Chairperson : Prof.

Neeru
Department Co-ordinator : Prof. Praveen Sharda
Course Leader : Dr Ravinder Kaur

M.A. SEMESTER- III

PAPER: XII: American Literature-I

CONTENTS

(i) Introductory Letter

(ii) Syllabus

L.No. Title Author

1. Langston Hughes’s Prescribed Poems: Summary and Analysis Ms. Kanika Bhalla
2. Allen Ginsberg’s Poetry: An Introduction Dr Sumneet Kaur

3. Analysis of Ginsberg’s “Howl” and “Supermarket in California” Dr Sumneet Kaur

4. Analysis of Ginsberg’s “America” and Kaddish” Dr Sumneet Kaur

5. Critical Analysis of Adrienne Rich’s “Planetarium” Dr Ravinder Kaur

6. Analysis of Rich’s “Cartographies of Silence” and Dr Ravinder Kaur

“Stepping Backward”

7. Sam Shepard’s Buried Child: Summary, Themes, and Dr Sumneet Kaur

Critical Analysis

8. Sam Shepard’s Buried Child: Characterization and Dr Sumneet Kaur

Thematic Concerns

9. August Wilson’s The Piano Lesson: Summary and Ms Kanika Bhalla

Characterization

10. August Wilson’s The Piano Lesson: Critical Analysis Ms Kanika Bhalla
of the Play

Editor and Vetter: Dr Ravinder Kaur

1. e-mail of Department - coordeng@pu.ac.in

2. Phone Number of Department - 0172-2534325
 (i)
Introductory Letter

Dear Student,

We are sending you the lesson for American Literature -I. It includes study material on all the
units of this paper. The material is presented in Self-Learning Mode to make it convenient for
you to read, comprehend and understand the scripts on your own. As you know, this paper
explores the immense vitality of American Literature over the course of the 20 th century
through transformative works of acclaimed writers who have shaped the contours and
developments of the American literary tradition; so an effort is made to describe this vibrant
period by providing background material to each prescribed text. To make you well-versed
with the major literary movements and iconic writers of the age the supplement material to
the prescribed texts is provided in each lesson. Besides, the scripts also provide a general
introduction to the life and works of the prescribed writers followed by critical summaries and
analysis of the poems and dramas prescribed in your course. Apart from this, major thematic
concerns of the texts and other important questions are discussed in detail. Please read the
prescribed texts first and then go on to read these lessons, for a better understanding of the
concepts.

We hope that at the end of this course, you will be able to understand and appreciate the
historical and cultural influences, literary movements and major literary figures of this highly
fecund century. Moreover, the reading of the lessons will enable you to appreciate and
evaluate dynamic American literary tradition that emerges from multiple perspectives such
as those of race, gender, ethnicity, socio-economic class and historical period.

If you have any questions, please do not hesitate to email us. You can also visit us in the
department during working days.

Course Leader
 (ii)
Syllabus

American Literature I
(Poetry and Drama: 1900 to the Present)
The course explores the immense vitality of American Literature over the course of the 20th
century through transformative works of acclaimed writers who have shaped the contours and
developments of the American literary tradition. It offers critical insights into the historical and
cultural influences, literary movements and major literary figures of a highly fecund century. The
texts selected for the detailed study represent a dynamic literary tradition that emerges from
multiple perspectives such as those of race, gender, ethnicity, socio-economic class and historical
period.
Testing Pattern: The question paper will contain five questions with internal choice, corresponding
to the five units of the course. All the questions would carry equal marks. The candidates would be
required to answer all five questions. In addition to specific text-based questions, the paper will
also focus on various literary and cultural movements/concepts/trends/terms related to American
literary history.

Unit I

Langston Hughes: “The Weary Blues”, “Diving into the Wreck”, “A Dream Deferred”, “Let America
be America Again”, “The Negro Speaks of Rivers”, “I, Too, Sing America”, “Transcendental Etude”
[The Collected Poems of Langston Hughes (Vintage Classics)]

Unit II

Allen Ginsberg: “Howl”, “Kaddish”, “Supermarket in California”, “America”

[Collected Poems 1947-1997 (Harper Perennial Modern Classics)]

Unit III

Adrienne Rich: “Planetarium”, “Cartographies of Silence”, “Stepping Backward”

[Collected Poems: 1950–2012 (W. W. Norton & Company)]

Unit IV

Sam Shepard, Buried Child (Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group, Revised 2nd Edition)
Unit V

August Wilson: The Piano Lesson (Penguin USA; Reprint edition, 1990)

Suggested Readings

● Christopher Beach, The Cambridge Introduction to Twentieth-Century American Poetry

(Cambridge University Press, 2003).
● Alan Golding, From Outlaw to Classic: Canons in American Poetry (Wisconsin Press,
2009).
● Edward J. Mullen, Critical Essays on Langston Hughes (G.K. hall, 1986).
● Henry Louis Gates, Langston Hughes: Critical Perspectives Past and Present (Harper
Perennial 2000).
● Thomas F. Merrill, Allen Ginsberg (Twayne Publishers, 1988).
● Jonah Raskin, American Scream: Allen Ginsberg's Howl and the Making of the Beat
Generation (Uni. of California Press, 2004)
● Claire Keyes, The Aesthetics of Power: The Poetry of Adrienne Rich (University of Georgia
Press, 2008).
● Albert Gelpi and Barbara C.Gelpi ed., Adrienne Rich’s Poetry and Prose (Norton Critical
Editions, 1993).
● Matthew Charles Roudane, The Cambridge Companion to Sam Shepard (Cambridge
University Press, 2002).
● Leonard Wilcox, Rereading Shepard: Contemporary Critical Essays on the Plays of Sam
Shepard (Palgrave Macmillan, 1993).
● Harold Bloom, August Wilson (Chelsea House Publications, 2009).
● Harold Bloom (ed.), Bloom’s Modern Critical Views: August Wilson (Bloom’s Literary
Criticism, 2009).
● Mary L. Bogumil, Understanding August Wilson (University of South Carolina Press, 1999,
).
● Peter Wolfe, August Wilson (Twayne, 1999).
● Christopher Bigsby, The Cambridge Companion to August Wilson (Cambridge University
Press, 2007).
● Christopher Bigsby, A Critical Introduction to Twentieth-Century American Drama
(Cambridge University Press, 1982).
● Christopher Bigsby, Modern American Drama, 1945-2000 (Cambridge University Press,
1982).

Model Paper

Time: 3 hours Total Marks 80

Note: Attempt all questions. Each question carries 16 marks

Q. 1 Discuss Langston Hughes as a poet of Harlem Renaissance.

Or
Write a note on the poetic idiom of Langston Hughes. Discuss in particular the impact of oral
culture on his poetic style.

Q.2 Allen Ginsberg brings together popular culture with the culture of dissent. Argue.
Or
Discuss critically the key themes in the poetry of Allen Ginsberg.

Q. 3 Confession is the ready stuff of poetry. Discuss Adrienne Rich’s poetry in the light of this
statement.
Or
Where would you place Adrienne Rich’s poetry in the debate of feminist theories? Does she
belong to the feminist or female phase of women’s writing?

Q. 4. Discuss the stage worthiness of the play Buried Child.

Or
Critically analyze the play Buried Child in the context of American recession in ‘70s.

Q. 5 “The Piano Lesson deals with the historical phenomenon of the African American migration
from the southern, agrarian way of life to the large industrial cities of the North in search of
freedom, dignity, and economic opportunities.” Argue.
Or
What does “piano” stand for in the play The Piano Lesson? Give textual references to answer the
question.
*****
 L. No. 1

Langston Hughes’s Prescribed Poems: Summary and Analysis

Structure

1.1 Objectives
1.2 Introduction
1.3 Background
1.3.1 Harlem Renaissance
1.3.2 Development of Jazz Poetry
1.3.3 Life of Langston Hughes
1.4 Major Themes in Hughes’ Poetry
1.5 Critical appreciation of the Prescribed Poems
1.6 Critical Assessment of Hughes’ Poetry
1.7 Summary
1.8 References
1.9 Further Readings
1.10 Model Questions

1.1 Objectives
After reading this lesson, you will be able to:

● learn about the development of Afro-American literature and its characteristics

● learn about the stance of Langston Hughes in Afro-American Literature
● understand the context of the poems
● critically evaluate Hughes’ position as a poet
● identify the traces of identity and race in the poetry of Hughes.

1.2 Introduction
The aim of the current paper “American Literature” is to explore the immense vitality of American
Literature over the course of the twentieth century through the transformative works of acclaimed
writers, who have shaped the contours and developments of the American literary tradition. The
lesson, while exploring the development and evolution of Afro-American literature, discusses the
role played by Langston Hughes in the development of American poetry. This lesson includes an
introduction to the poet Hughes and an analysis of his poems, “The Weary Blues”, “A Dream
Deferred”, “Let America be America Again”, “The Negro Speaks of Rivers”, and “I, Too, Sing
America”. The lesson provides a detailed summary and analysis of the prescribed poems along
with the comments of various critics on the writing style of Hughes. Some model questions and
short answer questions are also provided at the end of the lesson so that you can assess your
understanding of the concepts.

1.3 Background
1.3.1 Harlem Renaissance
The term Harlem Renaissance (c. 1918–37) refers to the blossoming of African American culture,
particularly in the creative arts, and the most influential movement in African American
literary history. The participants of the movement sought to re-conceptualize “the Negro” apart
from the white stereotypes that had influenced black peoples’ relationship to their heritage and to
each other by embracing literary, musical, theatrical, and visual arts. They also sought to break
free of Victorian moral values and bourgeois shame about those aspects of their lives that might,
as seen by whites, reinforce racist beliefs. The movement was never dominated by a particular
school of thought. Rather, it was characterized by an intense debate and laid the groundwork for
all later African American literature. It also had an enormous worldwide impact on subsequent
black literature and consciousness. While the renaissance was not confined to the Harlem district
of New York City, Harlem attracted a remarkable concentration of intellect and talent and served
as the symbolic capital of this cultural awakening.

The Harlem Renaissance is unusual among literary and artistic movements for its close
relationship to civil rights and reform organizations. Crucial to the movement were magazines such
as The Crisis, published by the National Association for the Advancement of Colored
People (NAACP); Opportunity, published by the National Urban League; and The Messenger, a
socialist journal eventually connected with the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, a black labor
union. Negro World, the newspaper of Marcus Garvey’s Universal Negro Improvement
Association, also played a role, but few of the major authors or artists identified with Garvey’s
“Back to Africa” movement, even if they contributed to the paper.

While the renaissance built on earlier traditions of African American culture, it was profoundly
affected by trends—such as primitivism—in European and white American artistic
circles. Modernist primitivism was inspired partly by Freudian psychology, but it tended to extol
“primitive” peoples as enjoying a more direct relationship to the natural world and to elemental
human desires than “over-civilized” whites. The keys to artistic revolution and authentic
expression, some intellectuals felt, would be found in the cultures of “primitive races,” and
preeminent among these, in the stereotypical thinking of the day, were the cultures of sub-Saharan
Africans and their descendants. Early in the 20th century, European avant-garde artists had drawn
inspiration from African masks as they broke from realistic representational styles toward
abstraction in painting and sculpture. The prestige of such experiments caused African American
intellectuals to look at their African heritage with new eyes and in many cases with a desire to
reconnect with a heritage long despised or misunderstood by both whites and blacks.
1.3.2 Development of Jazz Poetry
Jazz emerged from the blues, migrating to Northern urban centres such as Chicago and New York
City during and after World War I. In the 1920s, jazz orchestras grew in size and incorporated new
instruments as well as methods of performance. Louis Armstrong became the first great jazz
soloist when he moved from King Oliver’s Creole Jazz Band in Chicago to Fletcher Henderson’s
band in New York City in 1924. Henderson’s band soon had competitors in “big bands” led by the
likes of Cab Calloway, Duke Ellington, Chick Webb, and Jimmie Lunceford—not to mention such
“white” bands as Paul Whiteman’s. Once associated with brothels and traveling circuses, jazz
gained respectability as a form of high art. Moreover, dance forms associated with jazz, most
famously the Charleston (also a product of the 1920s) and tap dance, became international fads
as a result of hugely popular all-black musical events.

The popularity of jazz among whites helped spark a “Negro Vogue” in cities such as New York
and Paris in the mid to the late 1920s. Simultaneously, European dramatists extolled the body
language of African American dance and stage humor (descended from the blackface minstrel
show, the most popular and original form of American theatrical comedy). The best-known white
man to bring attention to the Harlem Renaissance was undoubtedly Carl Van Vechten,
whose music criticism trumpeted the significance of jazz and blues. It served virtually as a tourist
guide to Harlem, capitalizing on the supposed “exotic” aspects of black urban life even while
focusing, primarily, on the frustrations of black urban professionals and aspiring writers.

Hughes’s position reveals how, in addition to primitivism, the tendency to press for “authentic”
American art forms—and to find them in black America—led black writers to “the folk.” Their focus
on the folk also came at a time when American anthropologists influenced by Franz Boas were
revolutionizing their discipline with arguments against the racist paradigms of the past. The folk—
people of the rural South particularly, but also the new migrants to Northern cities—were
presumed to carry the seeds of black artistic development with relative autonomy from “white”
traditions. Thus, James Weldon Johnson, beginning with his poem “The Creation” (1920) and then
in the book God’s Trombones (1927), set traditional African American sermons in free-verse poetic
forms modeled on the techniques of black preachers.

Hughes built his artistic project on identification with the Negro masses by exploring
black vernacular speech and lyrical forms. Hughes in his first book, The Weary Blues (1926),
wrote of working-class life and black popular culture as well as his own vagabond experiences in
the Caribbean, Africa, and Europe. In his next book, Fine Clothes to the Jew (1927), he turned to
the blues for a poetic form derived from and answering to the desires, needs,
and aesthetic sensibilities of the black working class. In these poems, Hughes also took on
working-class personae. Sterling Brown followed Hughes in a similar spirit with ballads and other
poetic forms that attempted to catch the spirit of the folk heritage without merely imitating “folk”
performances.

While the most celebrated poets of the Harlem Renaissance were men—Hughes, McKay,
Cullen—black women’s poetry was far from incidental to the movement. Poems by Alice Dunbar
Nelson, Helene Johnson, Georgia Douglas Johnson, Angelina Weld Grimké, Gwendolyn Bennett,
and Anne Spencer appeared frequently in periodicals, although only Georgia Douglas Johnson
published full volumes of poetry (including The Heart of a Woman, and Other Poems [1918]
and Bronze [1922]). Women poets negotiated a number of difficulties concerning gender and
tradition as they sought to extricate themselves from stereotypes of hyper-sexuality and primitive
abandon. Attempting to claim femininity on terms denied them by the dominant society, they
worked variously within and against inherited constraints concerning the treatment of love and
nature as well as racial experience in poetry.

A significant proportion of poets as well as other participants in the Harlem Renaissance, were gay
or bisexual, including McKay, Cullen, Locke, Dunbar Nelson, Richard Bruce Nugent, and perhaps
Hughes. References to lesbian sexuality were also well-known in blues songs by Ma
Rainey and Bessie Smith. The renaissance participated in what one scholar termed “the invention
of homosexuality” in American culture during the early 20th century when sexual identities came to
be defined and policed in new ways.

1.3.3 Life of Langston Hughes

James Mercer Langston Hughes (February 1, 1901 – May 22, 1967) was an American poet, social
activist, novelist, playwright, and columnist from Joplin, Missouri. He moved to New York City as a
young man, where he made his career. One of the earliest innovators of the then-new literary art
form called jazz poetry, Hughes is best known as a leader of the Harlem Renaissance. He
famously wrote about the period that “the negro was in vogue”, which was later paraphrased as
“when Harlem was in vogue”.

His writing experiments began when he was young. While in grammar school in Lincoln, Hughes
was elected class poet. He stated that in retrospect he thought it was because of the stereotype
about African Americans having rhythm. In one place, he writes, “I was a victim of a stereotype.
There were only two of us Negro kids in the whole class and our English teacher was always
stressing the importance of rhythm in poetry. Well, everyone knows, except us, that all Negroes
have rhythm, so they elected me as a class poet”. During high school in Cleveland, Hughes wrote
for the school newspaper, edited the yearbook, and began to write his first short stories,
poetry, and dramatic plays. His first piece of jazz poetry, “When Sue Wears Red”, was written
while he was in high school.
Hughes stressed a racial consciousness and cultural nationalism devoid of self-hate. His thought
united people of African descent and Africa across the globe to encourage pride in their diverse
black folk culture and black aesthetic. Hughes was one of the few prominent black writers to
champion racial consciousness as a source of inspiration for black artists. His African-American
race consciousness and cultural nationalism would influence many foreign black writers,
including Jacques Roumain, Nicolas Guillen, Leopold Sedar Senghor, and Aime Cesaire.

In addition to a large body of poetic work, Hughes wrote eleven plays and countless works of
prose, including the well-known “Simple” books: Simple Speaks His Mind, (Simon & Schuster,
1950); Simple Stakes a Claim, (Rinehart, 1957); Simple Takes a Wife, (Simon & Schuster, 1953);
and Simple's Uncle Sam (Hill and Wang, 1965). He edited the anthologies The Poetry of the
Negro and The Book of Negro Folklore, wrote an acclaimed autobiography, The Big Sea (Knopf,
1940), and co-wrote the play Mule Bone (Harper Collins, 1991) with Zora Neale Hurston.

Langston Hughes died of complications from prostate cancer on May 22, 1967, in New York City.
In his memory, his residence at 20 East 127th Street in Harlem has been given landmark status by
the New York City Preservation Commission, and East 127th Street has been renamed “Langston
Hughes Place”.

