Electromagnetic Fields

1 / 73
Historical background - Coulomb’s law (1785)

q1 q2
F = ke
r2

Charles-Augustin de Coulomb

2 / 73
Historical background - Coulomb’s law
Coulomb’s law is the basis of electrostatics.
q1 q2 1
F = ke 2
; ke =
r 4πϵ0

3 / 73
Historical background - Ampere’s law (1823)

Fm I1 I2 µ0
= 2kA ; kA =
L r 4π

Andrè-Marie Ampère

4 / 73
Historical background - Ampere’s law
Amper’s law is the basis of magnetostatics.

Fm I1 I2
= 2kA
L r

5 / 73
Historical background - Biot-Savart law (1820)
More general force law between current elements

Jean-Baptiste Biot
Félix Savart

6 / 73
Historical background - Faraday’s law (1831)

Michael Faraday
7 / 73
Historical background - Lenz’s law (1834)

Emil Khristianovich Lenz

8 / 73
Historical background - Faraday (or Lenz’s) law

Faraday’s law defines how change in magnetic force creates electric

force.

dΦ
V =N
dt

9 / 73
Historical background - Maxwell equations (1865)
▶ Unification of electric and magnetic laws.

▶ Electromagnetic waves with velocity √1

ϵ0 µ0

▶ Velocity identical to light velocity c, showing light is an

electromagnetic wave

James Clerk Maxwell

10 / 73
Electrostatics - 1st axiom: Coulomb law

1 q1 q2
|F | =
4πϵ0 r 2
▶ Opposite sign: attraction

▶ Same sign: repulsion

Force on charge q proportional to q ⇒ define a field.

11 / 73
Coulomb law: definition of Electric Field

1 q
E= br
4πϵ0 r 2
▶ Positive charge: out going field

▶ Negative charge: in going field

12 / 73
Force on charge under Electric Field

A “test” charge q under external electric field E, “feels” a force

F = qE
▶ Positive charge: Force in field direction

▶ Negative charge: Force opposite to field direction

13 / 73
Electric Field: summary

Any given charge q “creates” a radial electric field

1 q
E= br
4πϵ0 r 2
Any charge q under an (external) electric field E, feels a force

F = qE
called the Lorentz force.

14 / 73
Electrostatics - 2nd axiom: Additivity

The effective force (or field) due to many charges is the vectorial
addition of individual forces (or fields)

 
1 q1 q2
E = E1 + E2 = br1 + 2 br2
4πϵ0 r12 r2

15 / 73
Electrostatics: Gauss law

16 / 73
Electrostatics: Gauss law proof
Start with a sphere of radius r around a charge q. E ∥ da
everywhere, so E · da = E da, hence
" "
E · da = E da

also E = 4πϵq0 r 2 the same everywhere. Hence

" "
q q q total charge
E da = 2
da = 2
4πr 2 = =
4πϵ0 r 4πϵ0 r ϵ0 ϵ0

17 / 73
Electrostatics: Gauss law: true only for sphere ??
Distort the sphere

E · da = E · da ⇒ scalar product preserved

18 / 73
Electrostatics: Gauss law: many charges
For a single charge q, associated with field E we have
"
q
E · da =
ϵ0
by additivity, having inside q1 , associated with field E1 , q2 ,
associated with field E2
" " " "
q1 q2
E · da = (E1 + E2 ) · da = E1 · da + E2 · da = +
ϵ0 ϵ0
In general if the total charge inside is Qtotal = q1 + q2 + ..
"
Qtotal
E · da =
ϵ0
"
ϵ0 E · da = Qtotal
| {z }
| {z } Total charge
Total electric flux
19 / 73
Electrostatics: Charge density
Define
Total charge in small volume h c i
ρ≡
small volume m3
From this definition, the total charge in a volume is
˚ ˚
Qtotal = dx dy dz ρ(x, y , z) ≡ dv ρ

20 / 73
Electrostatics: Other charge densities
Define
Total charge on small area h c i
η≡
small area m2
From this definition, the total charge in the (x, y ) area is
¨ ¨
Qtotal = dx dy η(x, y ) ≡ da η

One can use here ρ(x, y , z) = δ(z)η(x, y )

