Magnetism

1 / 56
Magnetism: Force between current elements
▶ Magnetism arises from forces between current elements.

▶ Current means motion of charges. Can magnetism be static ?

2 / 56
Magnetism: Magnetostatics
▶ Magnetism is static if each CE(x, y , z) is not function of t.

▶ Remember charge conservation. In the static case ∂t = 0, so:

∇ · J +
∂t
ρ=0
▶ Magnetostatics is exactly satisfied for continuous current
densities if ∇ · J = 0.

▶ Magnetostatics is approximately satisfied for discrete charges

flowing in close motion.

3 / 56
Magnetostatics↔Electrostatic analogy

▶ Magnetostatics is completely analogous to Electrostatics under

the replacement of charge→CE for all the relevant densities:
▶ charge→CE

▶ ρ → J (CE per volume)

▶ η → K (CE per area)

▶ λ → I (CE per length)

▶ Magnetostatics is more complicated than Electrostatics only

because CE are vectors, so one may have 1, 2 or 3
components.

4 / 56
Magnetostatics: Biot-Savart law
▶ The force between 2 current elements is called magnetic
force (analogue to Coulomb force for charges).

▶ The force of CE1 on CE2 (Biot-Savart law)

 
µ0 CE2 × [CE1 × br12 ] µ0 CE1 × br12
F12 = = CE2 ×
4π r2 4π r2
| {z }
Magnetic flux density
associated with CE1

5 / 56
Magnetostatics: Biot-Savart law, definition of B field
The Magnetic flux density B field associated with a CE (at origin)
is
µ0 CE × br
B=
4π r 2

While a current element in an external B field, “feels” the Lorentz

force
F = CE × B
Force
   N 
Where the B field is Current Element = A m .

6 / 56
Magnetostatics: Lorentz force

F = CE × B
To find the magnetic Lorentz force on a charge q at velocity v, use
CE = qv
F = qv × B
The total Lorentz force in presence of E field is the superposition

F = q(E + v × B)

For a wire of length L carrying the current I , in external B, use

CE = I L
F = IL × B
In the simple case L ⊥ B the force magnitude is ILB.

7 / 56
Magnetostatics: Biot-Savart force - simple configuration

The force of CE1 on CE2 (Biot-Savart law)

µ0 CE2 × [CE1 × br12 ]

F12 =
4π r2
Let us consider case CE1 = q1 v and CE2 = q2 v, so both have the
same v and suppose q1 q2 > 0.

8 / 56
Magnetostatics: Biot-Savart force - simple configuration -
cont.

The electric (Coulomb) force is

1 q1 q2
FCoulomb = (Repulsion)
4πϵ0 r 2
The magnetic (Biot-Savart) force is
µ0 q1 q2 v 2
FBiot-Savart = (Attraction)
4π r 2
The relation:
FBiot-Savart v2
= v 2 µ0 ϵ0 = 2
FCoulomb c
9 / 56
Magnetostatics: Biot-Savart force meaning
The relation:
FBiot-Savart  v 2
=
FCoulomb c
Shows that
▶ FBiot-Savart ≪ FCoulomb with velocities available in 19th
century.

▶ Hence magnetism could not have been detected by

Biot-Savart force law on charges
Magnetism has been detected by force between (almost) neutral
wires, carrying current, called Ampere force law

10 / 56
Magnetostatics: Ampere force law
▶ Ampere force law (compatible with Biot-Savart) defines the
force per unit length between 2 wires carrying currents I1 and
I2 , at distance r .

