Electrostatic energy

Capacitance
Laplace equation

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Electrostatic energy
Bring charges on any path, one by one from ∞:
I q1 to location r1
I q2 to location r2
I ...
I qN to location rN

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Electrostatic energy - cont.

I Define the distance rij = |ri − rj |

qi qj
I Define Uij ≡ 4π0 rij . By definition: Uij = Uji

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Electrostatic energy - cont.
I To bring q1 it takes 0 energy.
I To bring q2 it takes U12 = 2−1
P
j=1 Uj,2 energy.

I To bring q3 it takes U13 + U23 = 3−1

P
j=1 Uj,3 energy.
I ...
PN−1
I To bring qN it takes U1N + U2N + ..UN−1,N = j=1 Uj,N
energy.

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Electrostatic energy - cont.

The total energy is

N X
X i−1
U= Uji
i=2 j=1

This uses once the pair j, i with j < i. Because Uij = Uji , we can
use each pair twice and divide by 2:
Vi ≡Potential of all
other charges at ri
z }| {
N N N N N N
1 XX 1 X X qi qj 1X X qj
U= Uij = = qi
2 2 4π0 rij 2 4π0 rij
i=1 j=1 i=1 j=1 i=1 j=1
j6=i j6=i j6=i

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Electrostatic energy - example N = 3

I To bring q1 it takes 0 energy.

I To bring q2 it takes U12 energy.
I To bring q3 it takes U13 + U23 energy.
I The total energy is
h i
q2 q
q1 4π0 r12
+ 4π 3r
0 13
1 z }| {
U = U12 +U13 +U23 = [ U12 + U13 +U23 +U21 +U31 +U32 ]
2
I This results in
3
1X
U= qi Vi
2
i=1

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Electrostatic energy - cont.
The total energy is
N
1X
U= qi Vi
2
i=1
where Vi is the potential associated with all other charges at the
location of qi , which is ri .
I Including the potential associated with qi at ri , would result
in ∞,
I The definition of a point charge has an intrinsic
inconsistency: why doesn’t it desintegrate into twice q/2 ?

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Electrostatic energy in continuum limit

In the continuum limit the restriction of “potential from other

charges” becomes irrelevant, we obtain:

˚ z }|
dv
1 {
U= dx dy dz ρ(x, y , z)V (x, y , z)
2
Use Gauss law for ρ
˚ ˚
1 0
U= dv ∇ · (0 E)V = dv (∇ · E)V
2 2

Integrate by parts, using the identity ∇ · (PQ) = Q∇ · P + P · ∇Q:

˚ ˚
0 0
U= dv ∇ · (EV ) − dv E · ∇V
2 2

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Electrostatic energy in continuum limit - cont.

˚ ˚
0 0
U= dv ∇ · (EV ) − dv E · ∇V
2 2
Use E = −∇V and the Divergence Theorem
" ˚
0 0
U= (EV ) · da + dv E · E
2 2
Surounding
surface

The first integral

"
( |{z}
E V ) · |{z}
|{z} da → 0
Surounding behaves2 behaves behaves
surface like 1/r like 1/r like r 2

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Electrostatic energy in continuum limit - cont.

Use E 2 = E · E ˚  
0
U= dv E2
2
0 2
The value 2E is the electric energy density per unit volume
(small u):
1
u = 0 E 2
2
I Reminds pressure ? Indeed.
0 2
Pressure = (E − E22 )
2 1

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Electrostatic energy: Physical interpretation
Pressure (perpendicular force per unit area) on a surface
0
Pressure = (E12 − E22 )
2
Say E1 > E2 , i.e. pressure upward. Press downward with opposite
force on area A, distance L. One made an effort, hence increased
the energy by
0
∆U = (Force)L = (Pressure)AL = (E12 − E22 )(Distorted volume)
2
0 2 0
∆U = E1 AL − E22 AL
2 2

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Electrostatic power and differential energy
The electric energy per unit volume:
1 1
u = 0 E 2 = 0 E · E
2 2
The electric power per unit volume is the time derivative of u
   
du d 1 1 dE dE dE
pE = = 0 E · E = 0 E · + · E = 0 ·E
dt dt 2 2 dt dt dt

or the differential value du

du = 0 dE · E [j/m3 ]