1.4 Major Themes in Hughes’ Poetry

The living conditions of black Americans have greatly influenced the work of Langston Hughes as
to a variety of themes. A major critic of Hughes, Andrews identifies sixteen themes including the
miscegenation, parental rejection, race, racism, the history of the deportation, the pride of blacks,
the anger, the protest, and the dignity of Blacks, social injustice, suffering, the fight for equality, the
oral tradition of Africa, death, the jazz, and the blues. Langston Hughes was never far from jazz.
He spent whole nights in nightclubs listening to the music of Jazz. He was obviously not a simple
fanatic seduced by the sound but he was rather a vocal follower of Black Consciousness. The poet
saw jazz and the blues as the only art forms of the African-Americans. The two forms choked in
the poet the desire for assimilation and the acceptance of the white culture but rejoiced rather in
the black inheritance and creativity. Hughes wrote in “The Negro and the Racial Mountain”: “But
jazz to me is one of the inherent expressions of Negro life in America; the eternal tom-tom beating
in the Negro soul; the tom-tom of revolt against weariness in a white world, a world of subway
trains, and work, work; the tomtom of joy and laughter, and pain swallowed in a smile”.

Langston Hughes uses countless themes throughout his poetry. Some important themes noticed
in his works are music, dignity, racism, survival, collective memory, and American identity. The two
main themes that are prevalent in his poems are collective memory and American identity which
helped Hughes deepen the meaning of his poems, “Aunt Sue’s Stories” and “I, Too, Sing
America”. Hughes brought the struggles African Americans faced in America, and he protested
against it. The poems were made to show the actual culture and hardships of African Americans
so that the Whites could read his poetry. The intention of Langston Hughes is to achieve by his
poetic discourse the population of all races, including the black one of which he is the mouthpiece.
The poet thus uses simple unsophisticated language. In addition, he uses the dialect and the free,
decoded, unconventional verse. “I, Too, Sing America” for example, is an outstanding poem
expressing the speaker’s dream. At the end of his lecture programs in the South, Hughes would
recite his poem “I, Too, Sing America”. As often as he invoked this poem, he would be reaffirming
his faith in the American dream.

What unites the participants of the Harlem Renaissance, meanwhile, is their participation and their
common commitment to produce an artistic expression in relation to the existence of the Afro-
American identity in particular and the black identity in general. Langston Hughes clearly shows in
his poem “The Negro Speaks of Rivers” the experience of the black slave deported through the
rivers and oceans. The poem is mainly a reminiscence of these rivers that have enriched the soul
of the narrator and represent life, death, endurance, perseverance, wisdom, and victory. A fire
burns in the poet; it nourishes a deep passion to write poetry in order to use it as an arsenal for
justice, emancipation, equity, and elevation. Like the Euphrates in which he bathed when the
dawns were young, we see here a young man who wants to become one of the greatest poets of
all time. Langston Hughes wishes that America was the house of freedom and equality for all,
whites and blacks. His poem “Let America be America Again” speaks primarily of the enslaved
American liberation.

1.5 Critical appreciation of the Prescribed Poems

1. “The Weary Blues” is one of Langston Hughes’s “blues” poems. It appears in the collection of
poetry by the same name, which was published in 1926, not long after Hughes had moved to
Harlem and immersed himself in the flourishing arts and culture scene of the place. Before the
collection came out, “The Weary Blues” won the prestigious literary contest sponsored
by Opportunity magazine, which was distributed by the Urban League. Hughes supposedly wrote
“The Weary Blues”, which is about a singer performing on Lenox Avenue, after visiting a cabaret in
Harlem.

“The Weary Blues” is written in free verse with an irregular rhyme scheme, mimicking the natural
patterns of speech and music. The poet’s blues poetry was influenced by the music he heard
during his childhood. “The Blues” is a musical style invented and propagated by African
Americans, which historians often label as the secular counterpart to old slave spirituals. Both
genres of music express themes of deep pain, although blues songs often address a lost or
wayward lover. Unlike the spirituals, which are sung by a group, blues songs are usually
performed by individuals, which emphasize the loneliness of the sorrowful, melancholic lyrics.
Hughes embraced blues music because it expressed the worries of the common man in a simple
and direct manner. Blues songs feature heavy repetition, and singers often seem to be laughing
and crying at the same time. The critic Edward Waldron writes about Hughes’s blues poetry: “We
confront many of the themes that he develops more fully in other works. Loneliness, despair,
frustration, and a nameless sense of longing are all represented in the blues poetry.”

“The Weary Blues” begins with the speaker coming across a “Negro” musician playing music one
night on Lenox Avenue by an old gaslight. Critic and biographer of Hughes, Arnold Rampersad
writes

The singer [expresses the] weariness, disappointment... mournfulness... the difficulties…

[and] the stoic resilience of the African American society. Although the subject of the poem
is a musician, there is little in terms of entertainment here; rather, the music is, as the title
suggests, “weary” and disconsolate. This singer is no minstrel; he is a talented and deep
man capable of immense stores of emotion. The blues are showcased as an art form that
can express this deep emotion ably and beautifully.

Similarly, Hughes’s verse is musical, as he repeats the line “He did a lazy sway.” The musician
rocks back and forth on his stool while playing a mournful tune that comes from his soul. The
speaker describes the musician's tone as “melancholy”, which could also describe the poem itself,
especially the ending. The musician thumps his feet on the floor over and over again, and Hughes
echoes these beats by repeating the word “thump”.

The musician plays until the night is at its darkest, at which time the singer goes to bed and sleeps
like a man who is dead. These last lines are morbid but also represent the importance of the
singer’s music. Hughes suggests that the singer has achieved a catharsis through his music.
Instead of turning to violence, suicide, drinking, or some other desperate measure to numb his
pain, the singer is able to channel his anger, sadness, and weariness into his music.

2. “A Dream Deferred” is a short, pithy poem that seeks to answer its own question through a
series of images and the use of simile and metaphors. The poet asks what happens to a dream
that is deferred. He wonders if it dries up like a raisin that has been exposed to the sun for long, or
whether it festers like a sore and then runs. He is curious if it rots and stinks like rotten meat, or
just crusts over like a syrupy sweet liquid. He figures out that it may sag down like a heavy load.
The poet then concludes with the line that the deferred dream may explode. Figurative language is
used in the poem which puts the emphasis on the imagination. The form is unusual as the first
stanza is a quatrain, followed by a tercet then an unrhymed couplet. The last line is another
question suggesting there is no definitive answer to the original question. Full end rhymes tend to
glue the lines together and solidify the whole, so sun/run, meat/sweet, load/explode reinforce the
message of the poet, and also make it easier to remember.
The use of anaphora in the poem must be noted. Anaphora is when the words are repeated (as in
the Old Testament Psalms, for example), which also combines with the above rhymes to
strengthen the form.

Does it dry up...

Does it stink....

Or does it .....

One wonders about the kind of dream that the poet talks about here. The dreams we all
experience whilst sleeping, or daydreaming; but this dream has nothing to do with conscious
goals, hopes, and aims for the future. The speaker is suggesting that this dream is already
delayed and frustrated and that time is of the essence—this dream has to be fulfilled or else. The
poem does not offer any solution to the problem of the postponed dream. It merely puts before us
some tentative examples. Something happens but the speaker is not quite certain about that. The
reader is offered a series of comparisons. The dream is like;

1. A raisin in the sun: a fruit which was once juicy, a nutritious food, now is seen to dry up and
become useless. As the sun rises each day, time passes, and nothing happens.
2. Like a sore: a flesh wound or symptom of an illness which, once neglected, begins to turn
bad and could be harmful to health.
3. Rotten meat: a protein foodstuff that has been left out or forgotten about and is already
beyond use. There is something rotten in the state of forgotten dreams.
4. A syrupy sweet: sugar brings energy and life, but this has been out too long and gone
crusty. That dream was sweet once upon a time.
5. A heavy load: No one wants to carry such weight unnecessarily. Everyone has baggage but
history shows that some people have always carried more than others.
So these five contrasting elements help shape the poem and bring strong visual energy into the
mind of the reader. The fact that food is prominent b); what is taken brings home the idea that this
dream has to do with survival (of the fittest to the physical body is important but in the end, a
dream deferred can result in explosive consequences because it is like a ticking time-bomb. The
final line metaphorically sums up the whole notion of what can happen when the dream of an
individual or dream of a people fails to manifest in real-time. Oppression, societal pressure,
prejudice, historical baggage, and other factors can play their part in denying the dream.

The primary motif of the poem is the “dream deferred”, which represents the opposition between
Harlem of the 1950s and the rest of the world. Other motifs include boogie-woogie and
discrimination against African Americans. The poem is characterized by its use of the montage, a
cinematic technique of quickly cutting from one scene to another in order to juxtapose disparate
images, and its use of contemporary jazz modes like boogie-woogie, bop, and bebop, both as
subjects in the individual short poems and as a method of structuring and writing the poetry.

3. The poem “Let America Be America Again” was composed by Langston Hughes in 1935 and it
was published in the July 1936 issue of Esquire Magazine. It appeared again in 1937
in Kansas Magazine. In the poem, Hughes openly shares his thoughts on the American Dream.
Decades later, in 2004, Democratic Senator John Kerry used the title of the poem as his slogan for
his Presidential Campaign while running against George W. Bush.

The main theme of the poem is that America is supposed to be the land of freedom and
opportunity, but he and many others have not experienced this "America". Hughes shows
optimism throughout the poem that the people of America will rise up against injustice and make
America into what it once was. Throughout the poem, Hughes contrasts his hopes for America
with the reality of life for those outside of the socially and economically dominant racial, religious,
and social groups. He evokes the fervent dreams of those who came to the United States because
they saw it as heaven where they could be safe from the persecution they endured in their
homelands. But those dreams of America have never come true for them.

“Let America Be America Again” focuses on the idea of the American dream and how, for many,
attaining freedom, equality, and happiness, which the dream encapsulates, is nigh on impossible.
The speaker in the poem outlines the reasons why this ideal America has gone, or never was, but
could still be. For the poor, the oppressed, and the downtrodden, the reality of day to day
existence makes the dream a cruel illusion. The poem explores the darker areas of life, the history
of exploitation for example, and outlines the unique struggles of the poor who make up America,
both black and white. The poem begins with Hughes yearning for America to be the America it
once was; however, he comments sardonically, that this image of America is patently false. The
earliest Americans practiced slavery and oppression, systematically destroying the land’s native
peoples in order to build their settlements. Hughes explains that the ideal “America” exists only in
dreams. However, he begs:

Let America be the dream that dreamers dreamed

Let it be that great strong land of love

Where never kings connive nor tyrants scheme.

For poor people, Native Americans, slaves, and immigrants, America has only ever been a “dog
eats dog” world where the weak are “crushed”. The “humble, hungry, mean” citizens do not get to
drink from the cup of plenty; despite hard work and ambition, they will always remain outside the
margins of success and comfort.
The speaker then steps back momentarily. He acknowledges that many dreamers came to
America with the hope of carving out an equal piece of wealth and acceptance. The daring were
mighty, Hughes exclaims, and he celebrates the dreamers who “dreamt a dream so strong, so
brave, so true”. The refugees from Ireland, Poland, England, and even more so, the African
slaves, arrived in America because they had no other choice. However, even after building the
foundation of this “homeland of the free”, its riches remain out of their grasp.

The speaker cries out that the Negros, immigrants, and poor people must rise up and redefine
American equality as it was always meant to be. He states emphatically:

We must take back our land again,

America!

Even if America is now currently plagued by discrimination and greed, the speaker (and Hughes)
believes that it can be improved. Thus, the poem ends on an optimistic, powerful note of self-
determination and perseverance.

Years after the poem was published, Langston Hughes commented, “The American Negro
believes in democracy. We want to make it real, complete, workable, not only for ourselves - the
fifteen million dark ones - but for all Americans all over the land”. This poem exemplifies the
ambivalence and alienation that many African Americans felt in the pre-Civil Rights era but also
encourages them to rise up and reclaim their land—because they deserve it as much as those
people in power.

4. “The Negro Speaks of Rivers” is Langston Hughes’s first mature poem. He composed the poem
in 1920 at the age of seventeen, while traveling by train to visit his father in Mexico. The young
Hughes was inspired to pen this verse when his train crossed over the Mississippi River. It was
published in 1921 in the journal the Crisis, which had a predominantly African American
readership. Although Hughes did not technically write “The Negro Speaks of Rivers” in or about
Harlem, he addresses themes that would later become closely associated with the Harlem
Renaissance. Hughes dedicated this poem to W.E.B. DuBois a few years after its initial
publication. It was also read out loud at Hughes’s own funeral service in 1967.

The poet writes that he has known rivers as ancient as the world and other than the flow of human
blood in human veins, therefore, his soul has grown deep like these rivers. He has bathed in the
river Euphrates when even the dawns were young. He had built his hut near the Congo which
lulled him to sleep. He has looked upon the river Nile and raised the pyramids above it. He used to
hear the singing of the Mississippi when Lincoln had gone to New Orleans and he has seen his
muddy bosom turn golden in the sunset. He has known rivers which are very ancient and his soul
has grown deep like these rivers. When Langston Hughes was writing “The Negro Speaks of
Rivers”, he was most influenced by the work of Carl Sandburg and Walt Whitman. He particularly
cited Whitman's “Song of Myself” as an inspiration for the long lines in “Negro.” The poem is free
verse but has the rhythm of a gospel preacher. Hughes utilizes anaphora, which is the repetition of
words or phrases at the start of each line, like “I built,” “I looked,” and “I heard.” In this poem, the
speaker links himself to his ancestors, firmly placing them in important historical, religious, and
cultural sites all over the world. The speaker begins by claiming a connection to the world’s
ancient rivers that predated human beings, and that has made his soul grow “deep like the rivers”.
This insightful and articulate description indicates the immense intellect of the speaker and allows
him to make a definitive connection between people of his race and the rest of human civilization.
In the early twentieth century, white Americans often viewed their darker-skinned counterparts as
less than human, and here, Hughes offers concrete proof of historical equality.

The speaker mentions four great rivers, starting with the Euphrates, which historians and
archaeologists often label as the birthplace of human civilization. Then, he mentions the strong
and mighty Congo, along which many great African kingdoms have flourished. The speaker then
cites the long, winding Nile and the great Egyptian pyramids. He witnessed the creation of these
structures, which are amongst man's greatest feats of architecture. Finally, he writes about the
muddy and golden Mississippi, which he links to American slavery and Abraham Lincoln. Although
the speaker shares many of Langston Hughes's beliefs, he is a universal figure rather than an
autobiographical depiction of Hughes himself. The speaker serves as a voice for all African
Americans, as he traces their lineage to the cradles of civilization. Critic Onwuchekwa Jemie
extols the merits of the poem:

It is a sonorous evocation of transcendent essences so ancient as to appear timeless,

predating human existence, longer than human memory. The rivers are part of God's body
and participate in his immortality. They are the earthly analogues of eternity: deep,
continuous, mysterious. They are named in the order of their association with black history.
The black man has drunk of their life-giving essences and thereby borrowed their immortality.

Death is one of the main themes in the poem, although it is subtle. Critic Arnold Rampersad
writes:

With its allusions to deep dusky rivers, the setting sun, sleep, and the soul, [the poem] is
suffused with the image of death and, simultaneously, the idea of deathlessness. As in
Whitman's philosophy, only the knowledge of death can bring the primal spark of poetry and
life. Here Langston Hughes became ‘the outsetting bard,’ in Whitman's phrase, the poet who
sings of life because at last, he has known death.

5. The poem “I, Too” is also known as “I, Too, Sing America”. It was initially titled “Epilogue” when
it appeared in The Weary Blues, the 1926 volume of Langston Hughes’s poetry. It has been
anthologized repeatedly and scholars have written about it many times. It is written in free verse
and features short lines and simple language.

Hughes wrote “I, Too” from the perspective of an African American man who may be either a
slave, a free man in the Jim Crow South or even a domestic servant. The lack of a concrete
identity or historical context does not mitigate the poem’s message; in fact, it confers on it a high
degree of universality, for the situation Hughes describes in the poem reflects a common
experience for many African Americans during his time.

The speaker begins by declaring that he too can “sing America,” meaning that he is claiming his
right to feel patriotic towards America, even though he is the “darker” brother who cannot sit at the
table and must eat in the kitchen. This alludes to the common practice of racial segregation during
the early twentieth century when African Americans faced discrimination in nearly every aspect of
their lives. They were forced to live, work, eat and travel separately from their white counterparts,
had few civil or legal rights, were often victims of racial violence, and faced economic
marginalization in both the North and the South. One critic identifies the opening lines of the poem
as illustrative of W.E.B. DuBois’s theory of “double-consciousness”:

It is a peculiar sensation, this double-consciousness, this sense of always looking at one’s

self through the eyes of others, of measuring one’s soul by the tape of a world that looks on
in amused contempt and pity. One ever feels his two-ness,—an American, a Negro; two
souls, two thoughts, two un-reconciled strivings; two warring ideals in one dark body, whose
dogged strength alone keeps it from being torn asunder.

The speaker does not languish in despair, however. He proclaims that “tomorrow” he will join the
others at the table and no one will dare send him back to the kitchen. He will eat well, laugh, and
grow strong. Not only that, the “others” will see “how beautiful” the speaker is, and will therefore
feel ashamed. This statement is extremely hopeful and optimistic. The speaker demonstrates a
heightened sense of self and proclaims his ambition to assert his legitimacy as an American
citizen and as a man.