21 / 73
Electrostatics: Other charge densities

Define
Total charge on small length h c i
λ≡
small length m
From this definition, the total charge in the (z) length is
ˆ
Qtotal = dz λ(z)

One can use here ρ(x, y , z) = δ(x)δ(y )λ(z)

22 / 73
Electrostatics: Other charge densities: point charge

In the whole universe there is a single charge q at the origin

(0, 0, 0)

One can use here ρ(x, y , z) = qδ(x)δ(y )δ(z)

23 / 73
Electrostatics: Back to Gauss law

"
ϵ0 E · da = Qtotal
| {z }
| {z } Total charge
Total electric flux

without loss of generality, Qtotal is written as an integral on ρ

" ˚
ϵ0 E · da = dv ρ

This is advantageous because it can be written in a differential

form.

24 / 73
Electrostatics: Gauss law - differential form

Look around a very small volume ∆v

" ˚ !
ϵ0 E · da
ϵ0 E · da = dv ρ ≃ ρ ∆v ⇒ =ρ
∆v
now take the limit ∆v → 0, this defines the diverengence operator

∇ · (ϵ0 E) = ρ

25 / 73
Electrostatics: Divergence operator
Given a vector field A its divergence is defined as
!
A · da
div (A) ≡ lim
∆v →0 ∆v
Contribution of sides at x and x + dx:
Ax (x + dx)dy dz − Ax (x)dy dz dAx
→ ≡ ∂x Ax
dx dy dz dx

26 / 73
Electrostatics: Divergence operator - cont.

▶ Contribution of sides at x and x + dx: ∂x Ax

▶ Contribution of sides at y and y + dy : ∂y Ay
▶ Contribution of sides at z and z + dz: ∂z Az
▶ Total contribution: ∂x Ax + ∂y Ay + ∂z Az
Defining the operator ∇ ≡ bx∂x + b
y ∂y + b
z∂z , the divergence of A is
the scalar “product” between ∇ and A.

div (A) = ∇ · A
Therefore Gauss law in differential form is

∇ · (ϵ0 E) = ρ

27 / 73
Electrostatics: Divergence theorem
!
˚ A·da single element
z }| { "
Mathematical theorem: ∇ · A dv = A · da
Surounding
surface

Analogue to
ˆ b
df
dz = f (b) − f (a)
a dz
28 / 73
About Maxwell equations

▶ There are 4 equations describing all electric and magnetic

phenomena
▶ Gauss law is the 1st Maxwell equation
▶ Each equation has 3 forms: Integral, Differential, Boundary
Integral Gauss law
" ˚
ϵ0 E · da = dv ρ

Differential Gauss law

∇ · (ϵ0 E) = ρ
Boundary condition ?

29 / 73
Electrostatics: Gauss law - boundary
Around a boundary on z = 0, ρ(x, y , z) = δ(z)η(x, y ). Assume
η(x, y ) ≃ η does not change much.

∇ · (ϵ0 E) = ϵ0 (
∂x
E
x +
∂y
E
y + ∂ E ) = ρ = δ(z)η
| z{z }z
very large,
behaves like δ(z)

30 / 73
Electrostatics: Gauss law - boundary cont.

Integrate on z from 0− to 0+

ϵ0 (Ez (0+ ) − Ez (0− )) = η

In general Ez → nb · E and 0+ is near boundary in Region 1

(subindexed 1), 0− is near boundary in Region 2 (subindexed 2):

b · (E1 − E2 ) = η
ϵ0 n

Non formal boundary condition

ϵ0 (E1⊥ − E2⊥ ) = η

31 / 73
Electrostatics: Gauss law - boundary: 2nd approach

Apply integral Gauss law:

" ˚
ϵ0 E · da = dv ρ = Qtotal

on

n · E1 + A(−b
ϵ0 [Ab n) · E2 ] = Aη
b · (E1 − E2 ) = η
ϵ0 n

32 / 73
Electrostatics: Gauss law - boundary meaning

▶ For given surface charge η, the difference (E1⊥ − E2⊥ ) = η/ϵ0 .

▶ The average (E1⊥ + E2⊥ )/2 may be any, depending on
external charges.

