield is attributable to the application of
the chemical fertilisers.
 Qualitative and Quantitative Research
 The qualitative method investigates the why and how of
decision making, not just what, where, and when. Hence,
smaller but focused samples are more often used than large
samples.
 Quantitative research is all about explaining the phenomena
by collecting numerical data that are analysed using
mathematically based methods. The objective of quantitative
research is to develop and employ mathematical models,
theories and/or hypotheses pertaining to phenomena.
Scientific Research
 Scientific Research is a systematic process undertaken to
study the research problem and to arrive at conclusions.
 It relies on application of the scientific method.
 It provides scientific information and theories for the
explanation of the nature and the properties of the world
around us.
Scientific
 To study the impact of mid day meal scheme on nutritional status
of school going children nation wide.
 To study the purity level/ quality level/ composition of drinking
water at various water reservoirs in XYZ (Locality)
 To study the impact of Hyper Loop High speed trains on the
Indian markets/ Indian Transportation system.
 A comparative study on the impact of hyper loop high speed trains
/ solar power driven trains on environment.
 To study the impact of using/ accepting crypto currency as a legal
tender.
 To analyse the impact of ‘Digital India’ campaign on “’XYZ”’
Industry
Social science research
 SSR deals with the behaviour of people in their different
roles, such as consumers, consultants, learners, trainers,
employees, producers, parents, artists, etc.
 The SSR provides workable solutions to economic and social
problems
 SSR helps to modify social behaviour for social welfare
 SSR enables the organisation to develop appropriate
methodology to study, analyse and to take suitable action to
overcome the problems relating to human resources.
 SSR contributes to improve standards of social development
 SSR is a tool for social planning and control.
 Social science research
 To study the problem of high attrition rate in BPO industry.
 To analyse the impact of flexible working hours on work life
balance.
 Impact of rotating shifts on the work life balance of young mothers
 Importance of planting sleeping pods at workplace(BPO,
ATC’s)/ libraries/ railway stations/ airports/research
centres
 Impact of “’XYZ’’ scheme on investment behaviour of working women/
house wife’s
 To study the causes behind increasing trade of brides in Haryana.
 Problems faced by working women in KPO/Aviation Industry/BPO
 To study investment behaviour of working women in organised sectors.
 To identify the problems faced by commuters during peak hours in the
western region of Mumbai.
 Exploratory
 Exploratory research is conducted to explore information about the
nature or causes of research problem.
 It is conducted when the causes of the research are not known to the
researcher.
 The purpose of conducting exploratory research are as follows......
 To define the problem more clearly
 To develop hypothesis
 To identify alternate courses of action
 To isolate key variables and to develop relationships among the
variables for further examination
 To establish priorities for further research
Exploratory
 Doctors initial investigation of a patient suffering from
unfamiliar malady for getting some clues for identifying it .
Descriptive
 Descriptive research or statistical research provides data about the
population/universe being studied.
 Descriptive research can only describe the “Who, What, When, Where and How” of a
situation.
 It does not describe What caused a particular situation.
 In fact one of its major limitations is that it cannot help determine What causes a
specific behaviour, motivation or occurrence.
 One cannot establish cause - effect relationship on the basis of descriptive data.
 Descriptive research is used when the objectives is to provide a systematic description
that is a factual and accurate as possible.
 It provides information like- the number of times something occurs, or frequency of
occurrence.
 It lends it self to statistical calculations such as determining the average number of
occurrences or central tendencies based on-Observation and survey
 Descriptive research provides fact of a particular event or situation.
 It gives description of the state of affairs, as it exists of a particular event or situation.
 The researcher has no control over the situation or event. He can only report what
has happened or what is happening
Descriptive
 Do more villagers than city voters vote for a particular party?
 To understand the general pattern of buying behaviour of
consumers during a particular season or in general
throughout the year.
 A report on the absenteeism in a particular organisation.
Causal Research
 Causal research investigates cause-effect relationship between
two or more variables.
The objectives of causal research are.......
 To understand the cause effect relationship between two or
more variables.
 To focus on those variables or elements having greater
positive effect.
 To eliminate certain variables or elements having negative
effect.
 To develop action plan.
Causal
 Weather *sales of ice-creams/cold drinks
 Advertising * sales
 Sales promotion *sales
Historical research
 Historical research involves interpreting past events to predict future
ones. It includes analysing events that occurred in the remote or recent
past.
 According to William Wiersma, historical research can be defined as, “ a
process of critical inquiry into past events, in order to produce an
accurate description & interpretation of those events”.
 The important features of historical research are as follows
 It is necessary to define the situations of the past & its meaning in the
light of the present problem.
 It helps to understand the issues better and in the right perspective.
 It relies excessively on secondary sources of data
 In conducting historical research, the researcher can neither manipulate
nor control any of the variables.
Questions
 An automobile manufacturer is conducting research in an
attempt to predict the type of car design consumers will
desire in the year 2022. Is this basic or applied research?
Explain.
Class Activities
Which of the following organizations are likely to use business
research? Why? How ?
 Manufacturer of breakfast cereals
 Manufacturer of ancillary products
 Hospital
 Textbook publishing house
Rajiv Ramchandani was born in Colaba. When he went to college,
inspired by the magazine MAD, he started cartooning. His cartoon
was even published Business India Magazine. Because of his
cartooning skills, he was appointed in an advertising company. One
day when he was getting ready for office, he saw himself wearing a
dull t’shirt and thought of cartooning on t-shirts. He made samples
and showed to his friends in the office. They all loved it. He was
sure of starting an enterprise of manufacturing and selling t-shirts
with cartoons. Rajiv was sure that his idea would work but was not
sure how to proceed with research so that he manufactures the
right sizes, materials, type of cartoon and sells at the right price
and place. Kindly help him with research.
Stages in Research process
 Identifying and selection of research problem
 Review of literature
 Formulation of hypothesis
 Research design
 Designing the questionnaire
 Sampling Design
 Collection of Data
 Processing of Data
 Data analysis and Interpretation
 Hypothesis testing
 Preparation of research report
 Follow up of the report
Characteristics of Good Research
 Scientific Method
 Objective and logical
 Empirical
 Generalization
 Pilot study
 Good research design
 Selection of right techniques
 Ease in implementation
 Research Design