The invocation of America is important, for Hughes is expressing his belief that African Americans
are a valuable part of the country’s population and that he foresees a racially equal society in the
near future. Many critics believe that “I, Too” is an unofficial response to the great poet Walt
Whitman’s poem, “I Hear America Singing.” This is likely given Hughes’s expressed affinity for
Whitman’s work, as well as the similarity between the titles and choice of words. In Whitman’s
poem, a variety of Americans—including a mechanic, carpenter, boatman, and mother—sing
joyfully about America. Hughes suggests that even though the circumstances are different for
African Americans, they also deserve to experience patriotism.
1.6 Critical Assessment of Hughes’ Poetry
The Harlem Renaissance novelist, Jessie Fauset, in Crisis magazine reviewed Hughes’ The
Weary Blues, he wrote, “while I am no great lover of any dialect I hope heartily that Mr Hughes will
give us many more”. Many more refers here to the universal subjects which Hughes served in his
special Negro style.
Walter Farrell and Patricia A. Johnson remark that Hughes’s poem “Montage of a Dream Deferred”
serves as Hughes’ “poetic commentary on the unrest and anxiety of post-war Black America”.
Scholar John Lowney views Hughes as not only a commentating spectator but also a prophetic
participant in the “expression of collective Black anger present in the Montage”.
Scholar Erskine Peters asserts that “Hughes uses black music in his poetry as aesthetic, social
and political referent because, to a great extent, black music is black history”.
“The totem canonisation of Hughes as an ‘easily accessible writer’, a poet of ‘plain, easy to
understand language’ and an ‘unsophisticated and provincial poet’ (Forbes) contributes to his
reputation among scholar-critics as a writer whose “approach to poetry was far too simple and
unlearned”.
Biographer Arnold Rampersad notes in his introduction to the Collected Poems that for many
critics, Hughes’ verse “fails lamentably to satisfy their desire for modernist literature attuned to the
complexities of modern life . . . Despite the surface simplicity, Hughes’s poetry is replete with
allusions that must be respected and understood if it is to be properly appreciated”.
Van Vechten places Hughes among the accomplished African American authors and bases this
confidence in Hughes’ abilities on poems “that throb with true jazz rhythm” and on the translation
of “jazz dances of the cabarets in New York’s own Harlem into verse” by Hughes. Ruth Peiter
claims that “here is a young man destined to be one of the great poets of the Negro race”. The
magazine Boston Globe wrote about Hughes, “the joy in Hughes’ poems is his enviable ability to
re-create the innate rhythms and spark of a people, a neighborhood, a city. He is all of his people,
and as their voices vary, so does his”.
One can notice through the examples given above that scholarship on Hughes’s writings has
historically correlated Hughes’ aesthetic and poetic concerns with his racial identity.

Self-Assessment Questions:
1. What is the name of Hughe’s autobiography?
2. Name the major poets associated with Jazz poetry.
3. What does the poet mean by ‘dream deferred’?
1.7 Summary
After reading this lesson, you have learned what the term ‘Harlem Renaissance’ in Afro-American
literature actually stood for and how it led to the development of a new style of poetry: Jazz poetry.
You have read the background to the poetry of the Afro-American poet Langston Hughes. If his
poetic arsenal has produced a major impact on the African American conscience, it still produces
today the same effect on the conscience of blacks from the Congo, Africa, and all over the world
who are exposed to the poet’s work. Hughes’ poetry is used to encourage his people during their
hard times. He was a powerful man who used his poetry skills to express his feelings towards the
African American race, which was being highly discriminated against. He did not only impact the
African American Community of his time but became an inspiration for all generations. One can
trace the influence of Hughes on the development of poetry and music collaborations, and more
specifically, on jazz poetry, by examining the “playback” of his poems through various recordings.
The following elements are the essential characteristics of Hughes’ poetry: the employment of the
simple and popular language, the employment of the radical political language, the employment of
the revolutionary tone, the employment of varied themes as well as the employment of jazz and
the blues.

1.8 References
“Harlem Renaissance: American Literature and Art”, Encyclopaedia Britannica,
www.britannica.com/event/Harlem-Renaissance-American-literature-and-art/Visual-art.

“A Brief Guide to Jazz Poetry”, Poets.Org, poets.org/text/brief-guide-jazz-poetry.

“Jazz Poetry and Langston Hughes”, National Endowment for the Arts,
www.arts.gov/art-works/2014/jazz-poetry-langston-hughes#sthesh.FGZYVVOR.dpuf.

“I, Too”, Poetry Foundation, www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/47558/i-too.

“The Weary Blues”, Poetry Foundation, www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/47347/the-weary-blues.

Jones, Meta DuEwa. “Listening to What the Ear Demands: Langston Hughes and His
Critics.” Callaloo, vol. 25, no. 4, 2002, pp. 1145–1175. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/3300277.

1.9 Further Readings

Berry, Faith (1983.1992,). "Langston Hughes: Before and Beyond Harlem". In On the Cross of the
South, Citadel Press.
Bernard, Emily (2001). Remember Me to Harlem: The Letters of Langston Hughes and Carl Van
Vechten, 1925–1964, Knopf.
Jones, Meta DuEwa. “Listening to What the Ear Demands: Langston Hughes and His
Critics.” Callaloo, vol. 25, no. 4, 2002, pp. 1145–1175. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/3300277.
Rampersad, Arnold (1986). The Life of Langston Hughes, Volume 1: I, Too, Sing America, Oxford
University Press.
Rampersad, Arnold. The Life of Langston Hughes: Volume II: 1914–1967, I Dream a World,
Oxford University Press.
1.10 Model Questions

1. Explain what role the Great Migration had to play in the literary development of
Afro-American poetry.
2. Trace the development of Jazz poetry and the contribution of the Afro-American poet
Langston Hughes to its popularity.
3. Two major themes that emerge from the Selected Poems of Langston Hughes are survival
in the face of adversity; and the continuum of tradition from ancestral Africa to modern
America, particularly in Harlem, but also in the south. Discuss the appearance of these
themes in the poetry of Hughes through the prescribed poems.
4. Are Hughes’ survivors necessarily happy or do they merely struggle to survive? Do they
find love or is the absence of real love part of the problem? To what degree are his subjects
burdened by racism and how do they respond to that burden? Respond to these questions
with the help of the poems prescribed to you.
5. What role has music to play in the poems of Hughes? Explain through suitable examples.
 L. No. 2

Allen Ginsberg’s Poetry: An Introduction

Structure

2.0 Objectives

2.1 Introduction

2.2 A Background to American Poetry

2.2.1 Periodization of American Literature

2.2.2 American Poets and the Periods they belonged to

2.3 Bio-note on Allen Ginsberg

2.4 A note on Beat Movement

2.5 Major Influences on Ginsberg and his works

2.6 An Overview of Ginsberg’s works

2.7 Themes employed in Ginsberg’s Poetry

2.7.1 American Culture

2.7.2 Insanity

2.7.3 Hypocrisy of Modern Society

2.7.4 Theme of Homosexuality

2.7.5 Loneliness and Death

2.7.6 Natural World

2.7.7 Theme of Sexuality

2.8 Walt Whitman and Allen Ginsberg: A Similarity of Perspectives

2.9 Summary

2.10 References

2.11 Further Reading

2.12 Model Questions

2.0 Objectives
After reading this lesson, you will be able to:

● familiarize yourself with the history of American Poetry

● understand the development of Allen Ginsberg as a literary writer

● familiarize yourself with Beat Movement

● familiarize yourself with the literary corpus of Ginsberg

● understand major themes that Ginsberg employs in his works

2.1 Introduction
Dear students, Allen Ginsberg was one of the best-known of the Beat poets, a group of writers and
artists who created a new and original style of American literature in the mid-20th century. In order
to make you well-versed with the author and the works, this chapter will introduce you to the
background of American poetry, the poet, and his works. The lesson also focuses on the major
themes that Ginsberg employs in his works. This chapter also gives space to a note on the Beat
Movement, major influences on Ginsberg’s works, and similarities in the perspectives of Whitman
and Ginsberg.

2.2 A Background to American Poetry

Working with exact dates, periods of literary history, and names of these periods has always been
a task of great effort for historians, literary scholars, and anthropologists. Although there may be
different criteria for affixing dates to the history of any nation, there remains an inevitable ambiguity
owing to many factors working behind the making of the history of countries. Yet for our
convenience, we have still been dividing literature into literary periods and also studying how one
particular period differs from the other, what factors are responsible for its distinct nature and how
a particular period molds, unmolds, and remolds literature of that period. For now, we intend to
leave out those factors in our discussion and we will focus entirely on a brief explanation of the
history of American Poetry. America had experienced the dominance of European Imperial
powers, the Civil War, and the two World Wars. The literature of America grew gradually under
these influences and after signing the Declaration of Independence, America’s Literature
developed independently without any direct influences from British Literature. Studying the
literature of America, and observing the developmental changes that fostered it has been quite a
demanding task; it is nothing less than a journey through the nation’s experiences. To begin with,
it’s indeed informative to have a look at the periodization of American Literature which has been
done, for the sake of convenience, on the basis of the different Wars that America survived.

2.2.1 Periodization of American Literature

1. Colonial Period (1607-1775)
2. Early National Period (1775-1860)
Early National Period (1775-1820)
Romantic Period (1820-60)
3. Realism and Naturalism (1860-1914)
Realistic Period (1860-1900)
Naturalistic Period (1900-1914)
4. Modernist Period (1914-1940)
5. The Postwar Period (1940-1960)
6. Postmodernist Period (1960-present)

2.2.2 American Poets and the Periods they belonged to

The era of the 17th century, also known as the Colonial Period, began with the settlement of
European colonies and extended until the inception of the American Revolution. The literature of
these times had been greatly influenced by British writers. The dominance of the English added
much to the themes and style of writing of American Literature. Writings of the nation began for the
most part as the imitation of the Europeans. The main themes of the era represented religiosity
and the history of the times.

Anne Bradstreet was the first female writer in America. She composed her poems taking secular,
religious, and domestic subjects as the main themes in her works. Bradstreet’s style of writing was
greatly influenced by British writers, mainly Spenser and Sydney. Another famous poet of the
times was Phillis Wheatley whose 1773 publication Poems on Various Subjects exposed the
African-American complexity. The literature of 17th century America could not develop itself as
independent literature that could influence its people. Moreover, the form and content too had
been English in nature.

Philip Freneau and Joel Barlow were famous poets of 18th century America. The poems written by
them were patriotic and satiric in nature. Freneau composed revolutionary poems that worked as
efficient propaganda. The famous poems by the poet include: “The Indian Burying Ground,” “The
Wild Honey Suckle,” “To a Caty-did,” and “On a Honey Bee.”
American Literature took a turn as the writers’ alienation towards the feeling of Nationalism
brought a drastic change in the literature produced. This period saw a great rise in American stage
comedy, the American novel, and American Magazine. The first American magazine was The
North American Review. With the introduction of railroads and a flourishing publishing sector,
readership picked up a great pace. Edgar Allan Poe and William Cullen Byrant wrote poetry that
did not imitate its British forerunners. The literature of the nation started developing independently.
Poe was the first American writer to experiment with the themes of mystery and macabre. Some of
Poe’s poems are: “Eldorado”, “To Helen”, “The Raven,” “Tamerlane,” “Lenore,” “Al Aaraaf.” Byrant
was a famous American romantic poet. “Thanatopsis” is the most famous work of Byrant.

1820-60 was marked as the Romantic Period in America or the American Renaissance. This era
was characterized by remarkable writings in American literature. Noteworthy poets of the
Romantic period were Poe, John Greenleaf Whittier, Emerson and Henry Wadsworth Longfellow,
etc. Walt Whitman was regarded as the most influential of all American poets. Whitman’s free
verse style of writing was quite appreciable and later it became an influence on the writers of the
Beat Generation. The poet worked on the American culture and his most famous work Leaves of
Grass employed humanity and life as themes. The celebration of Nature was another recurrent
theme in the poet’s work. Whitman was regarded as unconventional for his use of sexual imagery
in Leaves of Grass. Some other famous poems of Whitman are “Song of Myself,” “I Sing the Body
Electric,” and “Out of the Cradle Endlessly Rocking.”

The Realistic Period in American Literature brought realistic works to its readers. People became
more aware of the changing perspectives appearing in the nation after the Civil War. Urbanization
and industrialization had affected the nation’s culture. Writers became more responsive to the
realities and the changes experienced by the nation. Their writings depicted the real lives of
people and the concept of a nation. Poets like, William Vaughn Moody, Sidney Lanier, and Emily
Dickinson contributed a lot to the realistic literature of the period. Sidney Lanier was famous for the
use of musical meter in his poetry. Some of his poems like, “Corn,” “The Symphony,” “The
Marshes of Glynn,” and “Sunrise” are very prominent. Emily Dickinson was known for her creative
writing style, especially for the use of dashes and for employing the theme of capitalization. The
themes used in Dickinson’s works are nature, religiosity, morbidity, etc. Some of her best-written
poems are “I Taste a Liquor Never Brewed,” “Wild Nights-Wild Nights,” “I felt a Funeral in my
Brain,” “I’m Nobody, Who are you?,” “Because I Could not Stop for Death,” “Tell all the Truth but
tell it Slant.” Stephen Crane was another American poet who is better known for writing short
poems.

The Modernist Period in American Literature was characterized by experimentation in the style of
writing. The literary forms in drama and poetry differed considerably from the earlier forms.
Traditional ways of writing were replaced by experimental forms. Edwin Arlington Robinson
comments on the tragedy of life in the poems. “Miniver Cheevy,” “The House on the Hill,” “Dear
Friends,” and “The Dark Hills” are some of the well-known poems by Robinson. Robert Frost was
another famous American poet who depicted rural life in his poems and dealt primarily with the
themes of nature, everyday social situations, isolation, and love for one’s work etc. “Mending
Wall,” “Mowing,” “Birches,” “Out, Out,” “The Road Not Taken,” “Fire and Ice,” “Stopping by Woods
On a Snowy Evening,” and “Choose Something Like a Star” are some of the most famous poems
written by the poet. The condition of man in the modern world is one of the most common themes
that Frost talks about in his works. American poetry started assuming the form of small
magazines. Poetry: A Magazine of Verse is one of the starred magazines that run even today. It
was initially published in Chicago by Harriet Monroe in 1912. The magazine published works of
many notable poets of the time. Edgar Lee Masters, Edwin Arlington Robinson, Robert Frost, T.S.
Eliot, William Carlos Williams, Edna St. Vincent Millay, and E. E. Cummings are some of the most
appreciated poets of Modern American Poetry. E. E. Cummings’ style of writing poetry is
remarkable. He presented his poetry in visual form; mostly using lower case letters for his poems.
The period of the Harlem Renaissance saw contributions by many African-American poets. Two
among them were Countee Cullen and Langston Hughes. Hughes worked on themes like
American identity, racism, dignity, etc. The Weary Blues, Fine Clothes to the Jew, Dear Lovely
Death are some of his celebrated works. Cullen was another major African-American writer of the
era. His poetry collections Harlem Wine, and Any Human to Another are quite appreciable. He
dealt with themes of love, reality, perception, etc.

In the 1920s and 1930s, American Literature experienced a change when writers brought in
diversity in their works by shifting from realism to postmodernist elements. The works dealt
primarily with the social scenario of the nation. Poems were written using formal form and meter.
Robert Lowell was a prominent figure of the 1940s. His famous work Lord Weary’s Castle presents
themes of family history and spirituality. Theodore Roethke, an intellectual poet, showed deep
sympathy for nature in his poems. Randall Jarrell and Karl Shapiro were the two famous war
poets. By the mid-1950s there came a reaction against the accepted norms of the society.
Disillusionment caused great disturbance among the people of America and this eventually
occupied space in the works of America’s great writers. Holocaust became an influencing theme in
the literature of the times. The poets of the period aligned themselves to the Romantic Age of
Poetry. They got inspiration from poets like Walt Whitman, Hart Crane, D. H. Lawrence, etc.

The new generation of poetry was influenced by traditional verse forms. Wallace Stevens and
Richard Eberhart were the major influences of the period. The tradition of bringing in personal
experiences in poetry came with the Confessional Movement and the leading figures of this
movement were John Berryman and Robert Lowell. The literary movements in the Postwar Period
were untraditional. Allen Ginsberg and Jack Kerouac and others were the founders of Beat Poetry
in America. The Beat Generation was an exceptional literary movement by the poets who brought
before America the themes which were not accepted generally in society as topics for discussion.
Their experiment with drugs, and explicit use of sexual imagery in poems was something
untraditional until introduced by them.

The Beat Generation also worked on the politics of the times. Throughout the 1950s the Beat
Writers produced many works and got them published. The writers came up with entirely new
modes of thinking, although they had been criticized by many literary critics. The poets of the
generation depicted the deteriorating human condition in their works. The best examples of Beat
Literature include Allen Ginsberg’s “Howl” (1956), William S. Burroughs’ Naked Lunch (1959) and
Jack Kerouac’s On the Road (1957). Allen Ginsberg had composed many of his poems under the
influence of drugs and he experimented a lot with poetry. Through his poems, he tried to bring
back the natural riches of America before the wars. In many of his poems, Ginsberg made use of
natural images as a plea to preserve nature and natural resources that were exploited immensely
due to warfare. He attacked the decaying culture of America, which had brought into fashion
militarism and materialization. Ginsberg grieved at the condition of America and longed to rebuild
American culture that had changed as compared to the times of Walt Whitman.

