Learning Module in General Mathematics
Logic
Pre- Test
I. Determine if each statement is a simple or
compound propositions.
__________ 1. Jose Rizal is our National Hero.
__________ 2. Ferdinand Magellan did not arrive the
Philippines in 1521.
__________ 3. 2:5 is an integer.
__________ 4. The last kilometer marker up north is in
Sta. Ana, Cagayan, and the Palaui Island is also found
there
__________ 5. If an integer is even, then its square is
also even.
II. Complete the truth tables.
a. b.
p q pVq
p ~p
T T T p and q
T p or q
F T F
F T
F F
(Now proceed on what you need to learn.)
Lesson 1: Propositions
Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the learner is able to
illustrate a proposition, symbolize propositions, and
distinguish between simple and compound
propositions.
Definition 1.
A proposition (p) is a declarative sentence that is
either true or false, but not both. If
a proposition is true, then its truth value is true
which is denoted by T; otherwise, its
truth value is false and is denoted by F.
Examples:
Determine whether each of the following statements is
a proposition or not. If a proposition, give its true
value.
p1 : Mindanao is an island in the Philippines.
 This is a declarative sentence, and Mindanao
is an island in the Philippines.
 Proposition, T
p2: Find a number which divides your age.
 This is an impertive sentence.
 Not a Proposition
p3: If you are a Grade 11 student, then you are a
Filipino.
 This is a declarative sentence, but there are
also Grade 11 students of other nationalities.
 Proposition, F
Exercise 1:
Determine whether each of the following statements is
a proposition or not. If a proposition, give its true
value.
__________ r: My seatmate will get a perfect score in the
Logic exam.
__________ s: Welcome to the Philippines!
__________ t: 3 + 2 = 5
__________ u: What is the domain of the function?
__________ w: I am lying.
Definition 2.
A compound proposition is a proposition
formed from simpler propositions using logical
connectors or some combination of logical
connectors. Some logical connectors involving
propositions p and/or q may be expressed as
follows:
not p
if p then q
where < • > stands for some proposition.
A proposition is simple if it cannot be
broken down any further into other component
propositions.
Examples:
p : Mindanao is an island in the Philippines.
 This is a simple proposition.
q: If you are a Grade 11 student, then you are a
Filipino.
 This is a compound proposition. It is consist
of the simple components:
r: You are a Grade 11 student.
s: You are a Filipino.
y: 2 is even and prime.
 This is a compound proposition. It is consist
of the simple components:
r: 2 is even.
s: 2 is prime.
Exercise 2:
Identify whether it is a simple or compound
proposition. If it is a compound proposition, identify its
primitive/simple components.
1. Jose Rizal is our National Hero.
_____________________________________________________________
2. Ferdinand Magellan did not arrive the Philippines
in 1521.
_____________________________________________________________
3. Our Logic teacher is either pretty or handsome.
_____________________________________________________________
4. The town of Nagcarlan is known for its native
candies and sweet .
_____________________________________________________________
5. If an integer is even, then its square is also even.
_____________________________________________________________
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 Learning Module in General Mathematics

Lesson 2: Logical Operators Definition 4.