Plan * Purpose
Blueprint CMA
What does it specify/ Constitute ?
Obligatory function
Guidelines
 Ä research design is defined as “a logical and systematic plan
prepared for directing a research study. It specifies the
objectives of the study; the methodologies and techniques to
be adopted for achieving the objectives.”
-Philips Bernad

 “Research design actually constitutes the blue print for the

collection, measurement and analysis of the data.”
-David & Nachmias
Research Design: Meaning
 Research Design is a plan, structure and strategy of
investigation conceived so as to obtain answers to research
questions
 A research design is the specification of methods and
procedures for acquiring the information needed. It is the
overall operational pattern or framework of the project that
stipulates what information to be collected from which
sources by what procedures
What ever may be the nature of research problems, all
the research designs should contain answers to the
following questions:
 What the study is about ?
 Why the study is undertaken ?
 What are the types of data required ?
 Where data can be found ?
 What techniques of gathering data will be adopted ?
 In which areas, the study will be undertaken ?
The research design must include the
following aspects:
 A clear statement of research problem
 The purpose or objectives of the research
 The time period of research study
 The sources of collecting data
 The procedures and techniques of collecting data
 The universe of research design.
 The sample size of respondents, if any.
 The area where research is to be conducted
 The methods or techniques of data processing
 The resources required to conduct the research
Need and importance of research design
 Guidelines to the researcher: When ? What ? Where ?
 Organising resources
 Directions to the research staff: Source, Area, Time, Funds
 Selection of techniques
 Collection of relevant data: U/A/S
 Execution of research work and attainment of research objectives
 Monitoring of expenditure
 Motivation to the staff
“Impact of Social media on the physical and mental health of
undergraduates studying in western Mumbai region.”
Types of Research Design
 Exploratory
 Descriptive
 Causal
 Purpose ?
 Suitability ?
 Exploratory Descriptive Causal

Identifying the problem Stage I

Describing the problem Stage I

Construction of hypothesis Stage I

Test the significance of

relationship
Exploratory
 Exploratory research design is used when researcher aims to
explore information about the nature or causes of research
problem.
 It is conducted when the causes of the research problem are not
known to the researcher.
 The purpose of using exploratory research design are as
follows......
 To define the problem more clearly
 To develop hypothesis
 To identify alternate courses of action
 To isolate key variables and to develop relationships among the
variables for further examination
 To establish priorities for further research
Exploratory Research
 Features: Unstructured, Informal and Flexible

 Methods:
➢ Secondary data
➢ Experience survey
➢ Focus Groups
➢ Projective techniques

 Uses:
➢ Background information
➢ Development of hypothesis
➢ Research priorities
Descriptive
Cross Sectional
 One shot / status study
 Measure population aspects at only point of time.
E.g.
• The extent of unemployment in city of Mumbai.
• Sample survey by magazine publisher of magazine readers.

Longitudinal studies
 Measure repeatedly the same population over a period of time.
 To determine the pattern of change in relational to times at
regular intervals.
 E.g. Ascertain the trends in the demand for labour immigration
Cross Sectional
 A study in which data is gathered just once, over a period of days
or weeks or months, in order to answer a research question. Such
studies are called one shot or cross sectional studies.

 Example:
 A drug company desirous of investing in research for a new
obesity (reduction) pill conducted a survey among obese people to
see how many of them would be interested in trying the new pill.
 This one shot study/ cross sections study can help researcher to
assess the likely demand for the new product.
Longitudinal studies
 In some cases however the researcher might want to study
people or phenomena at more than one in time in order to
answer the research question.

