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Light gates / Sensors and Stopwatch

datalogger
Comparison of error + Fewer errors − More errors e.g.
random, systematic
Reaction time + No need to account − Effect of reaction
for reaction time time
Precision + More precise e.g. − Insufficient
readings to nearest precision for short
millisecond times
measurements
Power supply − Power supply + No power supply
needed required
Complexity − Needs time and + Simple to operate
training to set up and set up
Graph + Any graph drawn − Any graph has to
automatically be drawn manually
Availability, cost and − Not easily + Readily available,
transport available, cheaper, easily
expensive, not transportable
easily transportable
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Analogue voltmeter and Digital multimeter
ammeter
Cost − Two meters so + Only one meter so
expensive cheaper
Number of readings − Two readings taken + Only one reading
taken
Parallax error − Parallax considered + Digital display so
no parallax
Other errors ▪ Zero errors and ▪ Zero errors and
contact resistance contact resistance
Scales − Fixed scales and + Scales can be
they require changed
interpolation
Sensitivity − Sensitivity limited + Sensitivity up to 2
by scale divisions d.p.
Connection to circuit − Requires series and + Requires only
parallel connection series connection
Heating effect − Heating may + Heating effect
change resistance unlikely
calculated
Power supply + No individual − Internal battery
power supply required
required
Uncertainty − Greater uncertainty + Smaller uncertainty
due to two due to one reading
readings only
Data calculation − Data needs + Direct reading so
calculation from no calculation
two readings
Graph + Can plot graph − Less simple graph
 ❖

Method preferred: - Measure height of many

using Vernier calipers as it has resolution of 0.1 mm
Divide answer by number of objects
Preferred because all objects’ width may not be identical
Measuring many gives average for all objects

➢ How to make measurements as accurate as possible

Ensure objects not compressed
Ensure objects vertical using set square
Check for zero error
Avoid parallax error by reading from eye level
Repeat and average

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Current through voltmeter should be negligible
Voltmeter needs high resistance to reduce current through it
If voltmeter takes any current, current recorded for wire incorrect

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All current should flow through ammeter
Ammeter needs low resistance to allow all current through it
If ammeter has resistance, not all current flows and current recorded for wire
incorrect

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To vary current to keep resistance constant ||OR|| To vary resistance to keep
current constant
Potential dividers used so resistance can be reduced to zero

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Only [1,2,3,4,5,6] sets of readings / Too few readings
Inconsistent significant figures ()
No evidence of repeats () shown
Inconsistent intervals ()
Small range
Missing units ()
More readings needed between \\ and //
 ❖
Use micrometer screw gauge
Repeat readings at different orientations and different positions along length
Calculate mean diameter

❖
Can identify anomalies
Allows an average to be taken
Reduces random error ∴ uncertainty less

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Allows trends and relationship to be identified
Anomalous readings can be identified
Systematic errors can be detected
Line of best fit ‘averages’ results
Allows interpolation and extrapolation
Allows intercept, gradient and area to be determined

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If asked about understatement or overstatement of uncertainties //OR// If asked
about commenting on determined value, determine range of calculated value and
check if accepted value is within range
If asked about commenting on method/plan, check if uncertainty is too high for
readings (calculate if necessary) and suggest method to reduce uncertainty.
 ❖
➢ Why there is a difference in calculated value and accepted value
Ball didn’t reach terminal velocity
Distance between markers too small
Tube too narrow
Spheres thrown, not dropped
Misreading of stopwatch or micrometer screw gauge
Temperature not constant

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➢ Why there is a difference in calculated value and accepted value
Contact resistance
Heating of wire
Kinks in wire
Zero error on voltmeter
Poor choice of line of best fit

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Method:- Repeat with various angles of I
Plot a graph of sin i vs. sin r
Find gradient