▶ Opposite currents: repulsion, Same direction currents:

attraction

CEs per length unit

z}|{
F µ0 I1 I2
=
L 2π r

11 / 56
Magnetostatics: Ampere force law - cont

Analogous to the force per unit length between 2 charged wires

charges per length unit
z }| {
F 1 λ1 λ2
=
L 2πϵ0 r

12 / 56
Magnetostatics: Ampere force law - definition of B
Magnetic flux density
associated with I1
z}|{ current element
F µ0 I1 I2 µ0 I1 z}|{
= or F = I2 L
L 2π r 2πr
In cylindric coordinates, a wire on z axis, carrying current I is
associated with flux density B
µ0 I
B= φ
b
2πr
while any current element in external B is suject to the force
F = CE × B (As obtained previously)

13 / 56
Magnetostatics: Analogy electric-magnetic force

14 / 56
Magnetostatics: Ampere law - 1st magnetostatic equation
Using the template in cylindrical coordinates
µ0 I
B= φ
b
2πr
We find that the integral on a circle around a wire carrying current
I is ˛
B · dl = 2πrB = µ0 I

15 / 56
Magnetostatics: Ampere law equation - cont.
Due to the scalar product, one can also distort the path without
changing the result.

Therefore around a wire carrying current I , on any integration

path: ˛
B · dl = µ0 I

16 / 56
Magnetostatics: Ampere law equation - cont.
Using the additivity law, the fields of several sources add up, so
˛ ˛
B · dl = (B1 + B2 ) · dl = µ0 (I1 + I2 )

And in general
˛ ˛
1
B · dl = µ0 Itotal or B · dl = Itotal = Total current
µ0
17 / 56
Magnetostatics: Ampere law equation - cont.
˜
The total current is expressed as: J · da
˛ ¨
1
B · dl = J · da
µ0

18 / 56
Magnetostatics: Ampere law equation - cont.
Using a small loop of area ∆a in the bz direction:
˛
1
B · dl = Jz ∆a
µ0
Divide by ∆a ¸ 1
µ0 B · dl
= Jz
∆a
and take ∆a → 0
1
curl(B)z = Jz
µ0
In general
1
∇×B=J
µ0

19 / 56
Magnetostatics: Ampere law equation - boundary
Say n z. Express ∇ × B = µ0 J, using ∂x = ∂y ≃ 0:
b=b

 
 x y z
 b b b 

∇ × B =  0 0 ∂z  x(−∂z By ) − b
=b y(−∂z Bx ) =
 Bx By Bz 
yBx − b
∂z (b z × B) = µ0 J∥ = µ0 Kδ(z)
xBy ) = ∂z (b

20 / 56
Magnetostatics: Ampere law equation - boundary - cont.

Integrate on z from 0− to 0+

z × (B(0+ ) − B(0− )) = µ0 K
b

z→n
In general b b and 0+ is near boundary in Region 1 (subindexed
1), 0− is near boundary in Region 2 (subindexed 2):
1
b × (B1 − B2 ) = K
n
µ0
21 / 56
Magnetostatics: Ampere law - summary
Integral Ampere law
˛ ¨
1
B · dl = J · da
µ0

Differential Ampere law (given B enables calculation of J)

1
∇×B=J
µ0
Boundary condition Ampere law
1
b × (B1 − B2 ) = K
n
µ0
Non formal boundary condition
1
(B − B2∥ ) = K
µ0 1∥
22 / 56
Magnetostatics: back to Biot-Savart law, definition of B
field
The Magnetic flux density B field associated with a CE (at origin)
is
µ0 CE × br
B=
4π r 2

To find the field associated with a differential current element like

CE = Jdv , one has to integrate. Schematically:
˚
µ0 Jdv × br
B=
4π r2
23 / 56
Magnetostatics: Biot-Savart law, superposition integral for
B

Schematically the integral is:

˚
µ0 Jdv × br
B=
4π r2

but explicitely, r → |r − r′ | and br → bir ′ r :

˚
µ0 J(x ′ , y ′ , z ′ )dx ′ dy ′ dz ′ b
B(x, y , z) = × ir ′ r
4π |r − r′ |2

24 / 56
Magnetostatics: Biot-Savart law: property of B
The Magnetic flux density B field associated with a CE (at origin)
is
Constant
vector P vector Q
z }| { z}|{
µ0 CE br
B= × ≡P×Q
4π r2
What is ∇ · B ? Use identity

∇ · (P × Q) = (∇ × P) · Q − P · (∇ × Q)

br
∇·B =×
(∇  · Q − P · (∇ × Q) = −P · (∇ ×
P) )=0

r2
▶ Remember Slide ??, we proved ∇ × E = 0 by showing
∇ × rbr2 = 0 ?