 Example: The researcher might want to study employees

behaviour before and after a change in the top management
so as to know what effects the change accomplished.
 In this case data is gathered at two or more points of time to
answer the research question are called longitudinal studies.
Causal Research
 Causal research investigates cause-effect relationship between
two or more variables.
The objectives of causal research are.......
 To understand the cause effect relationship between two or
more variables.
 To focus on those variables or elements having greater
positive effect.
 To eliminate certain variables or elements having negative
effect.
 To develop action plan.
Areas/Scope/Steps in Research Design
1. Define the problem and hypothesis
2. Sources of data
3. Techniques of data collection
4. Decision on universe
5. Sample size
6. Areas of data collection
7. Methods of data analysis
8. Decision on resources
9. Period/Time frame of research
10. Drafting of research design
11. Approval of research design
Essential of a Good Research Design
 Focus on objectives
 Flexibility
 Pilot study
 Acceptance
 Suitability
 Simplicity
 Cost effective
 Ease in implementation
 Training to the research staff
 Selection of right techniques/methods
Variables
Types of Variables
Dependent Variable
Independent Variable
Moderating Variable
Intervening/ Mediating Variable
 Hypothesis

Assumption/Tentative preposition
Predictive statement
Must contain
Form
Types (Directional, Non-directional)
Correct/ incorrect
Question
Hypothesis
 Formal statement that explains some outcome
 Hypothesis is a guess – which would be proved
 Formal statement of an unproven proposition that is
empirically testable
 When hypothesis is written, it is written in a manner that can
be supported or shown to be wrong through empirical test
 A website with blue background will generate more sales than
an otherwise identical website with a red background
 Generally a proposition is converted into hypothesis
 Hypothesis should be clear and precise
 It must be capable of being tested
Characteristics of a good hypothesis
 Empirically testable
Impact of training program on students performance.
 Specific & Conceptual clarity
Socio-economic impact of ‘Pradhan Mantri AwasYojna’ on
urban poor
 Related to available techniques
Impact measurement
Directional
Non-directional
One/ two/ multiple sample
 Theoretical relevance
‘Theory of Human Relations in management’
H: Effective management-labour relationship facilitates higher
productivity
‘Two factor theory’
H: Challenging work profile motivates ambitious employees
 Objectivity
 Consider all pertinent/relevant areas of the problem
 Declining scores in ‘XYZ’ Subject
 Interest
 Difficulty level
 Poor teaching- learning methods/techniques
 Difficult paper
 Strict assessment
 Significance of hypothesis
 Provides definitive focus
‘Impact of revised personal income tax rates on the consumer
demand’
Ho: There is no significant impact of revised tax rates on the
consumer demand
Ho: There is no significant difference between the consumer demand
before and after ____________
 Specifies sources of data
‘Sophomores preference for smart watch brands in Mumbai
region’
H0: All the brands are equally preferred……. OR
 Determines data needs (refer to previous example)
 Suggests the type of research
 Techniques of analysis
 Development of theory
Theory of Conspicuous consumerism- Thorstein
Types of hypothesis
 On the basis of functions
 Descriptive hypotheses
 Relational hypotheses
 Causal hypotheses

 On the basis of nature of hypotheses

 Working hypotheses
 Null hypotheses
 Statistical hypotheses
 On the basis of functions
 Descriptive hypotheses
 The rate of poverty is more in rural area of India as compared
to that of urban areas.
 The quality of education in privately management schools is far
better than that of government schools.

 Relational hypotheses
 Educated people spend more on clothing as compared to
uneducated people
 Literate couples have fewer children as compared to literate
couples

 Causal hypotheses
 Increase in the female literacy results in lower birth rate.
On the basis of nature of hypotheses
 Working hypotheses
 A researcher may proceed with the hypotheses that in the light of
economic recession employment opportunities have reduced but as
he/she progresses in his/her research he/she finds out India is only
remotely affected by Global recession. Hence he/she alters his/her
hypothesis

 Null hypotheses
 There is no significant relationship between literacy and population
growth.
 There is no significant difference between the preferences shown towards
banking facilities by business-class of customers and salaried class of
customers.
 There is no relationship between female literacy and employment

 Statistical hypotheses
 Community A is more literate than community B
Sources of hypothesis
 Research studies
 Consultations
 Theory
“Effective management labour relations facilitates higher
productivity”
 Observation
“Educated customers prefer branded items than illiterate
customers.”
 Culture
 Continuity of research
 Broad Area: Investment behavior Or Social Media
 Specific topic: Impact of social media on investors behavior.
1. Impact of social media on the young investors investment behavior
2. Impact of social media on investment bubbles.
3. Impact of social media on institutional investors investment
decisions/ recommendations.
https://www.greenwich.com/press-release/social-media-influencing-
investment-decisions-global-institutions
Parameters:Area, Demographic factors, etc.
 Variables:
Social media influencers
Social media Applications
Form of content (video, words, pictures, reels, etc.)
Impact of Social Media on the Young
Investors’ Investment Behavior
 To understand/ comprehend/ analyse the profile of the young investors’ investment
behavior in Mumbai region.
 To comprehend the young investors’ purpose of using various social media platforms.
 To identify and analyse the most influential social media platform determining the
youngsters investment behavior.
 To ascertain the young investors’ most preferred form of social media content.
 To examine the impact of social media influencers on the young investors’ investment
behavior.