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Electrostatics: Gauss law boundary: Pressure on surface

Perpendicular Force Charge

Pressure = = (Average Field)
Area Area
1 1
Pressure = (E1⊥ + E2⊥ )η = (E1⊥ + E2⊥ )ϵ0 (E1⊥ − E2⊥ )
2 2
ϵ0 2 2
Pressure = (E1⊥ − E2⊥ )
2

▶ Pressure = 0 only in absence of external charges or if η = 0

34 / 73
Electrostatics: Gauss law summary
Integral Gauss law
" ˚
ϵ0 E · da = dv ρ

Differential Gauss law (given E enables calculation of ρ)

∇ · (ϵ0 E) = ρ

Boundary condition Gauss law

b · (ϵ0 E1 − ϵ0 E2 ) = η
n

Non formal boundary condition

ϵ0 E1⊥ − ϵ0 E2⊥ = η

35 / 73
Electrostatics: Back to additivity - superposition
Given N charges qi for i = 1, ..N
N N
X 1 X qi
E= Ei = bri
4πϵ0 ri2
i=1 i=1

36 / 73
Electrostatics: Back to additivity - superposition integral
Given a continuum of charge density ρ, enables calculation of E
charge
˚ z ′ ′ }| {
1 ρ(x , y , z ′ )dx ′ dy ′ dz ′b
E(x, y , z) = ir ′ r
4πϵ0 |r − r′ |2
q
|r − r′ | = (x − x ′ )2 + (y − y ′ )2 + (z − z ′ )2
′ x(x − x ′ ) + b
y(y − y ′ ) + b
z(z − z ′ )
bir ′ r = r − r = b
|r − r′ | |r − r′ |

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Electrostatics: Irrotational E field (KVL)
For
¸ a general vector field A, let us define the close-loop integral
A · dl.

38 / 73
Electrostatics: Irrotational E field (KVL)
Due to the scalar product, one can also distort the path without
changing the result.

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Electrostatics: Irrotational E field (KVL)
▶ For the electric vector field E, what is the value of the
¸
close-loop line intergal E · dl ?
▶ Let us check for E associated with one charge q.
▶ We can distort, so for convenience let the countour go with
the field lines.

40 / 73
Electrostatics: Irrotational E field (KVL)

▶ Segments 2, 4, 6, 8 contribute 0 because E ⊥ dl

▶ Sum of contribution from segments 1, 3, 5 are the minus of
segment 7.
▶ Total contribution 0.
41 / 73
Electrostatics: Irrotational E field (KVL)

¸
▶ So E · dl = 0 for E associated with one charge q.

▶ For many charges (or any distribution of charges) E1

associated with q1 , E2 associated with q2 , etc., from the
additivity law,

˛ ˛ ˛ ˛
E · dl = (E1 + E2 + ..) · dl = E1 · dl + E2 · dl + .. = 0

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Electrostatics: Consequence of the irrotationality
▶ Consider a charge q under (external) field E. The charge
“feels” the Lorentz force
FLorentz = qE
▶ Let us pull it with an equal but opposite force F = −FLorentz
(constant velocity) along a given trajectory marked by dl1
from A to B.

▶ We made here an “effort” therefore the charge gained a

potential energy

43 / 73
Electrostatics: Consequence of the irrotationality - cont.

The gained potential energy:

ˆ B ˆ B ˆ B
UAB 1 = F · dl1 = − FLorentz · dl1 = −q E · dl1
A A A

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Electrostatics: Consequence of the irrotationality - cont.
▶ But ... ? Can we call it a gain in potential energy ? Is it the
same on a different path ?

▶ Let us do the same on the path marked by dl2 .

We get here
ˆ B
UAB 2 = −q E · dl2
A
45 / 73
Electrostatics: Consequence of the irrotationality - cont.

The difference in the result is

ˆ B ˆ B ˛
UAB 1 − UAB 2 = −q E · dl1 + q E · dl2 = −q E · dl = 0
A A

where dl marks the close-loop trajectory.

▶ Due to irrotationality, the E field, is conservative, so the
additional potential energy UAB does not depend on the
path, hence
ˆ B
UAB = UB − UA = −q E · dl (on any path)
A
is the potential energy difference UB − UA .