The conjunction of a propositions p
and q is denoted by
Objectives:
p ^ q : (p and q)
At the end of the lesson, the learner is able to perform and is defined through its truth table:
different types of operations on propositions. p q p^q
T T T
Given a proposition, its truth table T F F
shows all its possible truth values. F T F
The truth table is useful because we can F F F
The propositions p and q are called conjuncts.
use it to display all the possible truth value
combinations of two or more propositions. The conjunction p^q is true only when
In general, a truth table involving n both conjuncts p and q are true as shown in its
propositions has 2n rows. truth table.
Examples:
Example:
 The proposition p has two truth values, true
The conjunction of the propositions
and false. So its truth table shows:
p: Angels exist.
p
q: π > 3
T
can be expressed as
F
(a) Angels exist and π > 3. (p^q)
(b) Angles exist and π ≤ 3. (p^~q)
 For the propositions p and q, the rows of the (c) Angels do not exist and π > 3. (~p^q)
table will correspond to each of the possible (d) Angles do not exist and π ≤ 3. (~p^~q)
truth value combination of p and
q, and so there will be 22 = 4 rows. Thus, the truth
table shows: Definition 5.
p q The disjunction of propositions p and q
is denoted by
T T
p V q : (p or q)
T F and is defined through its truth table:
F T p q pVq
F F T T T
T F T
F T T
Definition 3. F F F
The negation of a proposition p is
The propositions p and q are called disjuncts.
denoted by
~ p : (read as 'not' p; ) The disjunction p V q is false only when
and is defined through its truth table:
both disjuncts p and q are false as shown in its
p ~p
T F truth table.
F T
Example:
The disjunction of the propositions
Examples: q: Janree is sleeping.
The propositions: r: Eumir is eating.
n1: 2 is an odd number. can be expressed as
n2: The tinikling is the most difficult dance. (a) Either Janree is sleeping or Eumir is eating.
n3: Everyone in Visayas speaks Cebuano. (q V r)
have the the following corresponding negations. (b) Either Janree is not sleeping or Eumir is eating.
~n1: 'It is not true that 2 is an odd number', or (~q V r)
'2 is an even number.' (c) Either Janree is sleeping or Eumir is not eating. (q
~n2: 'The tinikling is not the most difficult V ~r)
dance.' (d )Neither Janree is sleeping nor Eumir is eating.
~n3: 'Not everyone in Visayas speaks (~q V ~r)
Cebuano.'

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 Learning Module in General Mathematics

p1: Geebee is in Grade 11 if and only if she is a

Definition 6.
senior high school student.
The conditional of propositions p and q
is denoted by p2: Geebee is in Grade 11 if and only if she is
p →q : (if p, then q ) working as a lawyer.
and is defined through its truth table: p3: Geebee has a degree in Computer Science
p q p→q if and only if she believes in true love.
T T T • p1: Again, both simple components of p1 are
T F F trueso the biconditional is true.
F T T • p2: Since it is true that Geebee is in Grade 11 but it
F F T is not true that Geebee is working as a lawyer,
The conditional p → q may also be read the biconditional is false.
as 'p implies q'. The proposition p is called the
• p3: The truth value of the biconditional p3 depends
hypothesis, while the proposition q is called the
conclusion. on whether Geebee believes in true love or not.
One must be careful in interpreting If Geebee does not believe in true love, then both
conditionals. components of the biconditional are false
which makes the biconditional true. On the other
hand, supposing Geebee believes in true love, the
Examples: truth value of the biconditional is false.
Suppose that Geebee is a Grade 11 student.
Consider the following conditionals: Exercise 3:
p1: If Geebee is in Grade 11, then she is a Express the following propositions in symbols,
senior high school student. where p, q and r are de_ned as follows.
p2: If Geebee is in Grade 11, then she is p: Neil is a big eater.
working as a lawyer. q: Len has a big voice.
p3: If Geebee has a degree in Computer r: Jeric likes to travel.
Science, then she believes in true love. s: Lemy likes violet.
• p1: 'Geebee is in Grade 11' and 'Geebee is a senior __________ 1. 'While Len has a big voice, Neil is not a big
high school student' are both true. Since the eater.'
hypothesis and conclusion are both true, then p1 is __________ 2. 'It is not true that Neil is a big eater and
true. Lemy does not like violet.'
• p2: 'Geebee is in Grade 11' is true and 'Geebee is __________ 3. 'Either Neil is a big eater or Len has a big
working as a lawyer' is false because a Grade 11 voice, yet Lemy likes violet.'
student is not yet quali_ed to be a lawyer. Since the __________ 4. 'If Neil is a big eater or Len has a big
hypothesis is true but the conclusion is voice, then Lemy likes violet.'
false, then p2 is false.
• p3: 'Geebee has a degree in Computer Science' is __________ 5. 'Neil is a big eater or Len has a big voice if
false because Geebee is still in Grade 11, and and only if Lemy likes violet and Jeric likes to
so cannot not possibly have a university degree yet. travel.'
On the other hand, we do not know the
truth value of 'Geebee believes in true love'. However,
according to the last two rows of the
truth table, p3 is true regardless of the truth value
of its conclusion. Lesson 3: Constructing Truth
Definition 7. Tables
The biconditional of propositions p and
q is denoted by
Objectives:
p ↔q : (p, if and only if q )
At the end of the lesson, the learner is able to
and is defined through its truth table:
p q p↔q determine the posible truth values of propositions.
T T T
T F F Recall:
F T F
F F T Logical Connectors Logical Operators
The propositions p and q are the
'not' p ~p
components of the biconditional.
A biconditional’s truth value is true p and q p^q
Example:
when the truth values of p and q are the same.
and qSuppose that Geebee is a Grade 11 student.
are the same. (p or q pVq
Let us now consider the following biconditionals:
if p, then q p →q
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p, if and only if q p ↔q
 Learning Module in General Mathematics