I Physical meaning: a small change in the system, which

creates dE, does not change the energy if dE ⊥ E, i.e. if dE
is parallel to an equipotential surface.
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Electrostatic differential energy

I dU = V dQ global differential energy,

I du = 0 dE · E=differential energy per unit volume
˚ ˚
dU = dv du ; V dQ = dv V dρ

I We proved:
˚ ˚
1 1
U= dvV ρ = dv 0 E 2
2 2
I Similarly, small changes in ρ relate to small changes in E
(same proof dρ = 0 ∇ · dE)
˚ ˚
dU = dvV dρ = dv 0 dE · E

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Electrostatics: Perfect conductor model
The perfect conductor model is
I All fields and charges are 0 inside it

I Charges can exist on its surface as η

Boundary conditions (Region 1 outside conductor)
b · 0 E = η ⇒ 0 E⊥ = η
n

b × E = 0 ⇒ Ek = 0 ⇒ V = Constant
n

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Electrostatics: Perfect conductor model - cont.

I Pressure always outward conductor. Pressure= 20 E 2 .

I Distorting against electric force, inward on area A

(Force= 20 E 2 A) in depth L (i.e. Energy= 20 E 2 AL), adds a
volume AL with energy density 20 E 2 .

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Electrostatics: Capacitance

I Use 2 perfect conductors A and B. Transfer some charge from

B to A.

I Potential on A is VA , charge on A is Q. Potential on B is VB ,

charge on B is −Q

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Electrostatics: Capacitance - cont.
I The accumulated energy is
˚ ˚ ˚ 
1 1
U= dv ρV = dv ρV + dv ρV
2 2 A B
 ˚ ˚ 
1 1
U= VA dv ρ + VB dv ρ = [VA Q + VB (−Q)]
2 A B 2
1 1
U = Q(VA − VB ) ≡ Q V (Q)
2 2
where V (Q) is the potential difference, as function of the
transferred charge Q.

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Electrostatics: Capacitance - cont.
1
U = Q V (Q)
2
take derivative with respect to Q:
 
dU 1 dV
= V (Q) + Q
dQ 2 dQ

When transferring a charge dQ at potential difference V (Q), the

energy increases by
dU
dU = V (Q)dQ ⇒ = V (Q)
dQ
compare
 
1 dV dV dQ dV
V (Q) = V (Q) + Q ⇒ V (Q) = Q ⇒ =
2 dQ dQ Q V

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Electrostatics: Capacitance - cont.

dQ dV
=
Q V
Integrate
integration constant
z }| {
ln(Q) = ln(V ) + ln(C ) = ln(VC )

Q = VC

I The transferred charge Q is linear with the potential

difference V .

I The proportionality constant C is called the capacitance.

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Electrostatics: Poisson and Laplace equations

In regions with electric charges, one needs to solve Poisson

∇2 V = −ρ/0

where V can be expressed as a sum of homogeneous solution Vh ,

plus particular solution Vp , so that:

∇2 Vp = −ρ/0 (Poisson Equation)

∇2 Vh = 0 (Laplace Equation)
and the total solution
V = Vh + Vp
has to satisfy boundary conditions

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Electrostatics: Poisson and Laplace equations - cont.

The solution of Poisson equation

∇2 Vp = −ρ/0

is the superposition integral:

˚
1 ρ(x 0 , y 0 , z 0 )dx 0 dy 0 dz 0
Vp =
4π0 |r − r0 |

The solution to Laplace equation:

I Separation of variables

I Image method
are separately discussed.
Together Vp + Vh must satisfy the boundary conditions.

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Electrostatics: Poisson and Laplace equations - cont.
Say we know ρ(x, y , z), no boundaries. Calculate
˚
1 ρ(x 0 , y 0 , z 0 )dx 0 dy 0 dz 0
V (x, y , z) = Vp (x, y , z) =
4π0 |r − r0 |

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Electrostatics: Poisson and Laplace equations - cont.
But having the same ρ(x, y , z), and perfect conductor. Calculate
˚
1 ρ(x 0 , y 0 , z 0 )dx 0 dy 0 dz 0
Vp (x, y , z) =
4π0 |r − r0 |
Find Vh (x, y , z) (solution of Laplace), so that
V = Vp + Vh
Satisfies constant potential on perfect conductor.