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Electrostatics: Consequence of the irrotationality -
existence of the potential

Normalize (divide) by the charge q

ˆ B
UB UA
− ≡ VB − VA = − E · dl
q q A

▶ We normalized force by charge and defined electric field

N  V 
c = m
▶ Now we normalize potential energy by charge and define the
electric potential or voltage Jc = [V ]
 

47 / 73
Electrostatics: Definition of potential from E field
Say E field is known everywhere. Use a reference point
r0 = (x0 , y0 , z0 ) and define there V = 0. Integrate on any path
ˆ
V = − E · dl

to point A, at rA = (xA , yA , zA ) and find VA . Same for B, C or any

point in space.

48 / 73
Electrostatics: Definition of potential from E field - cont.

▶ This defines the function V (x, y , z) up to a constant.

▶ Choice of constant by requiring V (∞) = 0 (when possible)

▶ Requirement V (∞) = 0 is possible (only) for physical

(confined) situations.

▶ If it is impossible to require V (∞) = 0, we remain with an

arbitrary constant.

49 / 73
Electrostatics: Derivation of E from V

Let us look at 2 close points A and B along the x axis, so that

dl = b
xdx
ˆ B
VB − VA = V (x + dx) − V (x) = − E · dl ≃ −E · b
xdx = −Ex dx
A

▶ Therefore Ex = −∂V /∂x = −∂x V .

▶ Similarly, Ey = −∂y V and Ez = −∂z V .
▶ In general: E = −(b
x∂x V + b z∂z V ) = −∇V .
y ∂y V + b

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Electrostatics: Irrotational E¸field - differential
What is the differential form of E · dl = 0 ? Let us do the
integral on a small loop around the z axis and divide by the area

¸
E · dl Ex (y )dx + Ey (x + dx)dy − Ex (y + dy )dx − Ey (x)dy
=
∆a dx dy
In the limit ∆a = dx dy → 0 this is the curl in the bz direction
curl(E )z = ∂x Ey − ∂y Ex
51 / 73
Electrostatics: Irrotationality - curl operator

▶ Curl is a vector operator, operating on a vector function,

resulting in a vector function.
▶ Equivalent to vector “multiplication” of ∇ on operated
function.
 
 x y z
 b b b 

∇ × E =  ∂x ∂y ∂z 

 Ex Ey Ez 

compare with vector multiplication

 
 x y z
 b b b 

A × E =  Ax Ay
 Az 

 Ex Ey Ez 

52 / 73
Electrostatics: Stokes’ theorem
Mathematical theorem:
¸
¨ A·dl
z
single element
}| { ˛
(∇ × A) · da = A · dl
Surounding
circumference

53 / 73
Electrostatics: Irrotationality - curl

¸
▶ The differential form of E · dl = 0 is ∇ × E = 0.

¸
▶ The property E · dl = 0 allowed the definition of V . How do
we get this from the differential form ?

▶ ∇ × E = 0 automatically implies E = −∇V , because

∇ × ∇V ≡ 0, same as A × A ≡ 0

54 / 73
Electrostatics: Irrotationality - alternative test

¸
▶ We found E · dl = 0 for the field associated with a point
q br
charge at origin E = 4πϵ0 r
2.

▶ Alternatively we could have checked ∇ × E = 0 for the same

field.
In spherical:
 
 rb r θb r sin θφ 
1 
b 
∇×A= 2 ∂ ∂θ ∂φ
r sin θ  r


Ar rAθ r sin θAφ 

Constants are irrelevant, we have only br component:

55 / 73
Electrostatics: Irrotationality - alternative test

 
 rb r θb r sin θφ 
br 1 
b 
∇× 2 = 2 ∂ ∂ ∂φ =0
r r sin θ  r 2 θ 
1/r 0 0 

because
▶ ∂θ (1/r 2 ) = 0, and

▶ ∂φ (1/r 2 ) = 0

56 / 73
Electrostatics: Irrotational E field - boundary condition
Say n z. Express ∇ × E = 0, using ∂x = ∂y ≃ 0:
b=b

 
 x y z
 b b b 

∇ × E =  0 0 ∂z  x(−∂z Ey ) − b
 =b y(−∂z Ex ) =
 Ex Ey Ez 
y Ex − b
∂z (b z × E) = 0
xEy ) = ∂z (b
Integrate on z from 0− to 0+
z × (E(0+ ) − E(0− )) = 0
b
z→n
In general b b and 0+ is near boundary in Region 1 (subindexed
−
1), 0 is near boundary in Region 2 (subindexed 2):
b × (E1 − E2 ) = 0
n
57 / 73
Electrostatics: Irrotational E field - boundary 2nd approach

¸
▶ Integrate E · dl = 0, along any parallel direction.

▶ Results in E1∥ dl − E2∥ dl = 0, or E1∥ = E2∥ .

▶ n
b × E describes the parallel component rotated.

58 / 73
Electrostatics: Back to pressure on surface
There are 2 relevant components of E near surface: E⊥ and E∥ ,
therefore E 2 = E⊥2 + E∥2 .

ϵ0 2 2
Pressure = (E − E2⊥ )
2 1⊥
but
E12 − E22 = (E1⊥
2 2
+ E1∥ 2
) − (E2⊥ 2
+ E2∥ 2
) = E1⊥ 2
− E2⊥
Therefore a much more usefull expression for the pressure is
ϵ0
Pressure = (E12 − E22 )
2
59 / 73
Electrostatics: Irrotationality (KVL) summary
Integral irrotationality law
˛
E · dl = 0

Differential irrotationality law

∇×E=0

Boundary condition irrotationality law

b × (E1 − E2 ) = 0
n

Non formal boundary condition

E1∥ − E2∥ = 0

60 / 73
Electrostatics: Electric potential

▶ Irrotationality (∇ × E = 0) allowed the definition of V , so

that E = −∇V .

▶ Usage of V is advantageous because it is a scalar.

▶ What is V for a single charge q at origin ? E field is radial

only with value Er = 4πϵq0 r 2 , therefore:
ˆ ˆ
q dr q −1 q
V =− Er dr = − 2
=− =
4πϵ0 r 4πϵ0 r 4πϵ0 r
we take the integration constant 0, to set V (∞) = 0.

61 / 73
Electrostatics: Electric potential - superposition
Using additivity, the potential associated with many charges is the
(scalar) sum of the potentials:
N N
X 1 X qi
V = Vi =
4πϵ0 ri
i=1 i=1

62 / 73
Electrostatics: Electric potential - superposition integral
and for a continuous distribution ρ
charge
˚ z ′ ′ }| {
1 ρ(x , y , z ′ )dx ′ dy ′ dz ′
V (x, y , z) =
4πϵ0 |r − r′ |
Converges only for physical configurations! If not, still can be
done by rescaling an infinite constant.

63 / 73
Electrostatics: Electric field - superposition integral

▶ What is E = −∇V ?

˚ z Not function of x,y ,z

1 }| { 1
E=− ρ(x ′ , y ′ , z ′ )dx ′ dy ′ dz ′ ∇
4πϵ0 |r − r′ |

1 −bir ′ r
∇ ′
=
|r − r | |r − r′ |2

▶ Therefore we get the result from Slide 37

˚
1 ρ(x ′ , y ′ , z ′ )dx ′ dy ′ dz ′b
E(x, y , z) = ir ′ r
4πϵ0 |r − r′ |2

64 / 73
Electrostatics: Potential - multipole expansion
▶ The superposition integral for V is
˚
1 ρ(x ′ , y ′ , z ′ )dx ′ dy ′ dz ′
V (x, y , z) =
4πϵ0 |r − r′ |
▶ Say we look for the potential very far from the charges r ≫ r ′