the second column is all F. The truth table of

Example: p ^ ф says that it is false regardless of the truth value
Let p and q be propositions. Construct the of p, and so p ^ ф is a contradiction.
truth table of the compound proposition p ф p^ф
(p →q) ^ (q →p). T F F
F F F
 Since there are two primitive propositions p
and q involved, the truth table should have four rows 3. p →(p V q) is a tautology.
which consist of all possible truth values combination  The proposition p →(p V q) is a tautology
of p and q. as its truth table shows that it is always false for
p q any truth value combinations of p and q.
T T p q pVq p →(p V q)
T F T T T T
F T T F T T
F F F T T T
F F F T

 In the next two columns, we encode the truth

values of these conditionals (p →q) and (q →p) Exercise 4:
1. Construct a truth table for (p → q) → (q →p).
p q p→q q→p
T T T T
T F F T
F T T F
F F T T
2. Show that (p ^ q) →p is a tautology.
 In the final column, encode the truth
values of the conjunction (p →q) ^ (q →p) using the
third and fourth columns.
p q p→q q → p (p →q) ^ (q →p)
T T T T T
T F F T F
F T F F F Lesson 4: Logical Equivalence and
F F T T T
Forms of Conditional Propositions
 (p →q) ^ (q →p) may also be written as the
biconditional (p ↔ q).
Objective:
At the end of the lesson, the learner is able to
Definition 8. illustrate different forms of conditional propositions.
A proposition that is always true is
called a tautology, while a proposition that is
always false is called a contradiction. A
tautology is denoted by τ and a contradiction Definition 9.
by ф. Two propositions p and q are logically
equivalent, denoted by p q, if they have the
same truth values for all possible truth values of
Example: their simple components.
Let p and q be propositions.
1. p V τ is a tautology.
 Note that τ is a proposition which is always
Example:
true, so the second column consists of T. The
proposition p ^ τ is true for any truth value of p; To show that (p → q) [(~ p) V q ], we
hence, it is a tautology. should show that (p → q) and [(~ p) V q ] have the
p τ pVτ same truth tables.
T T T
F T T p q (p → q) [(~ p) V q ]
T T T T
T F F F
2. p ^ ф is a contradiction.
F T T T
 Since ф is a proposition which is always false,

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 Learning Module in General Mathematics

F F T T Lesson 5: Valid Arguments and

Fallacies
Definition 10.
Given propositions p and q. There are
three propositions that we can derive from the Objective:
conditional p →q, namely its At the end of the lesson, the learner is able to
(a) converse: q → p illustrate different types of tautologies and fallacies,
(b) contrapositive: ~q → ~p determine the validity of categorical syllogisms, and
(c) inverse: ~p →~q establish the validity and falsity of real-life
arguments using logical propositions, syllogisms, and
Logical equivalences of conditionals:
fallacies.
 A proposition and its contrapositive are
logically equivalent Definition 11.
 A proposition's converse and inverse are An argument is a compound proposition
logically equivalent. of the form:
(p1 ^ p2 ^ ... ^ pn) →q
The propositions p1 ^ p2 ^ ... ^ pn are the
Example: premises of the argument, and q is the conclu-
Consider the following true conditional: sion.
p → q : “If Geebee is in Grade 11, then she is a senior Arguments can be written in
high school student." propositional form, as above, or in column or
State its (a) converse, (b) contrapositive, and standard form:
(c) inverse, and determine whether each statement p1
is also true. p2
 converse ...
q → p: “If Geebee is a senior high school student, then pn
she is in Grade 11." _______
 This is not necessarilyt true, because q
Geebee may be a Grade 12 student.
The premises of an argument are
 contrapositive
intended to act as reasons to establish the
~q → ~p: “If Geebee is not a senior high school validity or acceptability
student, then she is not in Grade 11." of the conclusion.
 This is true.
 inverse
~p →~q: “If Geebee is not in Grade 11, then she is not Example:
a senior high school student." Given the arguments:
 This is not necessarily true, because she a. If there is limited freshwater supply, then we
may be in Grade 10, which is not part should conserve water.
of senior high school. b. There is limited freshwater supply.
c. Therefore, we should conserve water.

