α is called the epoch in the above expressions.

The general solution of this differential eqn is: y = a sin (ωt + α)

∴ E kavg ∝ a2

Total energy of a vibrating particle ( E K + E P )

y = a sin(ωt + α)
⇒ sin(ωt + α) = ay
y
⇒ √1 − cos2 (ωt + α) = a

√ √
y2 a2 −y 2 1
⇒ cos(ωt + α) = 1− a2
= a2
= a √a2 − y2
We know,
Velocity,​ v = aω cos(ωt + α)
= aω. a1 √a2 − y 2
= ω √a2 − y 2

Now see the worked-out examples in the textbook (page 8-17).

Chapter 2: Lissajou’s figures
Practice problems on this topic: textbook (page 20-22)
Then read (page 22-24)
The circle with the centre C 2 is revolving around the Y-axis, but this vibration is along the X-axis
with respect to the object O.
and the one with the centre C 1 is revolving around the X-axis. but this vibration is along the
Y-axis with respect to the object O.
Make sure that both of them are revolving either clockwise or anti-clockwise.
In this case, there’s no phase difference between the two vibrations.​ So the numbers (0,8) are
perpendicular to the revolving axis (X-axis for the circle with centre C 1 , y-axis for the circle with
the centre C 2 )

But in this case,​ there is a phase difference between the two vibrating particles.
Notice, for the circle with the centre C 1 , the numbers (0,8) are parallel to the x-axis (revolving
axis) instead of being perpendicular. This is because of the phase difference.
x = a sin (ωt + α)
π π
Here, α = 2 , ​so​ t​ he particle has travelled an extra
2 rad.

π 3π
Sir told us to practice for α= 4 , 4 ,π for the exam.

Chapter 3: Damped & Forced Oscillations

Free vibration:
● The time period of oscillation depends only on the length of the Pendulum &
Acceleration due to gravity.
● The Amplitude remains constant.
● There is no loss of energy by friction or otherwise.
Undamped free vibration:
★ For any wave, two things are mandator: Inertia and restoring force.
Motion in a resisting medium (Damped
vibration)

So a body performing simple harmonic oscillations in a damping/resistive medium is

simultaneously subjected to two opposing forces:
● The restoring force
F ∝ − y [y = displacement of the body]
⇒ F = − ay [ a = force constan= restoring force per unit displacement]

Note: this a here and the K in the equations for undamped vibration are the same, Brijlal
sir used K and Gias sir used a.

● A resistive force
F ∝ − v [v = velocity of the body]
⇒ F = − bv [ b = constant of proportionality = damping coefficient = the resistive or
dissipative force per unit velocity, b is a positive constant]
dy
⇒ F = − b dt
One of the Solutions to this equation will be in the form y = Aekt , where A & k are both arbitrary
constants. Let this be used as a trial solution.
How did that happen? Time to revise differentiation classes :3

Link to this video: ​https://youtu.be/CIAqkZStKRM

We can consider λ as damping coefficient to understand this better. As we assumed, b =
damping coefficient. See how this e−λt resembles the law of decay and λ is the decay constant?
https://youtu.be/y0YFw9ZzSyM
d is called the decrement or damping ratio of the swing. A swing is basically a half cycle.
We can replace the 2b with 2λ & k 2 with w2 as it is in the eqn of damped SHM if we please.
See textbook (page 94-101) for more practice problems.
Forced vibrations
To overcome the effects of damping, if an external periodic force is applied to vibrate the body,
it will keep on oscillating instead of coming to a stop.
It means that when decay constant λ is too large i.e infinity, e−λt = e−∞ = 0
So the entire first term becomes 0 & we are left with y = A sin(pt + θ)

Resonance in forced vibrations:

Maximum displacement (Amplitude)
of a driven oscillator
Concept of resonance: ​https://youtu.be/DkH9Gbuake0

Forced Oscillation Resonance

An object when forced to vibrate at a certain frequency by an input periodic force, is

called forced vibration. Resonance occurs if the object is forced to vibrate at its natural
frequency. ​(If a body is allowed to move freely i.e. without the influence of any external
force, damping etc, the frequency of that oscillation is called natural frequency.)

Which implies that if the natural frequency of the body matches with that of the applied
external periodic force or vibration, it will be called resonance, and the body will
resonate with its maximum displacement (amplitude). But if the frequencies don’t match,
then the oscillation will not reach its amplitude and it’ll be called forced oscillation, not
resonance. So resonance is a special kind of forced oscillation where the natural
frequency of the body and the frequency of the applied force are the same.
Now, this amplitude of the driven oscillation will remain constant if the amount of
damping is also constant. But if damping increases without changing the ratio between
the natural frequency of the body and the frequency of applied force, the amplitude will
decrease & vice versa.

★ The value of amplitude varies inversely with the amount of damping.

★ For a given amount of damping, the amplitude is constant.
★ The amplitude is maximum if damping is minimum.
★ When the driven oscillation has its max amplitude, its frequency is equal to its
natural frequency
★ But in cases of lower amplitudes, the driven frequency is slightly lesser than the
natural frequency.

Effects of Damping on Resonance

Explanation of resonance graph

[In order to have its minimum value, the derivative of that term has to be zero.]
8.03 - Lect 3 - Driven Oscillations With Damping, Steady State Solutions, Resonance
α = phase dif f erence, x = path dif f erence

2πv
ω = 2πf = λ
Velocity of the particle:

Acceleration ​of the particle:

Potential energy:
To move a particle from its mean position to distance y, work has to be done against
acceleration.
Work done for a displacement dy
= Fdy
Let, density of the medium = ρ
∴ Work done per unit volume for a displacement of dy
= F dy = mf dy = ρf dy
[m = ρV ; V = 1 as we are calculating f or unit volume]
Putting the value of f we get,

2 2
ρ[ 4πλav
2 sin 2π
λ (vt − x)]dy

∴ Total work done for displacement y = P.E per unit volume

y
4π 2 av 2
​= ∫ ρ[ 2 sin 2π
λ λ (vt − x)] dy
0
y y
4π 2 v 2 4π 2 v 2 2 2 y2
= ∫ ρ[ 2 a sin{ 2π
λ
(vt − x)}] dy = ρ 2 ∫ y dy = ρ 4π 2v . 2
λ λ λ
0 0
2π 2 v 2 y 2 ρ 2π 2 v 2 ρ
= 2 = 2 a2 sin2 { 2π
λ
(vt − x)}
λ λ
Kinetic energy:
1
K .E = 2 mU 2
2
= 12 ρU [V=1]
2π 2 v 2 ρ
= 2 a2 cos2 { 2π
λ
(vt − x)}
λ

Total energy:
E = P .E + K .E
2π 2 v 2 ρ 2
= λ
2 a [sin2 { 2πλ (vt − x)} + cos2 { 2πλ (vt − x)}]
2π 2 v 2 a2 ρ
= λ
2

Practice problems: textbook page 58-61

Interference of sound waves