➢ How to make measurements as accurate as possible

Use pins to trace path of ray
Ensure thin ray from ray box so ray clearly defined
Measure angles from normal
Mark ray, then measure angle
Use large i
Repeat and average
Work in a dark room so beam easy to see
Use centre of block

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➢ Errors in measurement
No repeat readings
Zero error on voltmeter
Parallax error on analogue voltmeter
{Hard to judge when LED lights} *if experiment is with LED*
{Should have measured wavelengths instead of assuming} *if experiment is with
LED*
 ❖
➢ Why there is a difference in calculated value and accepted value
Inaccuracy in measuring frequency
Error in measuring length
Effect of temperature and humidity
Variation in air blown through tube

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➢ How to make measurements as accurate as possible
Switch off circuit between readings, to avoid temperature rise
Check for zero error, and correct readings to take error into account

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➢ How to make measurements as accurate as possible {for experiment with
cylinder dropped in glass tube}
Drop object from rest
Repeat readings and average
Check light gate / timer for zero error
{Light gates should be perpendicular to tube}
{Middle of cylinder should be level with top of tube}
{Drop cylinder to prevent touching sides of tube}
{Arrange tube vertically}
{Use longer cylinder}

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➢ How to determine centre of gravity
Place bat on knife edge
Move bat until it balances
Mark position of centre of gravity
Repeat with bat in different orientation

➢ How it works
When balanced, centre of gravity must be vertically above knife edge // When in
equilibrium, clockwise moment = anticlockwise moment
Assumption – cross-section of bat is symmetrical
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Labelled diagram

Any additional Micrometer screw gauge, G-clamp to hold wire

apparatus
Quantities to be Original length, extension, diameter, mass
measured
Choice of Original length – metre rule, as uncertainty of 0.5mm is
measuring appropriate for long length (e.g. 2m)
instrument Diameter – micrometer screw gauge, as uncertainty of
0.005mm is appropriate for thin wire
Repeat readings Yes, for diameter, and repeat in several places and
appropriate orientations and determine average in case line is not circular
No, for extension, in case elastic limit exceeded
Independent and Independent – Weight / Force
dependent Dependent – Extension
variables
How to determine Calculate radius using
𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
and area using 𝜋𝑟 2
Young Modulus 2
𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
Calculate stress using 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
Calculate strain using 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
Plot a graph of stress vs. strain
Find gradient which is Young Modulus

Sources of Extension – small measurement so large % uncertainty

uncertainty Diameter – small measurement so large % uncertainty
Parallax error for metre rule
Zero error on micrometer screw gauge for measurement of
diameter
Comment on Weights fall – Wear (protective shoes) [toe protection]
safety Wire snaps – Wear safety goggles
 ❖
Labelled diagram

Any additional Thermometer, stirrer

apparatus
Quantities to be Resistance, temperature
measured
Choice of Resistance – ohmmeter, as it is direct reading
measuring Temperature – thermometer, as it has a precision of 1°C and
instrument it has an adequate range
Independent and Independent – Temperature
dependent Dependent – Resistance
variables
How to determine Plot a graph of resistance vs. temperature
Sources of Simultaneous reading of two variables
uncertainty Zero error on thermometer
Parallax error of scale readings
Zero error on ohmmeter
Uneven temperature in water
Comment on Water and beaker are hot – Wear gloves
safety Wires are hot – Handle with care and be cautious of touching
 ❖
Labelled diagram

Any additional Stopwatch, micrometer screw gauge, metre rule

apparatus
Quantities to be Diameter of spheres, distance between markers, time to fall
measured between markers
Choice of Diameter – micrometer screw gauge, as uncertainty is
measuring 0.005mm which is appropriate for diameter of about 2mm
instrument Length – metre rule, as uncertainty is 0.5mm which is
appropriate for length of about 20cm between markers
Repeat readings Yes, for time, so random error reduced and can obtain a mean
appropriate so eliminate anomalies
Yes, for diameter, at various orientations and average
Independent and Independent – Radius / Diameter
dependent Dependent – Time / Velocity
variables
How to determine Find radius by
𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
2
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Find velocity by 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
Plot a graph of velocity vs. radius2
2𝑔(𝑏−𝑜)
Find gradient which is 9