 Key parameters to study behavior:

 a) Source of information (awareness, additional knowledge, verification): Authenticity,
reliability, etc.
 b) Results/ Outcomes: Benefited, not benefited
 c) Testimonials: learn from others experience/ mistakes/ gains etc.
 d) Decisions: Tips, Statistics, Reports, Discussions etc.
 H0 :Social media does not influence the young investors’
investment behavior/decision.
 H1 :Social media has a significant influence on the young
investors’ investment behavior/decision.
OR
 H1 :Social media has a positive influence on the young
investors’ investment behavior/decision.
 Broad Area: Taxation, Environment & logistics
 Specific topic: Impact of GHG fee/tax on the maritime logistics.
1. Impact of GHG fee/tax on the valuation of cargo passing through
the panama canal.
2. Impact of GHG fee/tax on the competitiveness of the goods shipped
from ASEAN nations to North American countries via the panama
canal.
3. The Impact of GHG fee/tax on the global supply chain.
4. Role of GHG fee/tax imposed by PCA on the environment.
https://www.greenwich.com/press-release/social-media-influencing-
investment-decisions-global-institutions
Parameters: Shipping routes, cost of cargo, green projects etc.
 Sampling
A sample is a part of the universe that can be used as respondents to a survey or for the
purpose of experimentation, in order to collect relevant information to solve a
particular problem.

Donald Tull and Dell Hawkins define sample as "those individuals chosen from the
population of interest as subjects in an experiment or to be the respondents to a
survey."
Terms
 Sample: PART*USED*OBJECTIVE
 Universe/ Population
 Sampling
 Sample unit
 Sample frame
 Sampling error
‘A study on level of Job-satisfaction among the employees
working with government banks in rural parts of India.
Can we consider banks in -Ralegaon, Mhasala, Shahapur ?
Terms
 Sample: A sample is a subset, or some part, of a larger
population
 Population: Any complete group of entities that share some
common set of characteristics
 Population Element: Any individual member of population
 Census: An investigation of all the individual elements that
make up a population
 Methods
 Probability ( Systematic & objective, True representation, Mechanical
rather than mental, Commonly used, Accurate and reliable result)
• Simple random
• Systematic random
• Stratified
• Cluster

 Non Probability
• Convenient [Reading habits of BMS students studying at colleges
affiliated to Mumbai university in Mumbai (western suburban region)]
• Judgement [Newspaper reading habits of college students]
• Quota
• Snowball
Income No. of Proportion Disproporti
house ate (1%) onate
holds
Up to Rs. 20,000 200 180
90.000
Rs. 90,000 to 5,000 50 60
10 Lakhs
Rs. 10 Lakhs 2,000 20 30
to 100 Lakhs
Sample Size 270 270
Sampling Methods
Probability versus non probability sampling
 Probability Sampling: A sampling technique in which every
number of the population has a known, non zero probability of
selection
 i.e. Each member of population has an equal probability of being
selected
 Non Probability Sampling: A sampling technique in which units of
the sample are selected on the basis on personal judgment or
convenience; the probability of any particular member of the
population being chosen is unknown
 Researchers rely on personal judgment
 No statistical method available for measuring error non probability
sampling
Non Probability Sampling Techniques
 Convenience Sampling:The sampling procedure of obtaining
those people or units that are most conveniently available
 Convenient and economic
 Web – surveys
 Best used for exploratory research
 Judgment Sampling:A non probability sampling technique in
which an experienced individual selects the sample based on
personal judgment about some appropriate characteristics
required of the sample member
 Test market cities
Non Probability Sampling Techniques
 Quota Sampling: A non probability sampling procedure that
ensures that various subgroups of a population will be represented
on pertinent characteristics to the exact extent that the
investigators desires
 HDTV user survey – 40 Sony TV, 25 Samsung, 15 Panasonic and 20
other brands
 Surveyors are responsible to find such people
 Speed, convenience, lower costs
 True representative
 Snowball Sampling:A sampling procedure in which initial
respondents are selected by probability methods and additional
respondents are obtained from information provided by the initial
respondents
 Helpful when population is not accessible
Probability Sampling
 Simple Random Sampling:A sampling procedure that assures
each element in the population of an equal chance of being
included in the sample is called simple random sampling
 Systematic Sampling:A sampling procedure in which a
starting point is selected by a random process and then every
nth number on the list is selected
 5th 10th 15th.. Of population
Probability Sampling
 Stratified Sampling:A probability sampling procedure in
which the population is divided into subgroups (strata),
whose members are more or less equal in some
characteristics
 Dividing the retail outlets on the basis of their annual turnover
and locations
 Proportional stratified sample: A stratified sample in which the
number of sampling units drawn from each stratum in
proportion to the population size of that stratum
 Disproportional Stratified Sample: A stratified sample in which
the sample size for each stratum is allocated according to
analytical considerations
Income No. of Proportion Disproporti
house ate (1%) onate
holds
Up to Rs. 20,000 200 180
90.000
Rs. 90,000 to 5,000 50 60
10 Lakhs
Rs. 10 Lakhs 2,000 20 30
to 100 Lakhs
Sample Size 270 270
 Probability Sampling
 Cluster Sampling:An economically efficient sampling technique
in which the primary sampling unit is not the individual element
in the population but a large cluster of elements; clusters are
selected randomly
 To reduce travel cost mainly
 E.g. BMS college students survey, Select area with large number of
colleges and work
 Multistage Area Sampling: Sampling that involves using a
combination of two or more probability sampling techniques
 Stratified and cluster
 Simple random snowball
Probability Vs. Non-Probability
 Meaning
 Sample Frame
 Methods
 Time & cost factor
 Area coverage
 Accuracy of data
 Bias in sampling
 Representative sample
 Convenience to researcher
 Suitability
Factors determining sample size
 Area of research
 Availability of funds, time & manpower
 Nature of research
 Method of data collection
 Precision/ Accuracy
Survey Research