The same era included another experimental institution called Black Mountain Poets. The
foundation developed the avant-garde movement of America in the 1960s. The famous members
of the institution were Charles Olson, Robert Creeley, Robert Duncan, Edward Dorn, and Denise
Levertov. Another unconventional literary movement was New York Poets which included poets
like Frank O’Hara, Kenneth Koch, John Ashbery and James Schuyler as its main members. This
group derived inspiration from jazz, expressionism, surrealism, action and painting etc. Confession
and sexual openness became visible subjects in the poems. By now American Literature had
developed a distinctiveness of its own. Other noteworthy poets of the postwar period were
Marianne Moore, Richard Wilbur, Robert Lowell, Sylvia Plath, Robert Penn Warren, J.D. Salinger,
Adrienne Rich, and A.R. Ammons to name a few.

The postmodern period of American Poetry began in the 1960s and continues till now. The poets
of the postmodern era have done a lot of experiments with linguistics and the period is marked by
a return of the traditional forms of poetry. The revival of surrealism is another characteristic feature
of the postmodern period. The leading poets of the period are Russell Edson, Andrei Codrescu,
and Maxine Chernoff. The Language School is a prominent literary movement that is influenced by
the traditions of the 1930s. The movement attempts to encourage women poets of both early and
contemporary periods. Leslie Scalapino, Bob Perelman, Lyn Heijnian and Ron Silliman are a few
famous writers of the period. Other remarkable poets of the period are Gloria Naylor, Alice Walker,
Amiri Baraka, Maya Angelou, and Rita Dove. Robert Pinsky is a very prominent American poet
who won Poet Laureate of the United States. His famous poem is “Poems to Read.”
The history of American Poetry has established itself through different eras absorbing influences
from society, politics, cultural changes etc. At all times, American Poetry has proved to be the
essence of the period that it belonged to. Until the beginning of the postmodern period, American
Poetry had almost fabricated its intellectual superiority over many areas. The established poets
added a considerable share of their creation to the canon which emerges out, even today, as the
most powerful and influential source motivating millions of people. The poetry has entered
University and College syllabi making connections of its uniqueness with a large number of
Professors who teach it, and the students who read it. American Poetry has had a progressive
experience and has indeed occupied a prime position in the 21st century.

2.3 Bio-note on Allen Ginsberg:

Irwin Allen Ginsberg was born in a family of Jews in Newark, New Jersey, on June 3, 1926, to a
schoolteacher and sometime poet, Louis Ginsberg, and Russian émigré and Marxist, Naomi Levy.
Ginsberg’s mother, Naomi, could never recover from a psychological illness which had a lasting
impact on the mind of Ginsberg from his childhood. His famous poems “Howl” and “Kaddish”
record his experiences with his mother, her mental illness and her institutionalization. Naomi being
an active participant of the Communist Party used to take the young Ginsberg and Eugene,
Ginsberg’s brother to the party meetings.

Ginsberg was an exceptional American poet and writer who strongly protested against the
Vietnam War, forcefully opposed militarism, economic materialism, and sexual repression and
worked favourably for gay rights. Taking political issues as his area of study, Ginsberg started
writing letters to The New York Times when he was only a teenager and got his first poems
published in Paterson Morning Call. Ginsberg got inspired by Walt Whitman while still in high
school. He completed his graduation from Eastside High School in 1943 and attended Montclair
State College for some time. Immediately after that Ginsberg joined Columbia University on a
scholarship from the Young Men’s Hebrew Association of Paterson. To continue his education at
Columbia, Ginsberg joined Merchant Marine in the year 1945 to earn money. Also, he contributed
his writings to the literary journal Columbia Review and joined a debate group, Philolexian Society
and a poetry association called Boar’s Head Society. During his stay at Columbia, Ginsberg made
friends with William Burroughs and Jack Kerouac, two other prominent figures in the development
of the Beat Movement, one being Ginsberg himself. The three of them made a good name with
their collective efforts in establishing the Beat Movement. This unconventional group also
experimented with drugs.

After having completed his graduation from Columbia, Ginsberg moved to New York City and tried
on different jobs. In the year 1954, he moved to San Francisco and in the year 1956, Ginsberg’s
career soared towards pinnacles with the publication of Howl and Other Poems. In the poem
“Howl,” Ginsberg condemned the forces of capitalism as destructive. He invited the attention of
many critics and scholars like Kevin O’ Sullivan, James Dickey, and Richard Eberhart by
discussing in detail heterosexual and homosexual sex when in accordance with sodomy laws
homosexual acts were seen as a crime in every state. This piece of Ginsberg’s creation hinted at
his sexuality and his relationship with Peter Orlovsky, whom he met at Sans Francisco in 1954 and
who became his lifelong partner. Ginsberg’s association with counterculture and anti-war
movements became more visible in the 1960s and he expressed his views on drugs, resentment
against officialdom, and ingenuousness of Eastern religions in his works and was thus considered
to be a revolutionary in American poetry. He initiated an anti-war strategy “Flower Power” to
promote positive values like love and peace against the destructive values of war. For an effective
demonstration of his strategies, Ginsberg employed bells, mantras, flowers, etc. as strong forces
to oppose the practices associated with war. In 1962, Ginsberg came up with another inspiring
work, Kaddish and Other Poems which had for its major themes of Hebrew prayer for the dead
and a loud reference to his mother’s illness. The major inspiration, for his two major works
mentioned above, came from his personal experiences of the time spent with his mother during
her mental illness. The poem “Kaddish” has many detailed references to his mother’s life and the
letters that she used to write to Ginsberg. His other celebrated and illustrious poems included in
the collections are “America,” “Footnote to Howl,” “Homework,” “My Sad Self,” and “New Stanzas
for Amazing Grace” to name a few.

After having taken poetry classes at Trungpa’s Naropa Institute in Colorado, Ginsberg dedicated
himself to the Buddhist faith. His book Mind Breaths is a collection of poems based on Trungpa’s
teachings. Later in 1974, Ginsberg along with his fellow poet, Anne Waldman, founded the Jack
Kerouac School of Disembodied Poetics. Ginsberg was the most famed poet of his time and
Richard Kostelanetz called him, ‘the pantheon of American literature.’ The continuous publication
of Ginsberg’s letters and journals offers great knowledge about his life as a poet. In the year 1994,
Jerry Aronson, an award-winning filmmaker and photographer, came up with a feature-length
documentary The Life and Times of Allen Ginsberg.

In the spring of 1997, Ginsberg, already a patient of diabetes and chronic hepatitis, was found
afflicted with liver cancer. Even after this heartbreaking discovery, the poet kept his spirits alive
and came up with twelve short poems just before his death on April 5, 1997. The collection Death
and Fame: Poems, 1993-1997 contains poems that Ginsberg had written in the last few years of
his life. Many essays composed by the poet on nuclear-weapons, Vietnam War, poet Walt
Whitman, and musician Robert Frank are collected in Deliberate Prose: Selected Essays. Allen
Ginsberg was awarded U.S. National Book Award for Poetry in 1974 for his collection The Fall of
America. In 1979, he won the National Arts Club Gold medal. For his book Cosmopolitan
Greetings: Poems 1986-1992 he became a Pulitzer Prize finalist.

Allen Ginsberg produced many influential works during his lifetime based on various themes like
politics, spiritualism, insanity, imperial politics and persecution of the powerless etc. His
contribution to the Beat Movement has been unmatched and it has left a great influence on the
American culture. His works have always been an object of critical study and he gained much
scholarly attention with his great writings.

2.4 Beat Movement

Since Ginsberg was an important member of the Beat Movement, we must know about the
movement in brief. At Columbia, Ginsberg met Lucien Carr who introduced him to Beat writers like
Jack Kerouac, William S. Burroughs, and John Clellon Holmes. These prominent figures were tied
with a common string of bringing about a revolutionary change in America. The Beat Generation
was a literary movement that focused on American culture. The movement became an active force
through the 1950s. Standard and accepted narrative values were strictly rejected by the
participants of the movement. They rather stressed Eastern religions, spiritual quest and
exploration of America as their main area of study. Some famous Beat generation writers were
Herbert Huncke, Ginsberg, Burroughs, Lucien Carr and Kerouac. The Beat Generation was
scrutinized by many scholars and attracted many stereotypes. The magazine Life and Playboy
tagged the members of the movement as nihilists.

2.5 Major Influences on Ginsberg’s works

Amongst others, William Carlos Williams, an American poet, and physician was a major influence
on Ginsberg’s early works. Williams’ actual talk rhythm, pure sound, and rhythm were appreciated
by Ginsberg. Other influences included Ginsberg’s own friend Kerouac whose ‘spontaneous prose’
style Ginsberg adopted in his style of writing. Blake’s vision was another prominent force
influencing Ginsberg’s poetry. His focus on spirituality came from his interest in William Blake’s
poetry. Franz Kafka, Herman Melville, Fyodor Dostoevsky, Edgar Allan Poe, and Emily Dickinson
were other major influences on the poet. During 1962–63, Ginsberg and Orlovsky travelled
extensively across India. They spent half a year at a time in Calcutta and Benares. Also, during his
visit, Ginsberg formed a friendship with some of the prominent young Bengali poets of the time
including Shakti Chattopadhyay and Sunil Gangopadhyay. Ginsberg’s visit to India helped him
change his attitude toward drugs and he took to meditation and yoga. The inclusion of these two
positive forces in his life helped Ginsberg in raising his consciousness. Ginsberg also became one
of the organizers of a religious festival, the Hindu Mela. Ginsberg’s political activities caused
problems, for example in 1967 he was arrested during an anti-war demonstration in New York City.
In the following year, he was tear-gassed at the Democratic National Convention in Chicago. The
year 1972 brought Ginsberg another hard felt force when he was jailed for his demonstrations
against President Richard Nixon. In 1978 he and Peter Orlovsky were arrested for sitting on train
tracks in order to stop a trainload of radioactive waste coming from the Rocky Flats Nuclear
Weapons Plant in Colorado.

2.6 An Overview of Ginsberg’s Works

Allen Ginsberg, a famous American poet, and writer, produced many appreciable works in his
lifetime. A good range of noticeable works not only made him a prominent figure of his times and
after, but also grabbed him a good deal of critical appreciation. The psychological sickness of
Ginsberg’s mother, Naomi, and her eventual demise occupies a visible and sometimes exclusive
place in his poems. The poem “Kaddish” is an important example of this immense influence on the
poet’s life and works. The poem has been woven in a free verse structure having for its major
theme the mother’s remembrances; her journey; her struggles; her “eyes” (vision), and finally the
route to her grave. Ginsberg’s association with the Beat Generation led to experimenting with
psychedelic drugs. The poet’s famous work Reality Sandwiches is a dedication to his friend
Gregory Corso, a Beat poet. Ginsberg’s association with NAMBLA (North American Man/Boy Love
Association) gives hints of his being a homosexual. The theme of homosexuality is dealt with in
many of his works. Examples of this can be traced in Ginsberg’s most famous creation Howl and
Other Poems, a famous text that deals with sexuality and heroism and presents them as
essentials of the American Culture. The poet is well appreciated for his proclivity towards the
Romantic Age of Poetry, his poems giving a good space recounting the immensity of nature, the
need to preserve natural resources, and finally a clear disaffection towards materialism and
militarism. In his poems “Homework,” “Howl,” “A Strange New Cottage in Berkeley” and “America,”
he has used natural imagery and therefore, these poems bring about a contrast between the
natural world and the industrial world. Ginsberg has worked a lot on the American culture and has
compared the nation of his time to Whitman’s time. The poet also narrates how the religiosity of
Eastern Nations and his association with ISKCON (International Society for Krishna
Consciousness) have had a great influence on him. In the poem “Sunflower Sutra,” the poet
speaks of some higher levels of consciousness and attempts to teach his readers the difference
between fallacy and a truer inner self.

Ginsberg’s works have been directly shaped by his life experiences, his observations, and his
intense desire to see America as a nation of a pure culture. His works have been awarded and
appreciated and have also been a great guide to his readers. Stream of consciousness and a nice
fashioning technique indeed runs through his works.
2.7 Themes explored in Allen Ginsberg’s poems

2.7.1. AMERICAN CULTURE: As we read the poems of Ginsberg, we explore his critical attitude
towards various political systems including capitalism and militarism etc. The poet claims that
these very systems have been the active causes of the destruction of the naturalness of America.
The nation, he says, has lost its natural beauty owing to its participation in destructive activities
like warfare, weaponry etc. In his poem “America,” Ginsberg points to the disillusionment of
American youth which comes due to involvement in the political systems from which he kept away.
The poet attacks the American culture that has welcomed into its originality a huge portion of
undesired values. The poet also talks about racism that has made its way smoothly into American
culture. His poems refer to the growing race discrimination that hinder the holistic development of
a country. The poem “Sunflower Sutra” represents the current state of America which has wrapped
the nation into pollution. The imagery of a sunflower covered in grime presents the nation’s
situation which has turned into an entirely different state of undesired changed culture. Ginsberg’s
poems depict his sadness over the polluted change and America’s transformed culture. Ginsberg
grieves over his nation’s loss of authenticity and originality and also of continuous decline in
spirituality among its people.

2.7.2. INSANITY: The mentally disturbed state of Ginsberg’s mother left a huge impact on his
personal life as a human being and also made a visible space in his poetic life. His mother was
institutionalized many times due to her mental illness. Her death left a deep mark on Ginsberg’s
life. In the poem “Howl” the phrases like, “the madhouse” and “madmen/mad comrades” express
the influence of his mother’s sickness on him. Another possibility of referring to madness in his
poems is his own experience of drug-induced madness which would drift Ginsberg into another
world. According to the poet, “best minds” experience things quite differently, especially different
from the social constructs. Here the poet seems to reject the norms of the society and accept his
world of spirituality which he feels is not understood by the society and thus, he earns the tag,
“insane.” “Howl” is a scream of madness against the injustice of society. The first line of the poem,
“I saw the best minds of my generation destroyed by madness, starving, hysterical needs,” is an
instance of the poet’s reference to madness. Ginsberg associates himself with another great
American writer, Carl Solomon, whose experiences at the asylum brought the best works to the
readers. Seeing himself and Solomon in a similar situation, the poet offers to explain to readers
that the insane world provides different experiences altogether, offering a stream of intense
knowledge and culturally different insights.

2.7.3. HYPOCRISY OF MODERN SOCIETY: Ginsberg grieves at the hypocrisy of the modern
society that is keeping its people away and indifferent from the paths of spirituality and dignity, two
essentials for a good living. Ginsberg’s visit to India, and his inclination towards meditation and
yoga introduced him to a higher level of consciousness. In the poem “Sunflower Sutra,” the poet
depicts the picture of America as a desolate nation. He presents a rather poor picture of America.
He shows its damaged landscape and how the American people have turned a blind eye to it.
Ginsberg, along with his friend Kerouac, laments at America’s wasted natural resources. The
poem speaks of society’s materialistic ways. Another poem, “Footnote to Howl,” presents modern
society drifting away from the path of holiness. Repetition of the word “holy” marks the poet’s
desire to bring back people to a religious world that knows no hypocrisy and no destruction. The
poet claims with pain modernity and holiness have become antagonistic.

2.7.4. THEME OF HOMOSEXUALITY: Poet’s association with NAMBLA (North America Man/Boy
Love Association) points to his working for the cause of the rights of the gay. Ginsberg and Beat
comrades were actively working for the protection of gays and homosexuality which was not
welcomed by American society. Ginsberg’s inspiration came from Walt Whitman who himself was
a homosexual. Whitman’s and Ginsberg’s writings depended upon the discussion of sexuality
which according to them was a necessary theme to discuss. In his collection Howl and Other
Poems, Ginsberg demands liberation and freedom of speech for homosexuals. He compared sex
with heroism. Some of his works have been very loud in their sexual connotations. Ginsberg has
also referred to homosexual lovers like Holy Peter, Solomon, Lucien, Kerouac, Huncke and many
others. The poet has confessed his sexual identity loudly and publicly without any fear of non-
acceptance from society. Being a member of the Beat Generation, he has done a lot for the rights
of the gay and has helped them to acquire a space in American society.

2.7.5. LONELINESS AND DEATH: The death of Ginsberg’s mother, remembrances from his past
life, Manhattan nostalgia etc. led to loneliness in Ginsberg’s life. The poem “My Sad Self” is quite
sad in its tone, depicting the poet’s sad state of mind. In the entire poem, he admires the picture of
old New York and tries to accept the fact that life is on-going and one has to adjust and move
according to the changing times. Through this poem, Ginsberg appeals to the readers that the
tough moments demand one’s true love. He looks at the city of Manhattan from the top of a
building which brings all the sweet memories to his mind and forces him to think about all his
achievements and experiences of his life. The poem makes mention of “sunrises” which symbolize
the happiness of his past. He becomes sad while memorizing his experiences in Manhattan,
Brooklyn, Bronx and other places in New York City. The poem “Kaddish” reflects his mourning over
his mother’s absence. Those memories heal and hurt the poet at the same time. The recollection
of beautiful experiences soothes him and the absence of these incidents hurts him. The line “And
how Death is that remedy all singers dream of, sing, and remember” makes mention of death as
something inevitable. The death of his mother, loneliness and reminiscences from his past life are
important themes of Ginsberg’s poetry.