▶ This proves the general characteristics ∇ · B = 0.

25 / 56
Magnetostatics: Diveregenceless B - 2nd magnetostatic
equation
Sometimes called Gauss’s law for magnetism: ∇ · B = 0 indicates
there is no magnetic monopole. Let us call it conservation of
magnetic flux.
Integral conservation of magnetic flux law
"
B · da = 0

Differential conservation of magnetic flux law

∇·B=0
Boundary condition conservation of magnetic flux
b · (B1 − B2 ) = 0
n
Non formal boundary condition
B1⊥ − B2⊥ = 0
26 / 56
Magnetostatics: Magnetic flux
▶ Because it is conserved, it is more used than electric flux.
˜
▶ Magnetic flux definition: Φ ≡ B · da
"
B · da = B2 A2 − B1 A1 = 0 ⇒ B2 A2 = B1 A1 ≡ Φ

27 / 56
Magnetostatics: Magnetic vector potential

▶ ∇ × E = 0 ⇒ E = −∇V because
∇ × ∇(Any scalar function) ≡ 0

▶ ∇ · B = 0 ⇒ B = ∇ × A because
∇ · (∇ × (Any vector function)) ≡ 0

▶ Same as Q · (Q × (Any vector function)) ≡ 0

▶ A is called the Magnetic vector potential.

h i
▶ Because B is
 Force
 Energy
Current Element , A is Current Element .

28 / 56
Magnetostatics: Magnetic vector potential - unique ?

▶ For given B is A unique ?

▶ Say B = ∇ × A and also B = ∇ × A′ , hence

▶ ∇ × (A − A′ ) = 0, hence

▶ A − A′ = −∇Ψ, where Ψ is some scalar function. Hence

▶ A′ = A + ∇Ψ, hence

▶ All A associated with given B, differ by a gradient

29 / 56
Magnetostatics: Magnetic vector potential - can we chose
it divergenceless ?
▶ Say we want to use A that satisfies ∇ · A = 0.

▶ Find ∇ · A. Say ∇ · A = f .

▶ Define A′ = A + ∇Ψ, and require ∇ · A′ = 0.

▶ ∇ · A′ = ∇ · A + ∇2 Ψ = f + ∇2 Ψ = 0.

▶ We got Poisson equation: ∇2 Ψ = −f , hence find Ψ:

˚
Ψ(r) = dr′ G (r, r′ )f (r′ )

▶ Use A′ = A + ∇Ψ, which satisfies ∇ · A′ = 0.

30 / 56
Magnetostatics: divergenceless (gauged) Magnetic vector
potential
▶ We use only A that satisfies ∇ · A = 0.

▶ Is such A unique ?

▶ No, all A in this subgroup differ by ∇Ψ, for Ψ satisfying

Laplace equation ∇2 Ψ = 0.

31 / 56
Magnetostatics: Equation for magnetic vector potential

▶ Set B = ∇ × A in Ampere law ∇ × B = µ0 J, get

▶ ∇ × (∇ × A) = µ0 J.

▶ Use “bac cab”: a × (b × c) = (a · c)b − (a · b)c, get

Gradient of divergence Laplacian ∇2

z }| { z }| {
▶ ∇(∇ · A) − (∇ · ∇) A = µ0 J.

▶ Use ∇ · A = 0 and get 3 Poisson equations:

▶ ∇2 A = −µ0 J.