89
 Outline

 Introduction
 Classification of surveys
 Steps in survey research
 Some problems in survey research
 References

90
 Introduction.

Survey (noun).
 STATISTICS analysis of poll sample: a statistical analysis of
answers to a poll of a sample of a population, for example, to
determine opinions, preferences, or knowledge. [1].
 A method of gathering information from a sample of individuals. [2]
 A powerful, scientific tool for gathering accurate and useful
information. [8]

 Gathering information, asking questions, and sample of population.

91
 One of the most important areas of research tools in the
field of applied social science is the ‘survey research’. It
is one of the most relevant techniques basically used for
collecting data and involves any measurement
procedures that prominently include asking questions
from respondents or the subjects selected for the
research study. The term “survey” can be defined as a
process which may involve an investigation/ examination
or assessment in the form of a short paper- and-pencil
feedback form to an intensive one-on-one in-depth
interview. With the help of the questionnaire or other
statistical tools, the method tries to gather data about
people, their thoughts and behaviours.
CONCEPT AND MEANING OF ‘SURVEY
RESEARCH’
 The method of survey research is a non-experimental
(that is, it does not involves any observation under
controlled conditions), descriptive research method
which is one of the quantitative method used for
studying of large sample. In a survey research, the
researcher collects data with the help of standardised
questionnaires or interviews which is administered on a
sample of respondents from a population (population is
sometimes referred to as the universe of a study which
can be defined as a collection of people or object which
possesses at least one common characteristic).
 Definitions
Census.
 Any count: any systematic count or survey.
 Count of population: an official count of a population carried
out at set intervals.
Sample.
 STATISTICS group selected for testing: a representative
selection of a population that is examined to gain statistical
information about the whole.[1]
Random
 STATISTICS equally likely: relating or belonging to a set in
which all the members have the same probability of
occurrence.[1]

94
 STEPS INVOLVED IN CONDUCTING
SURVEY RESEARCH
 Step 1: Determination of the aims and objectives of study:

 The researcher must at the outset analyse and assess the relevant
areas or issues which need to be studied. Once the research area
is selected by the researcher, the basic aims and objectives have
to be clearly specified. These have to be focused and analysed so
as to make the purpose of research relevant and understandable.
The researchers have to come up with the basic aims and
objectives which would be focused and analysed in their over all
research.
 Step 2: Define the population to be studied:
 After selecting the theme of the research, the researcher also
needs to define the target population which would be studied by
him/her. As discussed earlier, the population or universe would
be a collection of people or object that would possess at least
one common characteristic, which is going to be helpful and
which would also provide direction in the process of conducting
the research.
 Step 3: Design and construct a survey:
 Once the target population is defined by the researcher, he or
she needs to design a survey research. On the basis of the
framed design, the research decides to conduct a survey, selects
instrument for survey (for example telephonic interview) with
the help of which data will be collected. After the selection of
the instrument, the researcher conducts a pilot study (a small
survey taken in advance of a major investigation or research).
The pilot study helps the researcher to analyse the significance
and relevance of the instruments selected by the researcher for
the present research.
 Step 3: Select a representative sample:
 The process of construction of the survey
instruments gives a way to the selection of the
sample from the target population. The researcher
selects a sample which represents nearly maximum
characteristics of the whole universe/ population. If
the sample selected is a good representation of the
population, then the results or the findings of the
survey conducted on the sample can be easily
generalised on the population as a whole.
 Step 4: Administer the survey:
 After the selection of the sample, the researcher
conducts the survey by administering the survey
instrument or tool on the selected sample. This step
helps in the collection of the required data or
information from the sample.
 Step 5: Analyse and interpret the findings of the
survey:
 Once the data has been collected, the researcher
analyses the data with the help of required statistical
tools and then interprets the findings on the basis of
the information revealed. This step involves several
processes such as coding the data and then processing
it.
 Step 6: Prepare the report of the survey:
 On the basis of the analysis and interpretation of the
results, the researcher prepares a report of the over all
research conducted. The report contains all the details
of aims, objectives, data analysis, interpretation and
discussion of the results. In this step, the researcher
tries to evaluate how the findings meet the proposed
aims and objectives of the research.
 Surveys are related to:
 Sampling. (From where/whom are we getting
the information)
 Interviewing. (How are we getting the
information?)
 Threats of validity. (What affect the validity of
the results)
 Ethics. (Respect people’s opinion and
confidential results.)