2.7.6. NATURAL WORLD: We see Ginsberg’s attachment to the Romantic tradition of poetry
through the extensive use of natural imagery in his poems. The way Ginsberg condemns the
growing industrial development reminds readers of William Wordsworth’s poem “The World Is Too
Much With Us” where Wordsworth presents his disappointment at the changing perspectives of
people who are turning their back towards nature. Ginsberg’s poem “Homework” speaks of his
critique of industrial America. The poet claims to be doing some activities to restore Nature to its
previous state. He wishes to clean the Amazon River and oily Carib & Gulf of Mexico. In the poem
“A Supermarket in California,” the poet distinguishes between the America of Whitman’s times and
the present state of the nation. Poet’s reference to “atom bombs” presents the destructive
activities the nation has got involved in. The imagery of coffee teapots and toilets in the poem “A
Strange New Cottage in Berkeley” is contrasted with the beauty of plants in the backyard of the
poet's house. Ginsberg’s depiction of the contemporary world’s alienation towards nature and its
elements is quite appreciable and it connects him to the great Romantic writers who have worked
for the same cause.

2.7.7. THEME OF SPIRITUALITY: Hindu and Buddhist traditions were an area of interest for
Allen Ginsberg during his lifetime. His visit to India, his friendly relations with Swami Prabhupada
— the founder of the Hare Krishna Movement in the Western World — are the reasons for his
inclination towards spirituality and holiness. Ginsberg claimed that the recitation of Hare Krishna
Mahamantra drifted him into a state of ecstasy. This learning and knowledge of spirituality made
Ginsberg reach the real realms of the soul. We see that the poet often makes a visible difference
between nature and urbanity. In the poem “Sunflower Sutra” the poet brings in the concept of
spiritual consciousness, comparing the outward appearances of human beings to the inner
realities and brings out the differences. The statement “we’re all beautiful golden sunflowers”
evokes a universality of being humane. He also states that one’s inner self is purer than the outer
one. This inner-self is the spiritual self that needs an awakening. Ginsberg’s depiction of spiritual
aspects of life leaves for his readers a positive force that can be experienced through knowledge
of self.

2.8 Walt Whitman and Allen Ginsberg: A Similarity of Perspectives

Although belonging to entirely different eras of American Literary History, Walt Whitman and Allen
Ginsberg have been considered influential in shaping American Poetry. The two poets share
similarities owing to their concern for their nation, its people and their striving to be acceptable in
American society, both being homosexuals.

As we read the poems of Allen Ginsberg, we discover almost a regular reference to Whitman,
sometimes as a writing muse, and on other occasions as a counterpart who is being shown the
deteriorated condition of America. For instance, in the poem “A Supermarket in California,”
Ginsberg takes the theme of American culture and draws a comparison between the America of
Whitman’s time and the present altered condition of the nation. Whitman’s poem “I Hear America
Singing” depicts a happy America during his own time. It seems that the wars separated the two
poets having almost the same spirit, the same perspective, and love towards America.
Homosexuality is another reason why these two poets can be brought together and seen as
similar. The “Calamus,” Whitman’s poem, clearly depicts the poet’s openness about
homosexuality. Similarly Ginsberg’s poem “Howl” makes explicit use of sexual imagery which was
not acceptable in his society as was during Whitman’s time. Whitman has been a great influence
in Ginsberg’s poems. The poem “My Sad Self” represents human isolation, another theme which
is employed by Whitman too. Ginsberg speaks of Whitman in almost all his works and also
considers him as a guide and inspiration. The two poets can be considered similar for the common
themes they have worked on, and their passion.

2.9 Summary
After reading this lesson, you have learned about the history of American Poetry. You have also
read about the development of Allen Ginsberg as a literary writer. Apart from it you have learned
about various movements Ginsberg was associated with such as the Beat Movement. The lesson
also introduced you to the literary corpus of Ginsberg and it also with the major themes that
Ginsberg employs in his works

2.10 References
Miles, Barry. Ginsberg: A Biography. London: Virgin Publishing Ltd., 2001.

Merrill, Thomas F. Allen Ginsberg. US: Twayne Publishers, 1988.

Empty Mirror: Early Poems. Chevy Chase, MD: Corinth Books, 1961, new edition, 1970.

Rosenthal, Bob, Peter Hale, and Bill Morgan eds. Death and Fame: Poems, 1993-1997. New

York: HarperFlamingo, 1999.

2.11 Further Reading

Thomas F. Merrill, Allen Ginsberg, Twayne Publishers, 1988.

Jonah Raskin, American Scream: Allen Ginsberg's Howl and the Making of the Beat Generation,
Uni. of California Press, 2004.

2.12 Model Questions

1. Write a short note on the influences on Ginsberg and his works.

2. Discuss in detail the themes that one comes across in the works of Ginsberg.

3. Write down the features of the period of American Literature that Ginsberg belonged to.
 L. No. 3

Critical Analysis of Allen Ginsberg’s “Howl” and

“Supermarket in California”

Structure

3.0 Objectives

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Comprehensive Summary of the poem “A Supermarket in California”

3.3 Critical Analysis of the poem “A Supermarket in California”

3.3.1 Background and Structure

3.3.2 Themes

3.3.3 Imagery

3.4 Detailed summary of the poem “Howl”

3.5 Critical appraisal of the poem “Howl”

3.5.1 Background

3.5.2 Title

3.5.3 Themes

3.5.4 Structure

3.6 Summary

3.7 References

3.8 Further Reading

3.9 Model Questions

3.0 Objectives
After reading this lesson, you will be able to:
 ● understand the poem “A Supermarket in California”

● critically analyze the poem “A Supermarket in California”

● understand the poem “Howl”

● critically analyze the poem “Howl”

● appreciate the poetry of Ginsberg

3.1 Introduction
Dear students, Allen Ginsberg, a renowned 20th-century American poet, has produced
voluminous work. Ginsberg first came to public attention in 1956 with the publication of Howl and
Other Poems which was followed by Kaddish and Other Poems in 1961. He was one of the most
influential poets of his generation and his work was the object of much scholarly attention
throughout his lifetime. This chapter will introduce you in detail to two important poems and their
critical analysis. You will be reading summaries and critical appreciation of “A Supermarket in
California,” and “Howl.”

3.2 “A Supermarket in California”: Summary

“A Supermarket in California,” written by Allen Ginsberg, was first published in Howl and Other
Poems in 1956. In the beginning, the speaker of the poem is loitering in a street under trees and a
full moon. He feels pulled by two sides of life, one is the contemporary world epitomized by the
metropolitan setting of Berkeley and the Bay Area, and the other is the natural world represented
by the trees and the moon. His mind is preoccupied with the thoughts of the 19th-century
American poet, Walt Whitman. He is thinking of Whitman because the trees, the moon, and nature
around remind him of the nature poet Whitman who found the existence of truth and true life in
nature alone. The speaker suffers a “headache” and a “hungry fatigue” not only physically but
spiritually also. The existential crisis of the contemporary world is causing this headache and
fatigue and the speaker, probably the poet himself, is trying to find solace from the crisis. He
stopovers a supermarket/hypermarket or in simple words a big store which he calls, a “neon fruit
supermarket” in California and thinks that he might encounter something that Whitman talked
about in his works. By doing so the speaker brings old and new worlds to face each other. To the
surprise of the readers, he talks about peaches and penumbras in the same breath. While
peaches may refer to the beauty in the natural products of the supermarket; the penumbras,
meaning shroud or shadows, suggest the commodification of modern society. The reference to the
families shopping at night talks about the obscurity of commercial society which breeds and
supports the culture of the nuclear family. In the last line of the first stanza, while looking around at
the objects of display, he envisions encountering another admirer of Whitman, Federico García
Lorca — a Spanish poet and playwright who is looking for watermelons.

The second stanza begins with the speaker’s illusionary chance meeting with Walt Whitman and
his saying, “I saw you, Walt Whitman ... poking among the meats ... and eyeing the grocery boys”
which suggests Whitman’s alleged sexual fondness for young boys. Also, the questions asked by
Whitman, “Who killed the pork chops? What price bananas? Are you my Angel?” continue to
denote a primitive kind of sexuality rooted in nature which had been illegalized by the mechanized
society. When read at the surface level these questions also suggest that in today’s world the store
owners or employees cannot answer Whitman’s queries. In a way, he is referring to the
dictatorship of the authorities in making rules that are unacceptable for some groups by talking
about the inability of the employers or owners to give satisfactory answers to Whitman. When he
says, “I wandered in and out of the brilliant stacks of cans following you,” the speaker is perhaps
alluding to Whitman’s image of a society which because of its detachment from nature and
humanity has lost its uniqueness. And following him, both stride down “the open corridors together
in our solitary fancy,” and “never pass[ing] the cashier” shows that the speaker admires Whitman’s
circumventing the anxieties of profit and reimbursement that the supermarket or the contemporary
economy demands from its inhabitants. In tasting the food, Whitman enjoys nature and life without
having to pay for its pleasures like any modern man.

In the third and the last stanza of the poem, the readers encounter a speaker who is pessimistic
about his world in comparison to the world that Whitman symbolizes. He believes Whitman’s world
did not last for long because modernity and industrialization with their culture of giving importance
to sales and price tags for every object had devoured the natural world. When the speaker asks
for directions for his directionless life from his friend at the time of the closing of the store and
when he does not get a complete or satisfying answer, his sense of depression and desperation
become visible more acutely. In this stanza, the speaker talks about walking alone all night
through dark streets lined with trees that are adding shade to the darkness of the night. The
darkness of the night and the shade of the trees refer to the darkness, loneliness and solitariness
of their lives. Also, the blue cars in the driveways of the houses of the Americans hint at the
contemporary system of the nuclear family. The speaker admits that he feels “absurd” walking
through the “solitary streets … dreaming of the lost America of love” and believes that it will take
them only to more seclusion. But he notes that Whitman could not reach Hades since “Charon quit
poling his ferry ” The speaker feels that Whitman was marooned on the bank of River Lethe, the
river in Greek mythology which causes complete forgetfulness for those that drank from its waters.
He then says that modern man too has drunk the waters of river Lethe and that is why he has
completely forgotten his past and relationship with Nature. This, says the speaker, is the meaning
of modern society: it forgets its past and what is natural. The history of the peach in the
supermarket and its relationship with nature does not have any value for the contemporary
customer. Likewise, Whitman, who criticized advancement which leads to total seclusion, is a
forgotten hero. He has been forsaken on the banks of the unending river of forgetfulness, i.e.
Lethe.

3.3 “A Supermarket in California”: Analysis

3.3.1 Background and Structure

Allen Ginsberg wrote “A Supermarket in California” while living in Berkeley, California in 1955 and
it was included as one of the “other poems” in Ginsberg’s 1956 publication of Howl and Other
Poems by Lawrence Ferlinghetti. On this productive day, Ginsberg also wrote another poem titled,
“A Strange New Cottage in Berkeley.” “A Supermarket in California” seems to open with a happy
mood but very soon it gives rise to a lot of confusion with many questions raised and almost all left
unanswered. Although throughout the poem we refer to the speaker’s meeting with two poets in
the supermarket and his voyage through the streets of California yet there are autobiographical
elements in the text. The title of the poem may be “A Supermarket in California,” but in major parts
of the poem, the readers are roaming in the streets of America with the speaker and two ghost
poets, Walt Whitman and García Lorca. The setting seems to be nightmarish. Diverting itself from
the regularly accepted traditional poetic form, the poem does not follow a particular stanza
formation and rhyme scheme. Allen Ginsberg writes in long free-verse lines. Sometimes, because
of their length, the lines resemble a paragraph. Not only does the use of long-line style remind one
of Whitman’s manner of writing but there are thematic similarities also between the two poets.

3.3.2 Themes

“A Supermarket in California” could be read as an ode to Ginsberg’s poetic hero Whitman and it
could be categorized as early experimentation with the themes that are present in his later poetry
also. This poem is a famous critique of post-war America in which the poet talks about
entrepreneurial aspects of society and contrasts these characteristics with the world of his poetic
model, Whitman. The poem talks about the differences between the America of Whitman’s times
and contemporary America. Ginsberg presents dissatisfaction, weariness, and disillusionment in
the people of his contemporary times where there is a large distance and gap between the
customers at the supermarket and the producers or the farmers or the manufacturers. These
customers never meet the farmers in person and thus, they do not know the real prices of the
products that they go to buy at the supermarkets. Unlike a regular customer who goes to the
supermarket for shopping groceries etc., the poet while shopping for images comes across
deceased poets Lorca and Whitman. Both were considered to be homosexual poets, and the
poem underlines the ideas about homosexuality also.

Ginsberg deals with nature and the intrusion of industrialized society into the natural and the old
world that was in close proximity to nature. The undertones to support for spiritual and sexual
freedom are also found in the poem. Ginsberg depicts the consequences of the growth of
commercial and industrialized worlds through the images of food items placed in the supermarket
which is metaphorically not the right place for the same. He is perhaps nostalgic for the old barter
system. We also witness the use of Greek mythology in Ginsberg’s poem. The last lines of the
poem refer to Charon, the ferryman, who carried the dead into the underworld, across the river
Styx and the River Lethe, a river in the underworld that caused complete forgetfulness to the one
who drank its water.

In the same poem, Ginsberg also pays tribute to Garcia Lorca, an influential Spanish poet in the
early 20th century, who practiced leftist political views and was thus executed by the right wing
Spanish Nationalists at the beginning of the Spanish Civil War. Lorca, too respected Whitman and
so becomes an influence for Ginsberg. While the speaker refers to the families who shop together
in the store, but the speaker, Walt Whitman and Garcia Lorca are all alone. One wonders, why
have they come without wives and children? Are they not married? Are they childless or are they
isolated because they have a different sense of sexuality? Are they shopping alone because they
are gay? Is this the reason that they do not pass by the cashier or do they feel that they are being
followed by some detective? Maybe this is the reason that they are tasting food without paying for
it or metaphorically they are trying to taste/enjoy the forbidden. The readers do not find a
straightforward answer to such queries in the poems but the poem successfully raises these
doubts and suspicions in the minds of the readers. The poem becomes confusing with Whitman’s
last question, “Are you my Angel?” It seems that the 19th-century poet is seeking a relationship
that does not solely depend on a sexual connection. And once again the reader is kept thinking
since no response comes from the supermarket clerks.

3.3.3 Imagery

Allen Ginsberg’s poem “A Supermarket in California” makes use of simple suggestive imagery
which acts as an extended metaphor to point out the chaos that has spread across America. The
title seems very innocent and simple in its reading, but the word “Supermarket” stands as a
metaphorical figure and is suggestive of the poet's mind and recalling of his life’s experiences. As
we read through the poem, we observe that it has been written using the stream of consciousness
technique where no structured pattern is followed and ideas run through the mind of the poet. The
use of the word “headache” points to the poet's consciousness of his aggravation towards the
present situation of America which owes much to the changing perspectives and practices of its
people. The reference to the great American poet, Walt Whitman has been made many times in
the entire poem. It seems as if the poet is acting as a writing muse in Ginsberg’s creation.
Beautiful imagery of the “full moon” is suggestive of darkness that has enveloped the poet’s
America and the light of the moon provides light that is enough to make his search possible. Poet
imagines himself talking to Whitman and is possibly trying to make a comparison between the
America of Whitman’s times with the present state of America. The images of peaches, avocados
and penumbras add to the simplicity of the poem although these are indicative of the modernity of
society where all essentials are available in one “supermarket” and visiting different stores for the
purchase of different commodities has become outdated. The reference to Spanish writer, Garcia
Lorca’s Blood Wedding presents the theme of isolation, generational conflict and much more. The
handling of verbs like “eyeing,” and “asking” in the poem refers to the poet’s confused state of
mind. Ginsberg’s search for ‘something’ is indicated by the verbs, “wandered,” “dreaming,” and
“shopping.” The poem is written in the form of action, a continuous search for an improved
America, with a usage of a variety of verbs. Another reference to the “black waters of river Lethe”
speaks of forgetfulness and oblivion that are prevailing over America. The poem’s simplicity
speaks of deeper meanings.

3.4 Poem “Howl” Summary

3.4.1 SECTION 1

Section I of the poem, “Howl” begins with one of the most famous lines talking about the
destruction of the best and the intellectual minds. The poet says that he witnessed the destruction
of some of the “best minds” of his generation with madness. These minds he believes could have
been outstanding otherwise. The struggle to conform left them “starving hysterical naked” and now
they were roaming about the African–American neighbourhood. They were searching for an “angry
fix” and ended up finding it in drugs and other intoxicating substances. The poet views these
people as angels who were trying to rediscover religion and spirituality but not in the traditional
sense. They were poorly dressed in rags, lived in small dark apartments and appeared “hollow-
eyed” from lack of sleep and use of drugs. It seemed that with the effect of drugs they felt liberated
momentarily as if they were floating above the city and enjoying jazz.

The poet talks about university life and how the education system supported conservative policies
which moulded the enlightened minds into “scholars of war.” He was influenced by English poet
Blake who was a visionary and wrote social commentaries. Blake was expelled from university for
writing obscene material on the window of his dormitory room. The prevalent intolerance had
made these intellectuals turn paranoid so they preferred to stay in their rooms and burnt money in
dustbins to relieve their angst against capitalism and its exploitation. They had grown long beards,
an iconic look of the hippies of that era. They were arrested in an unsuccessful attempt to smuggle
marijuana from Laredo (Texas) bordering Mexico where it was comparatively cheaper and the
poet, who too was a part of all this, was sent to a psychiatric institute on grounds of mental
instability. Many artists mostly lived in a slum area called “Paradise Alley” in New York with shabby
hotels and apartments where the rooms were congested and always in need of repair. The
pathetic surroundings coupled with heavy intoxication filled the minds of residents with dreams
and nightmares.