32 / 56
Magnetostatics: Poisson equation for each magnetic vector
potential component

▶ ∇2 A = −µ0 J represents 3 Poisson equations for fixed current

directions x, y and z, namely:

∇2 Ax = −µ0 Jx ; ∇2 Ay = −µ0 Jy ; ∇2 Az = −µ0 Jz

▶ The particular solution is the regular convolution with Green’s

function, for each component, i.e. 3 integrals
˚
µ0 J(x ′ , y ′ , z ′ )dx ′ dy ′ dz ′
A=
4π |r − r′ |

33 / 56
Magnetostatics: Superposition integral for A

▶ The solution to Poisson is the superposition integral

˚
µ0 J(x ′ , y ′ , z ′ )dx ′ dy ′ dz ′
A=
4π |r − r′ |

▶ What comes out B = ∇ × A ?

 
˚ Not function of x,y ,z
µ0 1 z }| {
B= dx ′ dy ′ dz ′ ∇ ×  J(x ′ , y ′ , z ′ )
 
4π |r − r′ |


Use identity

∇ × (PQ) = P∇ × Q + (∇P) × Q

34 / 56
Magnetostatics: Superposition integral for B
▶ For Q constant

∇ × (PQ) =  ×Q + (∇P) × Q = (∇P) × Q


P∇

▶ So B is
˚  
µ0 1
B= dx ′ dy ′ dz ′ ∇ × J(x ′ , y ′ , z ′ )
4π |r − r′ |

See Slide ??:

˚
µ0 −bir ′ r
B= dx ′ dy ′ dz ′ × J(x ′ , y ′ , z ′ )
4π |r − r′ |2

▶ Or ˚
µ0 J(x ′ , y ′ , z ′ ) b
B= dx ′ dy ′ dz ′ × ir ′ r
4π |r − r′ |2
Same we directly obtained from Biot-Savart, Slide 24.
35 / 56
Magnetostatics: Integral connection between B and A

▶ We defined:
B=∇×A

▶ Use Stokes’ theorem from Slide ??

¨ ˛
B · da = A · dl

▶ Or ˛
A · dl = Φ

36 / 56
Magnetostatics: Accumulated energy

h i
▶ A is Energy
Current Element , i.e.:
h i
▶ Ax is Energy
X Current Element
h i
▶ Ay is Energy
Y Current Element
h i
▶ Az is Energy
Z Current Element

h i
▶ V is Energy
Charge

37 / 56
Magnetostatics: Accumulated energy - cont.

▶ Electric energy:

˚ Energy/charge charge
1 z}|{ z}|{
UE = V ρ dv
2

▶ Magnetic energy

˚ Energy/CE CE
1 z}|{ z}|{
UM = A · J dv
2

▶ same factor 1/2 showing linear connection

38 / 56
Magnetostatics: Accumulated energy - cont.
▶ Use 1
µ0 ∇ ×B=J
˚
1
UM = A · (∇ × B)dv
2µ0

▶ Use identity
∇ · (A × B) = (∇ × A) · B − A · (∇ × B)

▶ and get:
 ! 
(A×B)·da
 Surounding 
surface
˚ ˚
 z }| {

1   
dv (∇ × A) · B − ∇ · (A × B)

UM = dv  
2µ0 
   

 
 

▶ use B = ∇ × A and divergence theorem

39 / 56
Magnetostatics: Accumulated energy - cont.
▶ Obtain:
˚ ˚
1 B2
UM = dv B · B = dv
2µ0 2µ0

▶ Magnetic energy density:

B2
uM =
2µ0

▶ Take d/dt
 
duM 1 dB dB 1 dB
= ·B+B· = B·
dt 2µ0 dt dt µ0 dt

▶ Or the differential
1
∆uM = B · ∆B
µ0
40 / 56
Magnetostatics: Accumulated energy - cont.
▶ Magnetic energy

˚ Energy/CE CE
1 z}|{ z}|{
UM = A · J dv
2
˝ ¸
▶ If a current I can be defined, use CE = I dl, →
˛ ˛
1 1 1
UM = A · I dl = I A · dl = I Φ
2 2 2

▶ For single loop, defined the inductance

Φ
L≡
I
▶ If L is defined:
1 I 2L Φ2
UM = I Φ = =
2 2 2L
41 / 56
Magnetostatics: Boundary conditions for A
▶ Scalar potential V is always continuous on boundary V1 = V2
(otherwise E = ∞). Similarly, A1 = A2 (otherwise B = ∞).