99
 Why Are Surveys Conducted?
Surveys provide an important source of basic
scientific knowledge.

Who may conducts a survey?

Economists, psychologists, health professionals, political
scientists, and others who need to get some information may
conduct surveys to study such matters as income and
expenditure patterns among households, the roots of ethnic or
racial prejudice, the implications of health problems on people's
lives, comparative voting behavior, the effects on family life of
women working outside the home, etc.. [2].

100
 Requirements for Accurate
Estimates[8]
 The sample is large enough to yield the desired level of
precision.
 Everyone in the population has an equal (or known) chance of
being selected for the sample.
 Questions are asked in ways that enable the people in the
sample to respond willingly and accurately.
 The characteristics of people selected in the sampling process
but who do not participate in the survey are similar to the
characteristic of those who do.

101
 Classification of Surveys
 By size (social, community and school surveys).[9]

 By result type (quantitative or qualitative).

 Time and population.

102
 TYPES OF SURVEY RESEARCH
Based on the selection of an instrument or method of data
collection, the researcher can use qualitative (e.g. ask open-
ended questions) or quantitative (e.g. use forced- choice
questions) measures. Basically there are two major types of
survey: cross- sectional surveys and longitudinal surveys,
though there exist some other types of surveys also. These are
explained below:
 Cross sectional survey
Cross sectional surveys are used by the researcher
when he or she wants to collect data from varied or different
types of groups ( that may be in terms of age, sex, group, nation,
tribes and so on) at a single time. An example of such a survey
can be a study on the effect of socialization of children of
different age groups of a particular country. This type of survey
is less time consuming and economical as well.
 Longitudinal survey
This type of research is used only when the subject wants
to study the same sample for a longer period of time. Such
longitudinal studies may be used to study behavioural changes,
attitude changes, religious effects or any event or practice that
may have a long time effect on the selected sample or population.
There are three main types of longitudinal studies which help the
researcher to analyse the long term effects on the selected sample.
These three include (i) Trend studies (ii) Cohort studies and (iii)
Panel studies. These are explained in the following paragraphs.
i) Trend studies
 When the researcher needs to analyse a trend of a phenomenon in a
population, they conduct trend studies. The sample of the selected
population might not be the same (as over a period of time they might have
shifted or not available for various reasons) but they belong to the same
population. This selected population is sampled and examined regularly.
Since it is a type of longitudinal research, it may not be started as well as
ended by just one researcher or research project. An example of trend
studies may be a yearly survey of number of graduates actively using books
and journals from the library of a university.
 Cohort studies
 The focus of this type of longitudinal study is also on a particular
population which is sampled and studied more than once within a time
gap. The example of this study can be an investigation of the number of
graduates of the year 2009 who have been actively using the library and
four years later, the researcher may examine the same issue on another
sample of the 2009 graduates and investigate whether after the time gap
has there been any difference in the attitudes towards the importance of
the library within the members of the same class. Wherein, in the trend
study, the research scholar would study such an attitude within the
graduates of different batches of the same university.

Panel studies
 The researcher in a panel study uses the same sample of people every time
and that sample is called as a ‘panel’. Such a study is used in order to
investigate the changes in attitudes, behavior or practices of the same
panel within a period of time. They are more specific and focused as the
researcher studies a particular change in the attitude, behaviour, belief or
practice of the same group.
 Comparison of Surveys’ Types.

Advantages Disadvantages
Cross-sectional All information
collected at once.
Trend Study Members of population Not for analyze
can change over time particular individuals
without affecting the but groups.
result.
Cohort study It is possible the Members of population
selection of different can not change.
sample.
Panel study Same sample always. Loss of individuals
could happen.

106
 Steps in Survey Research
1. State the objectives of the survey
2. Define the target population
3. Define the data to be collected
4. Define the required precision and accuracy
5. Define the measurement `instrument'
6. Define the sample frame, sample size and sampling method
7. Select the sample
8. Collect the data
9. Data analysis
10. Results

107
 Steps in Survey Research
1. State the objectives of the survey.
You have to define specifically the problem you are trying to
solve.
If you cannot state the objectives of the survey you are unlikely
to generate useable results. You have to be able to formulate
something quite detailed, perhaps organized around a clear
statement of a testable hypothesis. Clarifying the aims of the
survey is critical to its ultimate success.