In this section, we also come across several references to homosexuality and the poet’s open
acceptance of the same. He had a vision where the streets were filled with clouds of storm
sending streaks of lightning towards Canada and the town of Paterson (Ginsberg’s birthplace).
This image connected the geographically two separate places and the gap between times past
and present ceased to exist. The poet also shares details of various drugs like peyote, Benzedrine
and names of the places like cemeteries, rooftops, Brooklyn, etc. where they had consumed them.
The drugs cause lightness of both mind and body giving a feeling of exhilaration. Then they
travelled in the subway to various places, finally awakened by noises at “Bronx Zoo” (area of
Yankees) where they hung out for drinks at cheap bars and restaurants. The poet uses vague
imagery and disjointed words that define the physical and psychological state of his generation like
the “hydrogen jukebox”, a reference to the testing of the first bomb in the 1950s and its
consequences.

Ruth Goldenburg, an acquaintance of the poet once talked nonstop for seventy-hours switching
places from park to bar to the asylum to Brooklyn Bridge. The poet calls such people a “battalion
of platonic conversationalists” with great minds and ideas. They were full of unutilized energy and
consumed it by committing meaningless acts like jumping here and there which is a sign of lunacy.
The memory of pain that such people endured in wars, hospitals and jails was still fresh in the
poet's mind and they were living out their existence by “vomiting” it or speaking continuously for
hours and weeks. Sometimes these people left the town without informing anyone. The poet
guesses that maybe they were in New Jersey now sending postcards or were practicing Zen in the
East.

The Beats had plenty of time at their disposal and covered a lot of places walking including the
railroad yard where both Ginsberg and Jack Kerouac used to spend time without anyone noticing
or missing them. These lonesome travellers smoked in the boxcars of trains while travelling from
one city to another or utilized their time reading Plotinus (Roman philosopher), Edgar Allan Poe
(American writer), St. John of the Cross (Spanish religious mystic), telepathy and Jewish
mysticism. It shows how they were interested in diverse topics demanding calibre and intelligence.
The poet does not think that he and his associates were lunatics until they arrived in the city of
Baltimore, home to Edgar Allen Poe who also suffered from similar traits.
The poet also introduces generic characters like “Chinaman of Oklahoma” or “brilliant Spaniard,”
fictional or perhaps known to Beats only. The purpose is to reveal the ethnic diversity or hybridity
of America. There is a reference to his love towards Neal Cassady who having remained
unrequited the poet took a ship and sailed to Africa for a few days and then to Mexico where
another poet John Hoffman died leaving behind his verses. Now back in the USA, the poet was on
the West Coast where Hoffman reappeared as an FBI agent dressed clumsily distributing leaflets
on the street. This is a mockery of the highest authority and the inefficiency of the government to
fulfill its promises.

These people also protested against the capitalistic government which was making huge profits as
the tobacco industry was reaping high profits. The poet makes use of the term “Supercommunist”
which reflects his own interest in Marxism. He says that some of the “best minds” were also
communists and distributed pamphlets in various places until they were chased by police sirens.
The “white gymnasiums” referred to in the poem where they were kept could be the mental
institutes or the treatment rooms where these people were crying in front of “other skeletons.”
They sometimes lashed out their rage by biting police officers in the neck and then they used to
get arrested by the squad car. These acts were a form of protest against the inaction of the
government. The writers were forcibly dragged down from the subway and their rooftops for being
non-conformists.

There are references to homosexuality prevalent in Beats circle and the poet names various
places where one could find partners for anonymous sex like public parks, Turkish bath, etc. The
poet describes the metaphorical role of the Three Fates (mythological goddesses) and states how
the lovers were lost in the process of getting a job, marrying a woman and having a child. There
are strong images of sensual pleasure and physical gratification. The poet also praises Cassady’s
charming and attractive personality, and calls him “Adonis” and “secret hero of these poems.”
Then the poet shifts his attention to another important theme and talks about unemployment that
had taken a toll on youth and they were idling away time by either watching movies or wandering
aimlessly. The imagery of “their shoes full of blood” powerfully evokes the dreadful condition of the
youth forced to do odd jobs or commit suicide and like heroes, the bodies of these unemployed
youth were decorated with wreaths. They mostly took shelter under railway bridges or dwelt in
slums and stored their books in orange carts gathered from the streets. They were impoverished
and hungry, ate animal stew but dreamt of being vegetarians, and wrote poems all night to
discover in the morning that they were useless, threw their watches away to escape time, or have
a feeling of eternity. After unsuccessful suicide attempts, they opened stores selling antique items
feeling even sadder. The juxtaposition of binaries — life and death, hope and failure, sanity and
insanity — makes the poem more intense.
Through strong images of warfare, the poet portrays how capitalist elites had either trapped “best
minds” in the advertisement industry or had burnt them alive which alludes to killing their creativity
and genius. In a fit of despair, they jumped out of the subway window, cried out loud on the streets
and danced on broken wine glasses, broke jazz records which reminded them of Nazism, drove
for seventy-two hours continuously to find out if anyone had a vision of eternity and prayed in
cathedrals. Their minds were in captivity. They travelled to different countries, tried different drugs,
or searched for Buddha. All these activities substantiated the void they were experiencing within
but none of it gave them solace. The phrase “radio of hypnotism” conveys how people were
pushed towards conformity and were told that believing otherwise was not an option.

The poet then talks about Carl Solomon who was admitted at a psychiatric institute for treatment
for throwing potato salad at a professor in college as an act of avant-garde movement —
Dadaism. The poet tries to tell the harmful and damaging effects of treatments like lobotomy and
shock therapy given to mental patients to make them behave normal again. Sometimes they were
given ping pong tables to keep them occupied but that proved to be futile. When they left asylums
they were bleeding. The poet suggests real insanity was to be found in so-called sane and upbeat
educated people comfortably living in their homes. He had witnessed the demise of his mother
from schizophrenia and was deeply moved by it. He was concerned for Carl, who was inside an
asylum and was not safe there.

The poet talks about inspiration to write poetry and also mentions various meters. He was inspired
by the style and genius of Kerouac, W. C. Williams, Whitman, Cezanne and Ezra Pound. This
style of poetry was similar to “rhythm of thought.” In the poet's head ideas and images were
disjointed and fragmented but poetry that was produced was “good to eat a thousand years”
(Christian belief that Christ’s body can be eaten) which means that these poems would be relevant
for ages to come. Like Christ, poets and artists were also saviours of the world. They were either
outcast from society or suffered as did Christ. The last few lines of this section raise hope that
despite the grim American reality, good times might return.

3.4.2 SECTION II

The first section of the poem addresses who are the “best minds”; the second section asks what
has made these minds go insane. If section I challenges powerful authorities like educational
institutions, socio-political establishment and those concerned with mental health and safety of
citizens, section II specifically gives such forces a name that is “Moloch” which stands for ills of the
time. Moloch is a Middle Eastern God associated with the ritual of sacrificing children. The speaker
says that the modern day Sphinx (a mythical creature) made up of industrial material like cement
and aluminum has gobbled up the creativity and imagination of the “best minds”. The poet uses
Moloch in a wider and ironic sense. This evil God not only drives people insane but is also
associated with oppression, capitalistic exploitation, warfare, prisons, filth, and nightmares. Moloch
is called the “pure machinery” because it is devoid of emotions and in his veins instead of the
blood, it is the money that runs. This God owns skyscrapers, factories and smokestacks — the not
so real signs of American progress. Moloch’s soul comprises “electricity and banks” — the two
hallmarks that are industry and capitalism.

When the poet says, “Moloch whose name is the Mind!” he refers to Moloch as responsible for
destroying the “best minds”, driving them to insanity, leaving them lonely and loveless. Moloch has
an overbearing presence and is everywhere, inside the poet’s mind, body and soul since
childhood. Even if the poet abandons Moloch, he wakes up being Moloch. The American dream
was overrated in its promises of material influence which had made people forget that real
essence lied in commonplace things and in the success of the common man. It was visions,
miracles, creativity, geniuses, dreams and hopes of fulfilment which kept people responsive but
Moloch killed such positive approaches to life.

The poet visualizes that the river was converting into a waterfall with high flows and sharp rocks
and all the good holy things when came in contact with it, fell and lost meaning or existence. He
was impressed by Whitman’s vision of America as an open, accommodating and spacious country
unlike the present concrete one of Moloch’s making. His generation was in a double bind. If they
succumbed to Moloch it meant that they were losing their mind and vision whereas if they resisted
its presence it meant that they were resorting to drugs and destruction. The “best minds” then
made a choice to quit as they could not witness the further decline of their homeland and its
values. But they were not alone in their solitude. The Moloch effect lingered with them in the form
of insanity. This section ends on a note of despair.

3.4.3. SECTION III

Section III has the most direct references to Carl Solomon and makes the reader aware of his
state of mind. The poet mentions Rockland Institute where Solomon was perhaps kept for
treatment now. He repeatedly empathizes with his friend by saying, “I’m with you in Rockland!”
The poet and all the “best minds” were together in voicing their concern against the conformity of
society. As the poet’s mother was also a psychiatric patient so he saw a “shade” of his mother in
Solomon. Solomon appeared to be more of a dream-like figure in his thoughts. That is why he
becomes prominent in the last section of the poem. Both Solomon and the poet were writers and
shared a similar fate on the “same dreadful typewriter”. The poet ironically says that the radio had
reported about Solomon’s poor condition because the mental health of citizens had never been a
cause of concern for the authorities. He further makes various references to how Solomon was
losing control over his senses or drinking tea from the breasts of infertile women of Utica or how
the game of ping pong was driving him crazy while he tried to protest that his soul was innocent
and trapped in this asylum by banging on the piano. It was terrible that such a great writer was
locked up in an asylum.

The poet suffered from the shock treatments and expressed concern for Solomon also. He says
that further shock therapy was going to harm him than doing any good. Because of his delusions,
Solomon sometimes thought that the doctors treating him were also insane and at other times he
hatched a revolutionary plot to overturn the fascists. The poet believed that Solomon will resurrect
Jesus in human form who will comprehend their problems in a better way rather than the
superhuman form. Or maybe, Solomon will himself be resurrected as Jesus to get rid of the
overpowering fascist forces. In this section, Solomon is the saviour like the writers and artists in
the second section. The poet recalls that he was accompanying Solomon when the hospital was
filled with twenty-five thousand insane communists and together they were singing their national
anthem. The poet now directly refers to himself and Solomon as “we” uniting in insanity.

In the last few lines, America is personified as a person, who is bestowed with love and kisses by
the poet and his friend or as a sick person coughing all night and not letting anyone sleep. These
are two contradictory personifications where America is an epitome of a superpower on the one
hand and on the other hand cruel and unjust to its people. Then he narrated that the patients
trapped inside the hospital were set free by aeroplanes made up of their souls. These planes had
set the hospital on fire by dropping bombs and the patients ran away. This is very strong imagery
where the poet has created a warlike situation and the “best minds” have to fight for their rights
and freedom against authority. Now Solomon walked free but teary-eyed to reunite with the poet in
his cottage. This last section has a dream-like quality. Solomon and others are free only
metaphorically in the poet’s thoughts. The poet makes readers a part of everything happening
around them.

All three sections of the poem are complementary to each other. Section I sets the tone of the
poem by talking about “best minds” going insane; section II explains that Moloch in the form of
social evils is driving them mad; section III hints at Solomon being the tragic saviour who is himself
a victim as well.

3.5 “Howl”: Critical Analysis

3.5.1 Background

“Howl” was written by Allen Ginsberg in the 1950s. The subtitle of the poem “For Carl Solomon”
indicates that it is dedicated to Ginsberg’s close friend Carl Solomon whom the poet met at
Columbia Presbyterian Psychiatric Institute. The poem has an autobiographical note and is filled
with personal references. It is divided into three sections, the first one being the longest. Each
section addresses a different set of questions – who, what and where respectively.
3.5.2 A Note on the Title

“Howl” signifies a cry against capitalism, exploitation, subjugation, and self-destruction of

Ginsberg’s generation and simultaneously depicts their psychological anguish and frustration.
“Howl” is also a cry against the hegemonic culture that suppresses creativity and artistic freedom.
The title also signifies the howling of the animals, especially during the full moon. Ginsberg hints
that this howling madness of animals has also seized our society and is adversely affecting it.

3.5.3 Major Themes

The poem is a part of the counterculture movement and throws light on how the dominant
American culture has affected people who dare to challenge the established system. People like
poets, artists, radicals, Negros, hippies and the mentally challenged are often marginalized for
voicing their concerns. The madness rampant all around is one of the central themes of the poem.
The poem belongs to the group of writers and artists called the Beats generation. The Beatniks
were not openly accepted and appreciated by the cultured society. The hallmarks of Beat poetry
are anti-capitalism, anti-authoritarian protests, personal catharsis, heightened sensory awareness
and opposition to literary formalism. Ginsberg chronicles various aspects of contemporary times in
his poem – famous personalities, places, food, music, drugs and travel which makes it a detailed
social commentary. This is also known as a cataloguing technique. The poem talks about a
modern wasteland that represents the reality of the modern American dream with no space to
accommodate the young alternative America. The poem is a call for freedom and change against
socio-political oppression.

3.5.4 Structure

Ginsberg does not follow any traditional meter or rhyme scheme in the poem. However, the stream
of consciousness streaks are prominent, the imagery is surreal, and the choice of words is
unusual and often paradoxical. The tone of the poem is that of mourning, protest and pain which
gradually moves to a sense of union and clarity of vision. Most of the lines begin with the word
“Who” particularly emphasizing the worsening condition of the “best minds”. Each line is framed in
such a manner that it can be read in a single breath. Ginsberg writes from a male perspective
where men enjoy the freedom to experiment in different areas whereas women are talked about
as secondary characters.

3.6 Summary
After reading this lesson, you have learned the poem “A Supermarket in California”. You will be
able to critically analyze the poem “A Supermarket in California”. Besides, you have also learned
the summary of and critical analysis of the poem “Howl”. A reading of this lesson must have
enabled you to discuss various themes of the prescribed poems and appreciate the poetry of
Ginsberg.

3.7 References

Bowlby, Rachel. “A Supermarket in California” in Carried Away: The Invention of Modern

Shopping. Columbia: Columbia University Press, 2002.

Caveney, Graham. Screaming with Joy: The Life of Allen Ginsberg. London: Bloomsbury,

1999.

McClure, Michael. “Moloch’s Poet: A Retrospective Look at Allen Ginsberg’s Poetry.”

American Poetry Review 11, no. 5 (September-October 1982): 10-18.

Raskin, Jonah. American Scream: Allen Ginsberg’s Howl and the Making of the Beat

Generation. California: Uni. of California Press, 2004.

3.8 Further Reading

Scott, A. O. “Howl (2010)” The New York Times, September 23, 2010.

Tytell, John. Paradise Outlaws: Remembering the Beats. New York: William Morrow and

Company, 1999.

3.9 Model Questions

1. Write a detailed summary of the poem “A Supermarket in California.”

2. Write a note on the themes in the poem “A Supermarket in California.”

3. Attempt a detailed summary of the poem “Howl.”

4. Write a detailed critical analysis of the poem “Howl.”

 L. No. 4

Analysis of Allen Ginsberg’s “America” and Kaddish”

Structure

4.0 Objectives

4.1 Introduction

4.2 “America”: Summary

4.3 “America”: Critical Analysis

4.3.1 Structure

4.3.2 Themes

4.3.3 Imagery

4.4 Section-Wise Summary of the Poem “Kaddish”

4.5 Critical examination of the Poem “Kaddish”

4.5.1 Background

4.5.2 Title

4.5.3 Autobiographical Elements

4.5.4 Themes

4.5.5 Structure

4.5.6 Imagery

4.5.7 Symbols

4.6 Summary

4.7 References

4.8 Further Reading

4.9 Model Questions

4.0 Objectives
After reading this lesson, you will be able to:
 ● understand the poem “America”

● critically analyze the poem “America”

● understand the poem “Kaddish”

● critically examine the poem “Kaddish”

4.1 Introduction
Dear students, Allen Ginsberg, a celebrated 20th-century American poet, has produced
voluminous work. His collection of poems Kaddish and Other Poems published in 1961 fetched
him public attention and critical appraisal. He was one of the most influential poets of his
generation and his work was the object of much scholarly attention throughout his lifetime. This
chapter will introduce you in detail to two important poems and their critical analysis. You will be
reading summaries and critical appraisal of “America” and “Kaddish”.

4.2 “America”: Section-Wise Summary

“America” written by Allen Ginsberg was first published in Howl and Other Poems in 1956 while
he was in Berkeley, California. The poem begins on a depressing note. The first stanza sets the
time and context for the poem, depicting hopelessness in the life and work of the speaker. The
speaker here epitomizes everyone’s life. He expresses grief for a suffocating culture that
supported censorship and oppression. He howls at the cultural poverty of his times which did not
give any space to individuality. Then the readers come across a conversation between the
speaker and personified America. The speaker expresses his discontentment for the support of
the martial culture of his country. But soon he tries to disrupt the conversation because he is not in
the right mind to continue it and also because he wants to avoid being bothered by such a
conversation. But the readers can also not forget that he will never be in his right mind. The later
part of the first stanza then turns into a lamentation from a conversation. The speaker laments at
the loss of an old America by referring to personified America as a lost lover. The speaker had
once seen great potential for salvation in his lover. He had trust in the promise that America
offered to the immigrants which were now lost. But by trying to be optimistic he showed hope that
America would once again become the “angelic” land that it once guaranteed to be. He has hope
that the land would soon see through the reality of death and devastation that it was instigating.
He is waiting for the time when the country would understand that its own political coercion was
grander than the political tyranny spread by the “Trotskyites” (communists). The speaker
expresses his annoyance for the “tears” that the libraries were shedding those days, meaning
thereby that the speaker laments the loss of free information and free expression stacked in the
libraries. He also censures the corporatism of American life represented by “the supermarkets.”
The second stanza is a continuation of the dialogue between the speaker and his personified
country. From the tone of anger, accusation and depression the tone now changes and we hear
undertones of compromise in the dialogue in this stanza. The speaker talking about similarities
between them also expresses his gratitude to the country that kindled in him holy and divine
desires. It not only shows his relationship with his country but also suggests the confidence and
hopefulness that he could see in his life in the recent past. As a young man, the speaker was
enthusiastic to help the workforce and labourers as a labour lawyer. Even though the calling of his
soul turned him into a poet, he can still not ignore or bury his obsession with the promise that one
day America will be ruled by justice, tolerance, freedom, and acceptance. But the readers can see
the speaker drifting towards tones of depression and distrust once again.