Sources of Terminal velocity not reached

uncertainty Reaction time significant due to short timing
Temperature not constant
Ball knocked by edge of cylinder
Zero error on micrometer screw gauge for diameter
Zero error on stopwatch
Parallax error for metre rule for distance fallen
Diameter small so large % uncertainty
Comment on Liquid spills – Mop up so no slips
safety Ball drops on feet – Wear protective shoes
Liquid splashes in eye – Wear goggle
Student allergic to liquid – Wear gloves
//OR\\
Low risk experiment
Normal lab rules should be followed
 ❖
Labelled diagram

Any additional Optical pins, protractor

apparatus
Quantities to be Angles of incidence
measured Angle of refraction
Choice of Angles – protractor as it has uncertainty of 0.5°
measuring
instrument
Repeat readings Yes, to obtain an average
appropriate
How to determine Obtain sin i and sin r
Plot a graph of sin i vs. sin r
Find gradient which is refractive index

Sources of Thickness of ray

uncertainty
Comment on Lamp is hot so can burn – Avoid contact with lamp
safety Pins can pierce skin – Handle can wire
//OR\\
Low risk, as ray box has low voltage
 ❖
Labelled diagram

Quantities to be Potential difference, current

measured
Choice of Potential difference – voltmeter, as it measures up to [“”]V
measuring which is appropriate for [“”]V cell
instrument Current – ammeter, as it measures up to [“”]A which is
appropriate for [“”]V cell
Repeat readings Yes, so mean can be calculated for each value
appropriate Yes, to reduce random errors
No, as cell might run down
Independent and Independent – Current
dependent Dependent – Potential difference
variables
How to determine Plot a graph of potential difference vs. current
y-intercept is emf
Gradient is internal resistance

Sources of Zero error on meters

uncertainty Parallax on meter (if analogue)
Fluctuating reading on meters (if digital)
Difficulty of reading meters simultaneously
{For solar cell experiments} Keeping light level constant
Comment on Wires are hot – Avoid contact with wires
safety //OR\\
Low risk experiment as voltage is low so no risk of
electrocution
Ensure no short-circuit on cell or cell will get hot
{For solar cell Keep light level constant, by using a lamp at a fixed distance
experiments} Keep temperature of solar cell constant, by opening switch
How to make fair between readings
test
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Labelled diagram

Any additional Metre rule, hammer and plate (to make sound)
apparatus
Quantities to be Distance between microphones, time between peaks
measured
Repeat readings Yes, so average can be calculated, to reduce random errors
appropriate
Independent and Independent – Distance
dependent Dependent – Time
variables
How to determine Separate micrphones
Measure distance between microphones
Measure difference in time, between peaks on oscilloscope
traces
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Find velocity using 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
Sources of Small time interval, so maximise distance between
uncertainty microphones
Measuring difference in distance travelled by sound to each
microphone
Comment on Loud sound can cause ear damage
safety //OR\\
Low risk experiment
 ❖

Labelled diagram

Any additional Set square

apparatus
Quantities to be Weight, extension, original length
measured
Choice of Length – metre rule, as uncertainty is 0.5mm which is
measuring appropriate for measuring spring length
instrument Force – electronic balance, as uncertainty is 0.01g which is
appropriate for measuring 100g slotted masses
Repeat readings No, as permanent extension if elastic limit exceeded
appropriate Yes, to identify anomalies
Yes, to obtain average and get more accurate result
Independent and Independent – Weight / Force
dependent Dependent – Extension
variables
How to determine Measure length from top to bottom of spring
Determine extension by new length – original length
Plot a graph of force vs. extension
Find gradient which is spring constant
Find area under graph which is energy stored in spring