108
 Steps in Survey Research
2. Define the target population.
Defining the target population can be relatively simple,
especially for finite populations, however, it may be more difficult
to define what constitutes 'natural' membership of the population;
In that case, arbitrary decisions have to be made.

The process of defining the population is quite different when

dealing with continuous (rather than discrete) phenomena. As
you will see, it is still possible to define a sample size even if you
don't know the proportion of the population that the sample
represents.

109
 Steps in Survey Research
3. Define the data to be collected.
What new information do you need to solve the problem?
Hint: prepare hypothetical tables of results. They help us to
separate “need to know” than “nice to know”.

Focus groups can help to find out which questions to ask in a

survey. But they can not substitute surveys.

110
 Steps in Survey Research
4. Define the required precision and accuracy
The most subjective stage is defining the precision with which
the data should be collected. Strictly speaking, the precision can
only be correctly estimated if we conduct a census. The
precision provided by a sample survey is an estimate the
'tightness' of the range of estimates of the population
characteristics provided by various samples.

When we estimate a population value from a sample we can only

work out how accurate the sample estimate is if we actually
know the correct value - which we rarely do - but we can
estimate the 'likely' accuracy. We need to design and select the
sample in such a way that we obtain results that have acceptable
precision and accuracy

111
 Steps in Survey Research
5. Define the measurement `instrument‘.
The measurement instrument is the method -
interview, observation, questionnaire - by which the
survey data is generated.

To produce useful information the ideas that

motivated the survey must be translated into good
questions.

112
 Define what kind of information
Clarify what kind of information you are looking for.
 What people do or what they are: their behavior or
attributes.
 What people say they want or what they think is true:
their attitudes or beliefs.

113
 Analyze the Different Ways of
Communication.

 Visual (mail).

 Hear (telephone).

 All forms (face to face interview).

114
 Kind of Question Structure.
Which kind of question structure to use?
 Open-ended.
 Close-ended with ordered choices.
 Close-ended with unordered response choices.
 Partially closed-ended.

115
 The Questionnaire
A effective questionnaire will follow this rules:
 It should be as brief as possible.
 The information asked for must be otherwise inaccessible to the
investigator.
 The subject inquired about must not be a trivial one but must have
importance enough to justify the time and the effort involved.
 The questions ought to be aimed at obtaining factual data, rather than
opinions, impressions, or estimates.
 The wording of every item ought to be understandable and familiar, in
order to insure the respondent’s comprehension of what is being asked.
 For the same reason, the items should be arranged in a neat and logical
order.
 The questionnaire should be conveniently planned and set up to take a
minimum of the respondent’s time.
 Clear instructions must be included as to the way the answers are to be
indicated.

116
 Steps in Survey Research
6. Define the sample frame, sample size and
sampling method.
The sample frame is the list of people ('objects' for
inanimate populations) that make up the target
population; It is a list of the individuals who meet the
'requirements' to be a member of that population.
The sample is selected from the sample frame by
specifying the sample size (either as a finite number,
or as a proportion of the population).
The sampling method is the process by which we
choose the members of the sample.

117
 Steps in Survey Research
7. Select the sample.
 The sample is selected, using the sample method
defined, from the sample frame by specifying the
sample size.

 The process of generating a sample requires several

critical decisions to be made. Mistakes at this stage
will compromise - and possibly invalidate - the entire
survey. These decisions are concerned with the
sample frame, the sample size, and the sampling
method.

118
 Types of Errors.
 Coverage error occurs when the list (or frame) from which a
sample is drawn does not include all elements of the population
that researchers wish to study.
 Sampling error occurs when researchers survey only a subset
or sample of all people in the population instead of conducting a
census.
 Measurement error occurs when a respondent’s answer to a
giving question is inaccurate, imprecise, or can not be compared
in any useful way to other respondent’s answers.
 Nonresponse error occurs when a significant number of people
in the survey sample do not respond to the questionnaire and
are different from those who do in a way that is important to the
study.

119
 Errors Examples.

Prior to the 1936 united states presidential election, pollsters for the
magazine Literary Digest mailed postcards to more than 10 million
people who were listed in telephone directories or as registered
owners of automobiles. The cards asked for whom they intended to
vote. Based on the more than 2 million ballots that were returned,
the Literary Digest digest predicted that republican candidate Alfred
M. Landon would win in a landslide over democrat Franklin D.
Roosevelt. At the time, however, more republicans than democrats
owned telephones and automobiles, skewing the poll results. In the
election, Landon won only two states.

120
 Errors Examples.
Interviewer: The President recently increased the number of
U.S. troops in the Persian Gulf. Do you or do
you not support this action?
Respondent: By “support” do you mean I go to the Gulf or
do I think it’s a good idea?
Interviewer: I mean you would go.
Respondent: No.