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Electrostatics: Laplace equation

In regions where ρ ≡ 0 one solves Laplace equation

∇2 V = 0

2 methods:
I Separation of variables (useful when boundaries are separable)

I Image method (useful for certain geometries)

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Electrostatics: Laplace - separation of variables (Cartesian)
Variables by order: x, y , z

(∂x2 + ∂y2 + ∂z2 )V = 0

Use only 2 variables say x and y (i.e. ∂z = 0)

(∂x2 + ∂y2 )V = 0

I Non trivial solution ( omitted):

P

V (x, y ) = [A sin(kx x) + B cos(kx x)][C sin(ky y ) + D cos(ky y )]

kx2 + ky2 = 0

I Or kx ≡ k=real and, ky = jk=imaginary, i.e. periodic in x

and hyperbolic in y ,

I Or ky ≡ k=real and, kx = jk=imaginary, i.e. periodic in y

and hyperbolic in x
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Electrostatics: Laplace - separation of variables (Cartesian)
- cont.
I In 2D, one separation variable parameter k

I Orthogonatlity condition to find coefficients

ˆ a
a
sin(mπx/a) sin(nπx/a)dx = δmn (Same for cos)
0 2
I Trivial solution: k = 0 (no )
P

V (x, y ) = [Ax + B][Cy + D]

I Remark: Single variable problem is always trivial. Say

∂z2 V = 0 ⇒ V (z) = Az + B

I All single variable problem solvable by Gauss integral law were

trivial.
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Electrostatics: Laplace - separation of variables
(Cylindrical)
Variables by order: r , ϕ, z
 
1 1 2 2
∂r (r ∂r ) + 2 ∂ϕ + ∂z V = 0
r r
2D case z independent
 
1 1 2
∂r (r ∂r ) + 2 ∂ϕ V = 0
r r
I Non trivial solution ( omitted):
P

V (r , ϕ) = [Ar l + Br −l ][C sin(lϕ) + D cos(lϕ)]

I l Separation variable parameter

I For l real: “Hyperbolic” in r , periodic in ϕ

I Trivial solution: l = 0 (no )

P

V (r , ϕ) = [A + B ln(r )][C ϕ + D]
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Electrostatics: Laplace - separation of variables (Spherical)
Variables by order: r , θ, ϕ
 
1 2 1 1 2
∂r (r ∂r ) + 2 ∂θ (sin θ∂θ ) + 2 2 ∂ϕ V = 0
r2 r sin θ r sin θ
2D case ϕ independent
 
1 2 1
∂r (r ∂r ) + 2 ∂θ (sin θ∂θ ) V = 0
r2 r sin θ

I Non trivial solution ( omitted):

P

V (r , θ) = [Ar l + Br −l−1 ][CPl (cos θ) + 



DQ (cos
l 
 θ)]

I l Separation variable parameter

I Pl (x)=Legendre polynomials, Ql (x)=Legendre polynomials of

2nd kind (diverge at ±1)

I P0 (x) = 1, P1 (x) = x, P2 (x) = 21 (3x 2 − 1), ...

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Electrostatics: Laplace - separation of variables (Spherical)
- cont.
Legendre polynomials: argument x = cos θ
I Pl (x)

I Ql (x)

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Electrostatics: Laplace - separation of variables (Spherical)
- cont.

I Orthogonality relation (for finding coefficients)

ˆ 1
2
Pm (x)Pn (x) dx = δmn
−1 2n + 1

I We deal only with l = 0 (trivial)

B
V (r ) = A +
r
I Or l = 1 (dipole solution)
 
B
V (r , θ) = Ar + 2 cos θ
r

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Electrostatics: Laplace - Image method
I Idea: replace a perfect conductor by charge(s) or some ρ

I Useful for some geometries, here circle

I Require:
q −Q q Q R− Q
V = + =0 ⇒ = ⇒ =
4π0 R+ 4π0 R− R+ R− R+ q

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Electrostatics: Laplace - Image method - cont

I Require triangles similarity (red and black)

R− a D
= =
R+ d a
I Given q and d: Q = q da a2
D= d

I Given Q and D: q = Q Da a2
d= D
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