▶ Without dielectric P = 0, the normal derivative of V satisfies

b · (E1 − E2 ) = η/ϵ0 ⇒ −∂n V1 + ∂n V2 = η/ϵ0

n

▶ We know:
b × (B1 − B2 ) = µ0 K
n
What does it imply on A∥ (associated with K) ??

42 / 56
Magnetostatics: Boundary conditions for A - cont.
▶ Use “bac cab”: a × (b × c) = (a · c)b − (a · b)c, get

∇∥ A⊥
 ∂n A∥
z}|{z
}| { z }| { z}|{
b×B=n
n b × ∇ × A = ∇ b · A) − (n
 (n b · ∇) A

▶ Either consider only A∥ , or neglect ∇∥ , and obtain

b × (B1 − B2 ) = µ0 K ⇒ −∂n A1 ∥ + ∂n A2 ∥ = µ0 K
n

43 / 56
Magnetostatics: Analogy with electrostatics

▶ This completes the analogy

J ↔ ρ or K ↔ η or I ↔ λ
A↔V
µ0 ↔ 1/ϵ0

44 / 56
Magnetostatics: Circular solenoid
▶ Due to symmetry, A = Aφ φ
b

45 / 56
Magnetostatics: Solenoid example
▶ Surface current

K = K0 φ
b = K0 (−b y cos φ) ≡ Kx b
x sin φ + b x + Ky b
y

▶ where
Kx = −K0 sin φ ; Ky = K0 cos φ

46 / 56
Magnetostatics: Solenoid example: solve for Ax
▶ Boundary conditions

Ax1 |r =a = Ax2 |r =a

−∂r Ax1 |r =a + ∂r Ax2 |r =a = µ0 Kx = −µ0 K0 sin φ

▶ The cylindrical Laplace solution (single sin φ dependence)

C
Ax1 = sin φ
r
Ax2 = Dr sin φ

▶ Solve for C , D and obtain

C = −a2 µ0 K0 /2 ; D = −µ0 K0 /2

47 / 56
Magnetostatics: Solenoid example: solve for Ay
▶ Boundary conditions

Ay 1 |r =a = Ay 2 |r =a

−∂r Ay 1 |r =a + ∂r Ay 2 |r =a = µ0 Ky = µ0 K0 cos φ

▶ The cylindrical Laplace solution (single cos φ dependence)

E
Ay 1 = cos φ
r
Ay 2 = Fr cos φ

▶ Solve for E , F and obtain

E = a2 µ0 K0 /2 ; F = µ0 K0 /2

48 / 56
Magnetostatics: Solenoid example: combine
A = Ax b
x + Ay b
y
▶ Region 1 (r > a)

− sin φb
x + cos φby a 2 µ0 K 0
A1 = (a2 µ0 K0 /2) = φ
b
r 2r
▶ Curl in cylindrical coordinates:
 
 br r φ z   2 
1 1 a µ0 K 0
 b b
B1 = ∇ × A1 =  ∂r ∂φ ∂z  = b  z ∂r =0
r  r 2
A

 r rA φ Az

▶ Region 2 (r < a)

µ0 K 0 r
A2 = (µ0 K0 r /2)(− sin φb
x + cos φb
y) = φ
b
2
▶ Curl in cylindrical coordinates:
 
 br r φ z   2 
1  1 r µ0 K0
b b 
B2 = ∇×A2 =  ∂r ∂φ ∂z =b
 z r ∂r =b
zµ0 K0
r  2
Ar rAφ 
 Az

49 / 56
Magnetostatics: Vector Potential - multipole expansion

▶ Say we look for the potential very far from the charges r ≫ r ′

▶ The superposition integral for V and A is

˚
1 ρ(x ′ , y ′ , z ′ )dx ′ dy ′ dz ′
V (x, y , z) =
4πϵ0 |r − r′ |
˚
µ0 J(x ′ , y ′ , z ′ )dx ′ dy ′ dz ′
A(x, y , z) =
4π |r − r′ |