Exercise 5: The premises of theses arguments are:

1. Show the logical equivalence p1 : If there is limited freshwater supply, then we
~ (p → q) (p^ (~ q )) in a truth table. should conserve water.
p2 : There is limited freshwater supply.
2. State the converse, contrapositive, and inverse of and its conclusion is
the conditional q : We should conserve water.
p →q: “If today is Tuesday, then it is a weekday."

 converse
q → p _____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________

 contrapositive
~q → ~p: __________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

 inverse
~p →~q: ___________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

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 Learning Module in General Mathematics

In symbols, we can write the whole argument

in propositional form
(p1 ^ p2) →q;
and in standard form
p1
p2
_______
q

Validity Condition:
Is it logically impossible for the premises
to be true and the conclusion false?
If the answer is YES, we say that the
argument satisfies the validity condition. The
argument is valid.

Definition 12:
A valid argument satisfies the validity
condition; that is, the conclusion q is true
whenever the premises p1 ^ p2 ^ ... ^ pn are all
true.
Put another way, for a valid argument, the
conditional Example:
(p1 ^ p2 ^ ... ^ pn) →q Given:
is a tautology. _ If Antonio and Jose are friends, then they are
Facebook friends.
Example: _ Antonio and Jose are not Facebook friends.
1. Prove that the argument ((p → q) ^ p) → q is valid. _ Therefore, they are not friends.
 This argument is known as Modus Ponens (or  Let
Rule of Detachment). p : Antonio and Jose are friends.
q : Antonio and Jose are Facebook friends.
 We only need to show that the
((p → q) ^ p)→ q is a tautology using the truth table.  Then the given argument is of the form
p→q
p q ((p → q) ^ p) → q ~q
p→q (p → q) ^p
_________
T T T T T ~p
T F F T F  Hence, by Modus Tollens, the argument is
F T T F F valid.
F F T T T
Definition 13:
 Since ((p → q) ^ p) → q is a tautology, then the An argument (p1 ^ p2 ^ ... ^ pn) →q which
argument is valid. is not valid is called a fallacy.

2. Argument A Equivalently, for this case, the conditional

If my alarm sounds, then I will wake up. argument (p1 ^ p2 ^ ... ^ pn) →q is not a tautology.
My alarm sounded.
Therefore, I woke up.
 This is a valid argument but does not mean
that the conclusion is true.
 Asserting that an argument is valid simply
Example:
means that the conclusion logically follows from the
Argument A'
premises.
If my alarm sounds, then I will wake up.
I woke up.
Therefore, my alarm sounded.
 The argument has the form
p→q
q
_________
p
Thus, the argument is a fallacy of the
converse.

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 Learning Module in General Mathematics

_____________________________________________________________
Examples:
4. (p^q)→r
r
____________
p^q
_____________________________________________________________

5. p→~q
q
_______
~q
_____________________________________________________________

Lesson 6: Methods of Proof

Objective:
At the end of the lesson, the learner is able to
illustrate the different methods of proof and disproof,
and justify mathematical and real-life statements
using the different methods of proof and disproof.