121
 Errors examples.
 When asked about “welfare,” a majority of Americans
in one survey said that the government spends too
much money. But when asked about “assistance to
the poor,” significantly fewer people gave this
response.

122
 Steps in Survey Research
8. Collect the data.
Apply the instrument to collect the information.

There are different models to collect the data.

 Telephone survey
 Direct administration to a group
 Personal interview
 Mail
 Internet survey and e-mail

123
 Internet Survey and E-mail
Advantages
Fast and cheap
Internet Complex skipping questions
Longer answer to open-ended q.
Pictures, sounds, video, etc.
Many responses in few days
Cheap and fast
E-mail Practically No cost *
Pictures and sound attached
Higher response than reg. mail
Disadvantages
Use of internet is not universal
Easy to quit without finish
Don’t know who respond
No control over many
responses
List of e-mail add. needed
many responses and pass to
friends
unsolicited email not welcome
Can not generalize findings
124
 Steps in Survey Research
9. Data analysis
 Clean the questionnaires.
 Code the questionnaires.
 Close-ended questions.
 Open-ended questions.
 Partially close-ended questions.
 Missing data.

 Decide which statistics are most useful to you.

 Interpretation. Look for results that matter.

125
 Steps in Survey Research
10. Results
 Abstract or executive summary.
 Problem statement.
 Methods and procedures.
 Error structure.
 Findings.
 Implications.
 Appendices.

126
 Some Problems in Survey Research.
Nonresponse.
Why is this a problem? Those that do not respond will
very likely differ from the respondents with regards to answers to
the survey questions.
 Total nonresponse. A questionnaire is missing (not returned).

 Item nonresponse. A specific item of the questionnaire is missing

(not answered).

127
 Suggestions for increasing response rate:
 Use multiple contacts including:
 Send a preliminary announcing the survey.
 Mali the survey to all respondents at the same time.
 Send a remainder. (First-Class or Priority Mail)
 Send an acknowledgment card thanking respondents.

 Use printed stationery and personalized letters.

 Include a stamped, pre-addressed return envelope.

 Include a token of thanks --$1 to $5 ---with your initial

questionnaire as an incentive.[2]

128
 Some Problems in Survey Research.
Problems in the Instrumentation Process in SR
 Several threats to the validity of the instrumentation process in
surveys can cause individuals to respond differently than they
might otherwise.
 Examples:

 Extraneous events (a fire drill).

 Leading or insensitive questions.

 Vocabulary used.

 Different conditions (dinner time, poorly lit rooms, etc.).

129
 Some Problems in Survey Research.
Threats to Internal Validity
 Mortality.- Arise in longitudinal studies.

 Location.- Arise if places, where data is collected,

may affect responses.
 Instrumentation.-.

 Instrument decay. Can arise if the interviewer get tired

or are rushed.

130
 PRECAUTIONS WHILE DESIGNING
INSTRUMENTS
While preparing the questionnaire or the survey instrument,
the researcher should take full care of the following aspects:
 The items or the questions of the instruments should be clear
, specific, relevant and short.
 The respondents of the research should also be capable
enough to answer the questions
 The researcher should have full empathy with the
respondents and should avoid those questions which might
have a negative impact on the respondent.
 The researcher should also avoid any kind of bias either
towards the questions or towards the respondents of the
questions.
 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF SURVEY
RESEARCH
Advantages:
 It is convenient, less time taking and economical for the researcher.
 The survey can be conducted for a longer period of time, which gives
a chance of knowing about the latest changes or advancements that
might have taken place in the agenda under study
 The researcher gets a full chance to well organise and present the
reasons of the study to get full and honest answers from the
respondents.
 Yet, the method of survey research lacks the following aspects.
Disadvantages
 Maintaining the privacy of responses of each respondent under a
group interview is questionable and that may also restrict full and
honest answers from them.
 High attrition rate of the respondents might hinder the longitudinal
based studies.
 DIFFICULTIES AND ISSUES OF SURVEY
RESEARCH

 Issues on selecting the type of survey

One of the most critical decisions for a researcher is to select the kind of
survey that might be most appropriate or suitable for his or her study. The
researcher should be aware of the kind of population that would be
suitable for the study. Again, they should also be comfortable with the
language of the selected population. The researcher should also analyse the
geographic restrictions and try to find out which method can be most
feasible for a dispersed population.
 Issues on survey instruments
While constructing the survey, the researcher should have full knowledge
of the suitability of the questions that would be asked to the respondents.
The type of questions, clarity and specificity of the questions as well as the
length of the questions are some of the controversial issues within a survey
research.
 Bias Issues
The researcher’s bias and prejudices might have a
significant influence on the findings of the survey research,
so they should be fully aware of the repercussions of their
bias. Their behavior should be socially desired ones, he or
she should not loose track and also should avoid false
reports. In such cases, issues of bias is really difficult but
essential agenda in a survey research.
 Administrative Issues
The cost, mode of survey, feasibility of the area selected,
required time period are also important aspects which
needs to be preplanned even before the advancement of the
research.