▶ As 0’th order approximation (called monopole) one sets

|r − r′ | ≃ r , so
˚
1 ρ(x ′ , y ′ , z ′ )dx ′ dy ′ dz ′ Qtotal
Vmonopole ≃ =
4πϵ0 r 4πϵ0 r
65 / 73
Electrostatics: Potential - multipole expansion - cont.
▶ Remark that at r = 0, V = ∞, but this is an artefact of the
far potential approximation. After using r ≫ r ′ , one cannot
set r = 0 !
▶ 0’th order result is good if Qtotal ̸= 0. If Qtotal = 0, one goes
to next order:
q
|r − r | = (r − r ) · (r − r ) = r 2 − 2r · r′ + r ′2 ≃
′
p
′ ′

r 1 − 2br · r′ /r ≃ r (1 − br · r′ /r ) = r − br · r′
p

br · r′
 
1 1 1
= ≃ 1+ =
|r − r′ | r (1 − br · r′ /r ) r r
1 br · r ′
+
r
|{z} r2
|{z}
0’th order 1’st order

66 / 73
Electrostatics: Potential - multipole expansion - cont.
▶ The 1st order approximation (called dipole) is:
 
˚ z charge charge’s coordinate
1  }| { z}|{
Vdipole = ρ(x ′ , y ′ , z ′ )dx ′ dy ′ dz ′ r′  ·br

4πϵ0 r 2 

| {z }
Dipole moment p

p · br
Vdipole =
4πϵ0 r 2
▶ Simplest dipole: charge q at location r+ , and charge −q at
location r− . The dipole moment is
p = qr+ + (−q)r− = qd

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Electrostatics: Multipole expansion - summary

▶ The total (far) potential due to some charge distribution

around the origin is given by

Qtotal p · br
V = Vmonopole + Vdipole + ... = + + ...
4πϵ0 r 4πϵ0 r 2

▶ If Qtotal ̸= 0, one can always go to big enough r , so that

|Vmonopole | ≫ |Vdipole |. In this case V ≃ Vmonopole .

▶ Only if Qtotal = 0, for any r , |Vmonopole | ≪ |Vdipole |, hence

V ≃ Vdipole .

68 / 73
Electrostatics: Multipole expansion - example 1
▶ For the example q = 4πϵ0 = 1.
▶ Qtotal = 1 + 1 − 1 = 1, p = 1b
x − 1b
x − 1b
z(−1) = b
z.
−1 1 1
V = +√ +√ = 0.1081
11 102 + 12 102 + 12
Qtotal 1
Vmonopole = = = 0.1, 8.1% accurate
4πϵ0 r 10
▶ Dipole not necessary, but improves accuracy
p · br z·b
b z 1
Vdipole = 2
= 2
= = 0.01
4πϵ0 r 10 100
Vmonopole + Vdipole = 0.1 + 0.01 = 0.11, 1.9% accurate

69 / 73
Electrostatics: Multipole expansion - example 2
▶ For the example q = 4πϵ0 = 1.
▶ Qtotal = 1 − 1 = 0, p = −1b
x − 1b z−b
z(−1) = b x.
−1 1
V = +√ = 0.0085946
11 10 + 12
2

Qtotal 1
Vmonopole = = = 0, not useful
4πϵ0 r 10
▶ Dipole is imperative
p · br z−b
(b x) · b
z 1
Vdipole = 2
= 2
= = 0.01 14% accurate
4πϵ0 r 10 100

70 / 73
Electrostatics: Equation for potential

▶ ∇ × E = 0 ⇒ E = −∇V .

▶ Set E = −∇V in ∇ · (ϵ0 E) = ρ

∇ · (ϵ0 (−∇V )) = −ϵ0 ∇ · ∇V = ρ

Divergence on gradient: ∇ · ∇ ≡ ∇2 is called Laplacian. In
Cartesian, the Laplacian is ∇2 = ∂x2 + ∂y2 + ∂z2

71 / 73
Electrostatics: Poisson equation

∇2 V = −ρ/ϵ0
Particular solution is obtained via the Green’s function G (r, r′ )
which satisfies

∇2 G = −δ(x − x ′ )δ(y − y ′ )δ(z − z ′ )

The Green’s function is:

1
G (r, r′ ) =
4π|r − r′ |

The solution for V is convolution with the Green’s function, which

we already obtained
˚ ˚
1 ρ(x ′ , y ′ , z ′ )dx ′ dy ′ dz ′
V (r) = dr′ G (r, r′ )ρ(r′ )/ϵ0 =
4πϵ0 |r − r′ |

72 / 73
Electrostatics: Summary

73 / 73