Determine whether the given is a valid argument or a

fallacy. Basic idea of proofs:
(a) The goal of the proof is to show that the
Either Alvin sings or dances with Nina. conclusion logically follows from the given
Alvin sang with Nina. propositions (or premises).
Therefore, Alvin did not dance with Nina. As for the content of the proof, each
 The argument is the fallacy of Affirming the proposition must be a valid assertion: they must
Disjunct. be based on a given statement (i.e., a premise), or
(b) they must follow from the premise via logical
Either Alvin sings or dances with Nina. equivalences or rules of inferences.
Alvin did not dance with Nina.
Therefore, Alvin sang with Nina. Examples:
 By the Rule of Disjunctive Syllogism, the Prove the validity of the following argument.
argument is valid.
(c) 1. p→(r ^ s)
It is not true that Alvin sings and dances with Nina. ~r
Alvin did not sing with Nina. _______
Therefore, Alvin danced with Nina. ~p
 This is the fallacy of Denying a Conjunct.
 Actual proof:
Exercise 6: Proposition Reason
Determine whether the argument is valid or not. If 1. ~r Premise
it valid, identify the rule of inference which justi_es its 2. (~ r) V (~ s) 1, Rule of Addition
validity. On the other hand, if it is not valid, construct a 3 ~ (r ^ s) 2, De Morgan's Laws
counterexample and, if possible, identify what kind of 4. p → (r ^ s) Premise
fallacy it is. 5. ~p 3,4, Modus Tollens
1. If Nicanor is a famous author, then he knows how
to write. But Nicanor is not a famous author. Hence, 2. pVr
Nicanor does not know how to write. (~r)V(~s)
_____________________________________________________________ s
________
2. If Liwayway is a famous author, then she knows p
how to write. Moreover, Liwayway knows how to
write. So, she is a famous author.  Actual proof:
_____________________________________________________________ Proposition Reason
1. s Premise
2. ~(~ s) Double Negation
3. (p^q)→r 3. (~r)V(~s) Premise
p^q 4. ~r 2,3, Disjunctive Syllogism
_________
5. p V r Premise
r
6. p 4,5 Disjunctive Syllogism

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 Learning Module in General Mathematics

Another rule of inference:

An argument of the form Post Test
p →q
r→s I. TRUE or FALSE. Draw a on the blank if each
pVr statement is true and if false.
_________ _____1. A proposition (p) is a declarative sentence
qVs that is either true or false, but not both.
is valid. This form is called the constructed _____2. 2:5 is an integer.
dilemma. _____3. A proposition is simple if it cannot be broken
down any further into other component propositions.
Proving that an argument is invalid _____4. In the conditional p → q proposition p is called
the hypothesis, while the proposition q is called the
Producing a counterexample is one way
conclusion.
to prove that an argument is invalid. _____5. A proposition that is always true is called a
tautology.
Definition 14.
Direct proofs are proofs where we II. Determine whether each of the following
begin from the premises and use rules of logic to arguments is valid or invalid. Then state
reach the conclusion. thereason.
6. If the solution turns blue litmus paper red, then
Indirect proofs or a proof by the solution contains acid. The solution does not
contradiction is the assumption that the contain acid. So, the solution does not turn blue
premises are true but the conclusion is false . litmus paper red.
__________________________________________________________
Example:
7. If the solution turns blue litmus paper red, then
Prove the following argument using three the solution contains acid. The solution turns blue
methods: (a) via rules of inference, (b) via truth tables, litmus paper red. So, the solution contains acid.
and (c) via an indirect proof. __________________________________________________________
pVq
~q 8. If you study hard, you re_ne your communication
______ skills and build up your con_dence. If you refine your
p communication skills build up your con_dence, then
 via rules of inference your job opportunities increase. Hence, if you study
Proposition Reason hard, your job opportunities increase.
1. p V q Premise __________________________________________________________
2. ~q Premise
3. p 1,2, Disjunctive Syllogism 9. Kidnapping is wrong if society disapproves of it.
Kidnapping is wrong. So, society disapproves of
 via truth tables kidnapping.
p qpVq ~q ((p V q)^~q ((p V q)^~q)→p __________________________________________________________
T T T F F T
T F T T T T 10. If overeating causes disease, then it is not
F T T F F T healthy. Overeating does not cause disease. So,
overeating is healthy.
F F F T F T
__________________________________________________________
Since ((p V q)^~q)→p is a tautology, then the
argument is valid.
III. Prove the validity of the given argument via
truth table.
 via an indirect proof
We assume the conclusion is false while the
(pV q) →r
premises are true, and show that these lead to a
~r
contradiction. ________
Suppose the conclusion p is false. Based on ~p
the premise, ~ q is true (i.e., q is false). Thus, both p
and q are false, so p V q is also false. However, this
leads to a contradiction because p V q is a premise_it
has to be true.
In symbols, ~(p V q) ^ (p V q) ф.

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