The speaker feels as if his own country was being “sinister” since it was indulging in the
suppression of creative people like him and it was trying to achieve this end by being authoritarian
in nature. The speaker, who strongly supports legalizing of drugs in America, calls it dictatorial
because his friend William S. Burroughs had to go in exile from the United States to Tangiers,
Morrocco because of legal glitches connected with the transference of prohibited drugs from
Mexico. Supporting individuality and an individual’s “best mind”, the speaker says that America
should not oppress such people. The readers begin to experience the speaker’s cynicism when he
uses imagery from the Eastern part of the world that had a great influence on him. He refers to the
falling of plum blossoms which in Eastern culture symbolize peace. He uses this imagery from
another culture to tell that the East — both in its culture and its politics — emerges as a better
world. Here in this context, the speaker wants to say that America’s image and quintessence as a
generous leader of the world were on the path of deterioration. The speaker confesses that
frequent and regular news about trials that he saw or understood as a threat of violence had made
him quit his habit of reading newspapers. He avoided reading newspapers not only because of this
general menace of vehemence but also because his own friends and colleagues were a part of
violence and wrath. And since his friends and acquaintances in the Beat movement were a fair
target his anger was underlined with compunction and remorse.

Expressing his communist affiliations, the speaker becomes “sentimental about the Wobblies.”
The Wobblies was a nickname given to The Industrial Workers of the World (IWW). This
international worker’s union was a very active and commanding radical and social group during
the childhood of the speaker. It supported and followed socialist and leftist policies. Since the
Wobblies promoted ideas that all wages should be abolished and that all workers should be united
as a class, the group was severely criticized by the government of America. During World War-I
many leaders and members of the Wobblies were prosecuted and humiliated ethically which led to
the dismantling of the group. The speaker traces his support for communism in his childhood and
he tells that as a child he was a communist and his mother who held strong Communist views
throughout her life introduced him to the wave by taking him along to the meetings of the local
Communist Party. He still upholds his views about communism and is not at all sorry for the same.

The speaker talks about certain other activities that were prohibited in his country and he still
indulged in them. He enumerates his smoking marijuana whenever he got a chance to do so,
getting drunk in Chinatown and also reading the writings of Karl Marx. And above all, with his
statement that he “won’t say the Lord’s Prayer,” the speaker shows that he was not apologetic for
the views that he had expressed. The speaker supports his unwillingness to feel guilty for his acts
with the help of modern psychology. He was suffering from depression and guilt. Sometime before
writing poems, “Howl” and “America,” he had gone to a psychoanalyst for help and was suggested
that he should follow the path that made him blissful. Since the speaker found contentment in
writing poetry, he thought that only writing could help him. Finding a corroboration of his feelings in
the words of the psychotherapist, the speaker decided to continue with his unconventional lifestyle
that supported dodging accountability. So, the speaker describes his attitude of not taking any
liability for his actions. He gives a reference to his maternal uncle Max Livergant who had to face
adversities and misfortunes after arriving in America for being a communist and a Jew. The
speaker’s reactions and attitude are just a rejoinder to an America which without any remorse
treated his uncle poorly.

In the next stanza, the speaker discusses his “love/hate” relationship with another field – media.
During the 1960s his political crusading caught the attention of the media and he did not want to
shy away from it. Using America’s allowing its “emotional life” to be affected by Time magazine; he
criticizes America’s potential dependence on the media. His words are a critique of the control of
media on citizens, their elected representatives, and their decisions — political and social. The
frontrunners of the country were more concerned about the good/bad portrayal of their decisions.
Contradictory to the statement that he gives in the earlier few lines about the responsibility, the
speaker talks about his wish to take responsibility for the “emotional reactions” that the media
caused. Like every other individual, he also read the weekly issues of Time magazine and the
news touched him as it did other inhabitants of America. Every intellectual’s perception was
influenced by the interpretation of happenings by the media. And many times, he too like other
thinking beings was so influenced that he followed the social standards prompted by Time
magazine and the other forms of media. The contradictions continue as we see that the speaker
begins the stanza with a statement for America, “I’m addressing you,” but he soon realized that he
himself was America and that he was addressing himself. He also realized that his preparedness
to accept his space in life and his career within the American milieu had made him an integral part
of America like any other being who lived there.

As we read further, we see that the speaker gives two references to support his argument. First,
he refers to China that was rising as a communist power in the East and secondly he mentions the
effect of the same on the relations between Russia and the United States — the two superpower
blocks which were in constant tussle throughout the first half of the twentieth century to establish
their sway on the politics of China and its population. With the victory of the Communist Party of
China in 1949, when the Chinese Civil War ended, it became clear that China would become a
confederate of the USSR. This connection was a setback for US foreign relations in that part of the
world. Then discussing his association with Asian religion and culture, the speaker says that he
had studied Zen Buddhism during his college days and later he had found that Buddhism was
accepted as an imperative spiritual attitude and a ladder to reach higher levels of consciousness
using drugs like LSD by Beat writers like Kerouac and Neal Cassady etc. He also mentions that
the doctrines of Buddhism like harmony, love and transcendence were seen as a testimony
against the dogma prompted by America. Now since the speaker identified with his country the
differences between the two cultures forced him to see Asia rising against him and he could not
see the possibility of the collaboration of the two dissimilar sets of beliefs and value-systems. The
speaker then begins to introspect himself and by extension America that he relates himself to. He
witnesses that his life-style that propagated freedom to drugs, sex and expression through art
could not match the challenge posed to his identity. He soon began to count and deprecate the
national resources which were being used to punish the insane in a cold-hearted manner. He
supports his views by talking about insanity and the treatment of insane people. His argument is
based on his mother’s experiences and metaphorically he wished to say that people who did not
want to follow the rules or the dictates of the state were considered insane and treated callously.
He also talks about the widespread discrimination and wished that he could be the President of
America to end the discrimination against the Catholics since a Catholic could not be an elected
President

In the next few lines, the speaker discusses modes of production in the American economy. He is
once again engaged in a conversation with America personified as a human being. He says that
America was not in a proper mood and that obstructed the smooth flow of the conversation
between them. While talking about industrialization that had taken place in America, the speaker
refers to Henry Ford, whose Assembly-line Method of production had transformed the industry at
the beginning of the twentieth century and soon turned America into a superpower at the
economic plain. Taking inspiration from Ford, the speaker says that he too would write poetry with
an eye on profit and shun its emotional and artistic value. He thought that if he kept profit in his
mind, he would be able to earn money for every poem that he would write. This he says was the
prevalent way of living in America. Every capitalist worked for profit which made the proletariats
poorer and thus, gave rise to the building up of unionism.

To ask for justice from America, the speaker’s conscious mind begins to play the role of another
character. It asked for a leader of labourers, Tom Mooney’s freedom. It asked for his liberation
because of the belief that Mooney had been imprisoned for a San Francisco bombing in 1916 in
which he actually had no role to play. America was requested to give protection to “the Spanish
Loyalists” — the leftist army supported by the Soviet Union in the Spanish Civil War who fought
the Fascist uprising supported by Nazi Germany. By giving a reference to Ferdinando Nicola
Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti, two Italian anarchist labourers and whose trial and execution had
sparked a controversy over the rights of the accused, he wishes to say that no avant-garde should
be tried without due process. The speaker here, disassociating from America, assumes a separate
identity and says, “I am the Scottsboro boys.” The Scottsboro boys refer to nine black men who
were tried and condemned for raping two white women and sentenced to death. By citing the
above-mentioned examples, the speaker wants to say that America was not following patriotism in
spirit as one encountered in the National Anthem or the Pledge of Allegiance.

The speaker remembers the meetings of the Communist Party where his mother used to take him
when he was a child and he was greatly influenced by the sympathetic views of the party towards
labourers and workers. He also discusses the socialist and communist leaders who worked for
justice and peace but were accused of spreading violence. To explain how the American
government was trying to destroy the leftists and their point of view, the speaker enlists the names
of a few leaders who were suppressed. He gives reference to an economist, Scott Nearing who
promoted nonviolence and communism; Mother Bloor, an important figure in the Socialist Party of
America who fought for the rights of the workers; a radical group of silk workers in Paterson called
the “Silk-strikers” who organized a strike against silk manufacturers etc. By citing all the above-
mentioned names, the speaker denounces the American government’s suspicion of all Socialist or
Communist activities during the early twentieth century.

We can, thus, see that the speaker expresses his rage against America’s bigoted approach, its
undiplomatic nationalism, and its unfair and prejudiced treatment of racial and political minority
groups. Now instead of the country, the speaker addresses the citizens of America in a colloquial
language and presents sarcastic views on the unapprised and unschooled people. He mocked at
the absurdity of the people who spread fear of communist countries like Russia and China and
prompted the idea that the communist countries wanted to modify the American way of life. By
making use of colloquial speech and wrong forms of pronouns, verbs, and tenses, the speaker
wants to point out that the incorrect reading of the situations by the unschooled people spread
anarchy and baseless fears that further ruined the situations. He also says that the purpose of
these people to miscommunicate the information was to maintain discriminations that benefited
them. They feared that if communism was adopted then they would have to work like labourers
whom they exploited and that they would have to sacrifice their luxurious life-style.

Therefore, in the last few lines, the speaker gives a serious warning to his country and says that
the time was ripe when action to change the situations had come. The speaker says that every
individual would have to make an effort and make a contribution to bring about the desired
change. Because of his nearsightedness and psychopathic behaviour, he could not contribute by
joining the Army or factory, the speaker was still wondering about the path that he would have to
choose to help his country. The speaker promised to work hard and put in a lot of labour to
achieve the ends and the use of the word “queer” reaffirmed that even the castaways, the feeble,
and the effeminate could help to bring about transformation.

4.3 “America”: Critical Analysis

4.3.1 Structure

The poem has been written using the stream of consciousness technique. Like his other poems,
Ginsberg’s “America” also follows irregular meter and structure. Ginsberg has written this poem in
‘long lines’ which is the hallmark of his poetry. Sometimes the long sentences in the poem run on
without punctuation and the poem hop from subject to subject without much coherence. As the
length of the lines, the stanzas of the poem are also irregular. If the first stanza is a sixteen line
stanza, the second and third stanzas consist of twelve lines each, and the fourth and fifth stanzas
are ten lines each. The poem is conversational in nature.

4.3.2 Themes

Thematically “America” can be called a work of political nature, as we come across various
indictments against the United States, its government, and its citizens. We come across political
unrest in the post-World War II United States. Referring to national racial unrest, fight with
communism and leftist and anarchist political movements and figures like Sacco and Vanzetti, the
Scottsboro Boys and Wobblies, Ginsberg scorns at the fact that America was trying to deter
accountability for the Cold War in the second half of the 20 th century in his poem. He ridicules
America for its martial culture, its insipid and spineless media, and its distrustful policymaking and
legislation. The speaker expresses his strong points of view in favour of communism in his poem.
The poet publicly admits his strong affiliation with communism.

In this poem, Ginsberg talks about many aspects of American life like cultural turbulence, nuclear-
powered conflict and the foreign policy in Asia, opposition to communism, activities and causes
the old communists and labourers were fighting for, exhaustion, restlessness and desperation of a
population that had become inactive due to many reasons. He presents an investigation of the
situations in the United States during contemporary times which he finds are gloomy and
depressing. He expresses mental fatigue that had been caused due to wars that the country was
engaged in. He also talks about the repercussion of the wars on America and was waiting for
better times. At times, it seems that the speaker is addressing America, and sometimes
he is engaged in a dialogue with the super-power and at other times, it seems that the speaker is
talking to himself since he considers himself an integral part of the country that he criticizes. As a
petition for the downtrodden people, the poem gives a message that a state of insincere
sedentariness cannot go on forever, and to bring about a change every person will have to make a
meaningful effort. The poem was written when America was starting the Cold War with Russia.
Ginsberg refers to the misconduct of America and Russia towards their populations for these
nations treated each other’s people viciously. The poem seems to say that both nations were at
fault. Ginsberg does not only enlist his feelings of disinclinations and objections against brutal,
materialistic and imperialistic policies of America but also expresses his hopes for America.

4.3.3 Imagery

The imagery used in the poem is largely political, referring to governmental movements, leftists,
anarchy as a strategy and more. Various political events happening in the country’s past have also
been referred to. Making use of a monetary image, “two dollars and twenty seven cents,” the poet
perhaps refers to the nation’s cultural poverty. The imagery of the “atom bomb” explicates the
poet’s dissatisfaction towards militarism that engages the nation in war and eventually towards
destruction. By referring to the communists like, “Trotskyites,” Ginsberg tries to make the point
explicit that oppression caused by the nation was far greater than that caused by the communist
party. “Libraries full of tears” is an intense image. The poet tells his readers that information should
flow freely. The usage of the word “supermarket” refers to the system of the corporatization of
America which the poet clearly refuses. Reference to William S. Burroughs reminds the readers of
his exile for transporting drugs. Amidst the political references that the poet makes, a mention of
eastern culture has also been made through the use of the phrase “plum blossoms are falling.”
Plum blossoms in eastern regions are evocative of peace. Ginsberg attempts to clarify the fact that
America was losing its peace at the hands of destructive war practices it was engaged in. “You
should have seen me reading Marx'' is just a confession that the poet makes to his nation. Time
Magazine and Berkeley Public Magazine are indicative of the clash between media and
government. Tom Mooney, a twentieth-century labour leader who was incarcerated, appears in the
poem as an example of the government’s biased decision making power. Another imagery relates
to racism prevalent in America, for example, “Him make Indians learn read…Him need big black
niggers.” The word “Wooblies” refers to the IWW (The Industrial Workers of the World) and thus,
points to the leftist and socialist policies. We see the poet's harsh criticism of the American
government. Viewing our poet’s discontentment towards his nation is not the only point of
discussion here because the poem takes a positive turn towards the end when Ginsberg says,
“America I’m putting my queer shoulder to the wheel.” The imagery portrays a necessary change
that the poet sees in America’s future.
4.4 “Kaddish”: Section-Wise Summary

4.4.1 Section I

Section I of the poem, “Kaddish,” is balanced on two wheels — one, where the poet is trying to
come to terms with his loss, and the other, where he is happy that death has relieved his mother of
all her sufferings. Between these two wheels, the poet talks about his personal development.
“Kaddish” can also be viewed as an act of Catharsis, and an acceptance of all the repressed
emotions that needed a vent. The tone of the first part of the poem is of forgiveness and it talks
about improperly buried memories. Even though the poet talks about the eventual disintegration of
his mother’s mind, he continues to remember her as a “communist beauty” with “long black hair
crowned with flowers” and yearns to “hear her voice again.” This shows that even though Ginsberg
finally accepts his mother’s death, he tries to preserve her memories in the purest form.

4.4.2 Section II

In Section II of the poem, the poet begins to narrate his mother’s hallucinations and figments of
her mind — how she “spied a mystical assassin from Newark” and covered her nose with her fur
collar as a safeguard against “poison sneaked into downtown atmosphere, sprayed by Grandma.”
He talks about how he once stayed at home to take care of his mother and took her down the
street where she suspected everyone and at Times Square she spent hours fighting against
“invisible bugs and Jewish sickness—breeze poisoned by Roosevelt...” The poet narrates that his
mother also suspected the hospital to have allied with her in-laws and poisoned her. He also
remembers feeling depressed and the horrible feeling of abandonment that he felt at the age of
12. He talks about his mother’s first nervous breakdown in 1919 and how it progressed from there.
He remembers her late-night cries for help and her simultaneous aspersions thrown wildly at her
husband and her mother-in-law. The poem does not proceed in chronological order. It is an
assortment of memories always culminating in the image of Naomi “sitting crossleg on the grass—
her long hair wound with flowers—smiling—playing lullabies on mandolin—poison ivy smoke in
left-wing summer camps...” Her initial paranoia over “mystical assassins from Newark” and
“invisible bugs and Jewish sickness” walking through Paterson soon descended into delusions. It
is also clear that when Ginsberg tries to depict his mother’s progression into the schizophrenic pit,
he avoids using natural imagery but focuses on using urban or artificial images which reveal his
distrust of mental asylums and institutions. Like in “Howl,” here too the poet seems to proclaim that
the soul of a person is innocent and remains untarnished even after the person has to go through
all the psychiatric procedures. The poem progresses in a manner similar to Naomi’s progression to
her mental illness; from being a loving, beautiful person to a psychotic individual where her
psyche was further annihilated through institutionalization, electroshock
therapy and ultimately lobotomy. One can relate Naomi’s character to Arthur Miller’s concept of
tragedy where any common man could become a tragic character when faced with the impossible
difficulties forced on them by a chaotic world and an even more complicated life. Naomi’s
character also fits Aristotle’s definition of a tragic hero as she struggled against the merciless fate
with the final result of her losing the ultimate battle. Naomi was forced to fight against the external
forces (institutions, asylums, shocks) as well as the internal forces (schizophrenia) but she was
“doomed” to lose the battle against her own personal fate. In her real life, she had failed to keep a
firm hold on her sanity and to defeat the daily threats in the form of “Hitler, Grandma, the
Capitalists, Franco, Daily News, Mussolini.” Catharsis occurs through the poet's own emotional
development over the course of Kaddish in which he moves from his own internal turmoil to his
grief and finally to acceptance. Naomi’s final redemption takes place in the form of her death,
delivering her from suffering and insanity to be reborn as the immortal “holy mother.” The poem
“Kaddish” can be seen as the expression of the traumatic experiences that were buried in the
poet’s subconscious mind. While he loves his mother, his somewhat misogynistic attitude
(depicted more clearly in his poem “Howl”) is the result of his anger with his mother. Kaddish —
the prayer — enabled Ginsberg to heal his emotional wounds and leave behind his sense of
resentment, anger, grief and guilt.