50 / 56
Magnetostatics: Vector Potential - multipole expansion,
cont.
▶ As 0’th order approximation (called monopole) one sets
|r − r′ | ≃ r , so
˚
1 Qtotal
Vmonopole ≃ ρ(x ′ , y ′ , z ′ )dx ′ dy ′ dz ′ =
4πϵ0 r 4πϵ0 r
▶ But for A
˚
µ0
Amonopole ≃ J(x ′ , y ′ , z ′ )dx ′ dy ′ dz ′ = 0
4πr
▶ Because integral on any close CE is 0. Take a simple current
˝ ¸ ¸
loop: J(x ′ , y ′ , z ′ )dx ′ dy ′ dz ′ → I dl′ = I dl′ = 0

51 / 56
Magnetostatics: Vector Potential - multipole expansion,
1st order

▶ 0’th order result is 0, irrelevant for A. 1st order:

q
|r − r | = (r − r ) · (r − r ) = r 2 − 2r · r′ + r ′2 ≃
′
p
′ ′

r 1 − 2br · r′ /r ≃ r (1 − br · r′ /r ) = r − br · r′
p

br · r′
 
1 1 1
= ≃ 1+ =
|r − r′ | r (1 − br · r′ /r ) r r
1 br · r ′
+
r
|{z} r2
|{z}
0’th order 1’st order

52 / 56
Magnetostatics: Potential - multipole expansion - 1st
order, cont.
▶ The 1st order approximation (called dipole) is:
 
˚ z charge charge’s coordinate
1  }| { z}|{
Vdipole = ρ(x ′ , y ′ , z ′ )dx ′ dy ′ dz ′ r′  ·br

4πϵ0 r 2


| {z }
Dipole moment p

p · br
Vdipole =
4πϵ0 r 2
˚ z current}|element {
µ0
Adipole = J(x ′ , y ′ , z ′ )dx ′ dy ′ dz ′ (r′ · br)
4πr 2
▶ How to extract br from the integral ? For simplicity, use again
current loop:
53 / 56
Magnetostatics: Potential - multipole expansion - 1st
order, cont.
˝ ¸
▶ J(x ′ , y ′ , z ′ )dx ′ dy ′ dz ′ (r′ · br) = I dl′ (r′ · br)

▶ Look for projection on a constant vector c:

˛ ˛ z vector
}| {
c· dl′ (r′ · br) = ((r′ · br)c) ·dl′

▶ By Stokes’ theorem it is the curl of the vector integrated on

the area:
¨ scalar
z }| {
∇′ × ((r′ · br) c) · da′
▶ Curl on scalar times vector: ∇ × (PQ) = ∇P × Q + P∇ × Q
54 / 56
Magnetostatics: Potential - multipole expansion - 1st
order, cont.
▶ The curl gives
scalar br
z }| { z }| {
∇ × ((r′ · br) c) = ∇′ (r′ · br) ×c + (
′
(r′(· b( (′( (
×c
(
r)∇
▶ because c is constant. So the area integral:
¨ scalar
z }| { ¨ z const
}| { ¨
′ ′ ′
∇ ×((r · br) c)·da = (br × c) ·da′ = (br×c)· da′ = (br×c)·a
▶ where a is the loop vector area.
▶ Use cyclicity (A × B) · C = (C × A) · B = (B × C) · A ..., so
˛
c · dl′ (r′ · br) = (a × br) · c
▶ Holds for any constant vector c, throw it away
˛
dl′ (r′ · br) = a × br
55 / 56
Magnetostatics: Potential - multipole expansion - 1st
order, cont.

▶ Define the magnetic dipole moment m ≡ I a. Obtain

µ0 m × br
Adipole =
4πr 2
▶ The magnetic analogue to

p · br
Vdipole =
4πϵ0 r 2

56 / 56