Sources of Parallax error for metre rule

uncertainty Small measurement so large % uncertainty
Not exceeding elastic limit
Comment on Weights fall – Wear protective shoes [foot protection]
safety Spring breaks – Wear goggles
Measurement as Use of fiducial mark
accurate as Use of set square, to ensure stand is upright and vertical
possible Reading at eye level, to avoid parallax error
 ❖
Any additional Stopwatch, metre rule, balance
apparatus
Quantities to be Weight / Mass, height / distance, time
measured
Choice of Height – metre rule, as it has an uncertainty of 0.5mm so it
measuring has adequate range for stairs height
instrument Time – stopwatch, as it has an uncertainty of 0.1s which is
adequate for time to run up stairs
Repeat readings Student may become tired running up the stairs so power
appropriate may change, so repeat after rest
Independent and Independent –
dependent Dependent -
variables
How to determine Measure vertical height from bottom to top of stairs
Determine energy transferred ∴ work done by mgh
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
Determine power by 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
Sources of Reaction time
uncertainty Parallax error on when to stop clock
Zero error on stopwatch
Comment on Collision with other people on stairs – Ensure no people on
safety stairs
Falling down stairs – Wear appropriate footwear
Injury when falling down – Wear headgear and knee pads
 ❖
Labelled diagram

Quantities to be Potential difference, current, height, time

measured
Choice of Height – metre rule, as uncertainty is 0.5mm which is
measuring appropriate for 1m height
instrument Potential difference – voltmeter, as it has a range of up to 15V
which is appropriate for a [“”]V battery
Repeat readings Yes, as obtaining average from repeat readings gives more
appropriate reliable result
No, as motor heats up
No, as battery potential difference decreases / battery runs
down
How to determine Determine power input by potential difference × current
𝑚𝑔ℎ
Determine power output by 𝑡
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
Determine efficiency by 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
Sources of Parallax error on metre rule
uncertainty Zero error on voltmeter, ammeter, stopwatch
String slipping on winding mechanism
Reaction time
Comment on Mass falls on feet – Wear protective shoes
safety String breaks – Wear goggles to prevent injury to eyes
//OR\\
Low risk, as only 9V battery
 ❖
Labelled diagram

Any additional Metre rule

apparatus
Quantities to be Distance fallen by ball, time taken for ball to fall
measured
Choice of Distance – metre rule, as uncertainty of 0.5mm which is
measuring adequate for distance fallen by ball
instrument **Electronic timer used as reaction time is significant
compared to recorded time**
Repeat readings Yes, as repeat readings and averaging gives more reliable
appropriate results
Yes, as anomalous results can be identified
How to determine Time for at least five heights
Plot a graph of s vs. t2 (which should be a straight line
through origin)
1
Find gradient, which is ½ g according to s=2 𝑔t2
Find g by multiplying gradient by 2
Sources of Time taken by electromagnet to release ball
uncertainty Parallax error for metre rule
Zero error on timer
Comment on No major hazard as low voltage supply and falling mass is
safety small
Slipping from stepping on ball – Take care not to tread on ball
Steel ball falling on feet – Wear protective shoes
 ❖
Labelled diagram

Quantities to be Potential difference, current

measured
Choice of Potential difference – voltmeter, as it has range up to [“”]V
measuring which is appropriate for [“”]V bulb
instrument Current – ammeter, as it has range up to [“”]A which is
appropriate for [“”]A in circuit
Repeat readings Yes, but repeat after component is cool
appropriate Yes, to identify errors / anomalies
Yes, since mean can be found
Independent and Independent –
dependent Dependent -
variables
How to determine Plot a graph of potential difference vs. current

Sources of Zero error on meters

uncertainty Parallax error on meters (if analogue)
Difficulty of taking simultaneous readings
Comment on Component is hot – Avoid contact as it could cause burns
safety //OR\\
Low risk experiment as low voltage supply