4.4.3 Section III

Section III of the poem comes as a lament which concisely reiterates Ginsberg’s view of Naomi’s
life and insanity chalked out in detail in the preceding section. However, the present part begins
with the poet’s remembrance of his mother as he reinforces her lived experiences in snippets
following one after the other in quick succession. As he re-emphasizes the memories, the string of
ambivalent episodes captures both the pleasing and the painful description of his mother’s
situation.

Through the rhetoric of repetition, he, in a way, re-assures himself of not forgetting the memories
of his mother who came from Russia as an immigrant to Newark. Young and vivacious, she
introduced herself to the American way of life by drinking Sodas and leading a normal life. Then he
shifts to map her falling into the abyss of insanity from which she could never recover. He revisits
his mother’s trials and tribulations with schizophrenia and her multiple trips to the mental hospitals
and restrooms that had become her universe. At a very young age, Ginsberg witnessed how
Naomi frequented mental hospitals like Greystone in New York where she stayed for treatment. In
the process, she used to wait in the long wards at the tables — turned grey withholding the misery
of many mental patients like her. What is more, her unsettled mind kept whipping up disparate
hallucinations even amidst her treatment. She could sense Hitler standing at the door, nurturing
ideas to kill her. The young Allen could never forget the sight of his suffering mother: the
unbearable procedure of electroshock, with wires fastened on her head and sticks thrust down her
back and the resulting cry of pain, agony and desolation flanked by the noise and the intermittent
silence accompanied with shock therapy. Amidst everything, Naomi kept on experiencing bouts of
time-jumps and memory lapse, thus, feeling a loss. She could hear the voices from her past
revealing her 30 years. The poet has also been a witness to her other idiosyncrasies like painting
bizarre sketches over the rooftops in the Bronx.

Moreover, Ginsberg pictures Naomi’s final days in the mental asylum when she wrote a letter to
him and he also envisions her image in the sunlight at the window. The letter read the cryptic lines
by Naomi: “The key is in the sunlight at the window in the bars the key is in the sunlight.” Then,
with a heavy heart, he goes on to reconstruct the death scene of his mother who died alone in the
hospital. As she finished writing the letter from the hospital at Long Island, she knew her end was
near. When the day came to the close and darkness fell, the sun of her life also set. With the
sound of the noisy Atlantic Ocean in the background, Naomi retired to her iron bed complaining of
a stroke and managed to evade the nightmare. In doing so, she had one last glimpse of life. She
could see one ray of hope — earth basking in the glory of heavenly light amidst darkness. With her
head laid on the pillow, she stared at her death calmly with no remorse or aggression while trying
to make sense of everything.

In a similar vein, the poet accepts his mother’s death, and quite like her, he tries to make a sense
of everything — life, death, creation, grave. He believes that the cryptic key his mother mentioned
before dying in the letter should be left behind at the very places she asked to look for i.e. at the
window or in the sunlight. Thereby, the living souls can possess that key and with that key to
enlightenment, they can open the door to eternal secrets of creation and destruction. The poet
brings together elements of creation and destruction as the creation traces its origin back to the
grave that holds the ultimate truth of the universe i.e. death. Even the tick of the clock acts as a
metonym to refer to the passage of time, leaping back and forth, that controls and determines
creation and annihilation.

4.4.4 Section IV

In the course of the fourth section, while charting the personal experiences the poet progresses to
draw political history and make social observations. Initially, he laments that during the bouts of his
mother’s nervous breakdown, he always supported her. At quite an early age, Ginsberg started
taking care of his neurotic mother reversing the care-taker and care-receiver dichotomy. As
mentioned in the second section, Ginsberg had also accompanied his mother to a mental hospital
named Lakewood on a bus when he was barely twelve. The bus ride experience with his paranoid
and deluded mother was indeed traumatic for the tender mind of a child. The poet laments that he
put in his best efforts to attend to his mother and the poem also shows his guilt for the times when
he had left his mother forlorn in the asylums.

With such a mind-set, the poet comes to terms with her death and bids her adieu and it has a
cathartic effect upon him. In the process, he once again traces Naomi’s life history beginning with
her young and vivacious days of Russian ethnicity and goes on to monitor her fall into mental
neurosis and eventual death. He speaks of the personal loss, how a young girl brimming with
communist idealism and a belief in the great American dream had reached the new land only to
confront penury, insanity, family disintegration, numerous surgeries, and loss of life. He connects
Naomi’s personal loss with the failed political aspirations of her days of: ‘Spanish War,’ ‘false
China,’ ‘starving India,’ ‘America taking a fall,’ ‘Czechoslovakia attacked by robots.’

Furthermore, the poet puts his dead mother to rest, indiscriminately with all of her good and
eccentric behaviour, with her sanity and insanity, both in happiness and sickness. He first bids
farewell to her physical attributes etched in his mind: her ‘broken stocking,’ ‘long black shoe,’ ‘old
dress,’ covering the ‘six dark hairs’ on the ‘wen’ of her ‘breast,’ ‘a long black beard around her
vagina and her ‘sagging belly.’ He is even reminded of his mother’s political outlook and robust
communist attitude with her taste for ‘strikes’ and ‘smokestacks,’ and chin of ‘Trotsky’ and ‘Spanish
war.’ Naomi’s unbroken voice still rings in his ears deploring the plight of ‘overbroken workers.’

In addition to the political activism, his mother’s neurotic conduct still lingers in his consciousness.
Such behaviour surfaces in her ‘bad short stories’ and her ‘fear of Hitler.’ She even produced the
similar eccentric deportment in her family life; suspecting her mother-in-law and sister, Elanor to
be planning her murder. What is more, on certain occasions she was found running out naked in
the hall, screaming with full force. Thereby, with the worsening situation of Naomi, for the poet, the
pleasing mandolins of the by-gone days turned ‘rotten’ and worn-out.

The poet empathically describes the mental, physical and familial dissolution and disintegration of
his mother who had faced multiple anatomical surgeries including removal of the pancreas,
appendix, and ovaries, suffered several abortions, received psychiatric treatment like ‘shock’ and
‘lobotomy,’ and endured ‘divorce.’ He even mentions how his mother went through everything
alone. She even endured her death with no one by her side and this fact leaves the poet guilty
ridden as he abandoned his lunatic mother in misery.

This section reads like an incantation. It seems as if the poet is chanting some magical spell to
invoke the spirit of his dead mother by calling her ‘O mother’ thrice. He seems to plead his guilt
and make efforts only to reach the acceptance of her death. Like in the preceding section, the poet
continues to browse through the pages of his mother’s life and attempts to make certain
generalizations about life, here he seems to question his dead mother, and by effect, himself:
‘What have I left out?’ ‘What have I forgotten?’ He contemplates all his efforts in assisting his ailing
mother and his endeavour to pour out all the impressions of his mother into words. The reason for
justifying himself arises from the intense guilt he feels as he deserted his mother after agreeing to
lobotomy and he couldn’t attend her funeral. Therefore, he tries to purge his guilt-producing and
emotionally charged closure to his mother’s life through his verse.

4.4.5 Section V

In the final section, the poet propels the poem towards its close. The scene now shifts to Naomi’s
grave in Long Islands where the poet saw crows encircling in the sky right above Naomi’s grave.
They seemed to be making their habitual shrieking sounds, ‘caw caw’ while surveying the area of
the dead. In this scenario, the poet prayed to the Lord to give him the strength to overcome his
grief. He informs that Naomi was buried under the grass and with her, half of the poet's life was
also buried which he spent in taking care of her. Together with this, he feels his eyes were also
buried in the same place as he stood firm on the ground underneath the ‘great Eye’ i.e. sun, and
watched everything before getting quilted by the veil of dark clouds. Even strange voices of the
living reached high to the sky. The poet invokes the ‘Grinder’ representing the punishments and
ordeals that the sinners have to endure during their stay in the underworld. In the vast grounds of
Sheol, the dead pass through the grinder and fiery lake of hell. The poet also refers to the might of
time that is the most potent tool in the universe.

Talking about all the absolutes—life, death, time—the poet feels that human life is but a dream,
short-lived like an echo in the sky, like the wind whistling through the leaves and like the fleeting
memory. Together with this, the daily experiences and mundane places and objects like ‘bus,’
‘broken shoe’ and ‘vast high school,’ are dreams and visions ordained by God. The array of these
quoted things metaphorically represents various stages of Naomi’s life. ‘Vast high school’ days and
‘broken shoe’ resonate her young happy days.

This concluding section can be essentially read as a ceremonious prayer by the poet asking the
Lord to show him a path to deliverance and asking salvation for his dead mother. In this section,
he strategically juxtaposes two words, Lord and caw. It is interesting to note the pattern of their
usage. Both words ‘caw’ and ‘Lord’ are repeated at least twenty one and seventeen times,
respectively. Starting with ‘caw’ in the first line, both the words are alternately used in each line
and are repeated throughout the section. Initially, ‘caw’ and ‘Lord’ are used thrice, each taking
turns in the first two lines. In the rest of the section, they appear twice with similar alternating
trends. It can be inferred that both the words have entirely different significance and are opposing
in tone and meaning. On one hand, the word ‘caw’ denotatively indicates the sound of a crow can
be related to the earthly pursuits, and the ephemeral nature of humanity and human life. It is
thereby, Ginsberg links ‘caw’ to ‘strange cry of Beings,’ ‘the call of time,’ and ‘all years my birth a
dream.’ On the other hand, the word ‘Lord’ testifies to the ultimate power and spiritual goal one
may aim at achieving. For the poet, ‘Lord’—‘Grinder of giant’ is the ‘great Eye that stares on all’
and monitors the workings of the human race. Such antithetical images run throughout the poem
and are primary to the poem’s structure. When seen in this context, the poet nevertheless,
encapsulates the dilemma of human life torn between earthly pursuits and spiritual goals. The poet
ingeniously replicates this human predicament by adopting the alternate usage of these two
opposing callings in each line. Most importantly, the final line of this section taps into this tension
between the two contesting worldviews in a more forceful manner. Suspending the normal usage
of language, it resorts to co-mixing the revered name of God with the ignoble cawing of crows as
he weaves them into one big dream which is human life. The concluding remark hence contains
only these two words repeated in a fashion of two sets of thrice written ‘Lord’ and ‘caw’ with a final
single ‘Lord.’ In this manner, it consists of six ‘caw’ and seven ‘Lord,’ thus stressing upon the
supremacy of the word and by implication the spiritual aspect of human life.

Apart from these repetitions, the final part also shows the poet’s fascination with capitalization.
The words like ‘Lord,’ ‘Ground,’ ‘Angel,’ ‘Eye,’ ‘All,’ ‘Beings,’ ‘Grinder,’ ‘Beyonds,’ ‘Time,’ ‘Visions’
are capitalized on purpose to highlight their significance in the text. Furthermore, the poet plays
with the visual imagery with his multiple references to eyes stimulating the sense of seeing.
Likewise, the aural imagery is captured by the words like ‘caw,’ ‘voice,’ ‘cry,’ ‘shriek,’ ‘call,’ ‘echo,’
‘roar’ as they stimulate the sense of hearing.

In a nutshell, the poem offers a commendable effort by Allen Ginsberg to pay tribute to his dead
mother. Elegiac in tone, the poem captures a wide range of themes, originating from the personal
event leading to humanity in general. While charting out the ordinary and mundane in a very
realistic and commonplace language, the poem soars up to touch the metaphysical pursuits of life.
It also offers a genuine view at different polarities of human existence: life and death, revered and
profane, earthly and spiritual, sanity and insanity, to name a few. In doing so, it assists in dealing
with the hard facts of life—suffering, loss and death. In this way, the poet not only purges his guilt
but also immortalizes the happy and pure image of his mother prior to her neurotic days. He hopes
that she finds peace as she returns to nature harmonizing with the reality of death in the afterlife.
This way the poet puts an emotional closure to his mother’s death, by accepting her death and
freezing her image in the most cherished form.

4.5 “Kaddish”: A Critical Analysis

4.5.1 Background
Allen Ginsberg is one of the most prominent Beat poets. The adherents of the Beat Movement,
which originated in the 1950s, expressed their detachment and aloofness from the conventional
society and advocated purification and illumination through heightened sensory awareness
induced by drugs, sex, or disciplines of Zen Buddhism. The Beat poets wanted to transform poetry
and convert it into a medium of expression of personal experiences. These poets did not follow
any particular rhyme or rhythm in their poems but wrote them without a fully contrived plan so as
to keep the raw experiences depicted in the poems alive. “Howl” by Ginsberg is a great example if
one wishes to understand the characteristics of the Beat Movement. “Kaddish” is another long
poem by Allen Ginsberg in which he talks about the changes in his relationship with his mother
while she was alive and after her demise. He highly personalized the prayer tailoring its content to
the experiences of his mother and his impression of those experiences.

4.5.2 Significance of the Title

The word Kaddish means an “ancient Jewish prayer sequence regularly recited in the synagogue
service, including thanksgiving and praise and concluding with a prayer for universal peace.”
Usually, a Kaddish is considered as an absolute declaration of faith but Allen Ginsberg’s Kaddish
is highly personal. It does not talk of joint human experience but is a dedication to his mother,
Naomi Ginsberg.

4.5.3 Autobiographical Elements

The poem can be read as a lament or an elegy weaved by the poet’s memories of his mother and
his life without her. The poem is extremely emotional and narrates a story that is intricately
connected to the poet’s life. Before one can start analyzing the poem, one needs to know a few
details about the poet’s younger years which were not easy considering Naomi’s psychological
health due to which she often had to seek medical help. Allen, as a teenager, felt a special
connection with his mother and always tried to find a spiritual reason behind his mother’s paranoia
and ravings. Naomi died in June 1956 because of severe mental illness and was buried without
the recital of Kaddish. The poem can be seen as an attempt to attain an emotional closure by the
poet.

4.5.4 Themes

“Kaddish” can be read as a biography of Naomi Ginsberg which potently depicts her
transformation from a “communist beauty” to a “varicosed, nude, fat” and doomed lady who
eventually had to go through a lobotomy. However, reducing the poem to Naomi’s story and her
descent into madness will be wrong because the poem also depicts the poet’s emotional
development as the narration progresses. Death is the most prominent theme in the poem and is
portrayed in a very positive manner where death is welcomed and the dead are prayed for.
Ginsberg is predominantly a non-conformist who has the knack of breaking tradition with his
unconventional themes and approach to life which is evident in his entire corpus of work including
his confession about his homosexuality. In the present context also, while paying tribute to his
mother he resorts to the unconventional and sexual treatment of Naomi’s body.

4.5.5 Structure

Taking inspiration from Walt Whitman’s long line, Ginsberg is known to have his ideas run down
into long sentences. Even “Kaddish” is no exception in this case. At the same time, Ginsberg’s
lines are interspersed with dashes that break and again speed up the briskness of his longish
syntax. Besides, unlike the commas, these dashes may or may not continue the idea expressed
prior to it in the antecedent part. This way they offer multiple readings of the same text, adding
beauty and richness to Ginsberg’s art.

There is a muted stream of consciousness effect in the poem where the poet puts fragmented and
incongruous words together and uses his characteristic irregular meter to deliver a narrative that
has universally relatable themes of love, loss, insanity, disillusionment, and acceptance. The use
of dashes also lends a rebellious tone to the poem. These punctuation marks can be used to
connect or separate ideas or whatever the author intends. The poem has an “I” which narrates the
story but still prefers to remain in the background.

4.5.6 Imagery

The poem was written three years after Naomi’s death and the opening imagery-- “gone without
corset and eyes”-- depicts how the poet is unable to come to terms with his mother’s death for
years. He understands the extent of his loss and suffering only after he reads “Adonais’ last
triumphant stanzas aloud.” He tries to find external sources to make sense of his mother’s death
and understand it from a philosophical point of view. Ginsberg begins by describing Naomi’s
journey “as a little girl -- from Russia, eating the first poisonous tomatoes of America” to her
education, marriage, nervous breakdown, teaching experience, and final episodes of insanity.
Then he goes on to say that death had the mercy to save her, it let her out as she was done with
her century. When read from this nihilistic perspective, Kaddish can be considered as a
celebration of death, as “a remedy all singer dream of.” He invokes the image of Emily Dickinson’s
horses “headed to the end—They know the way—These Steeds—run faster than we think—it’s
our own life they cross—and take with them.” In the line, “Because I could not stop for Death,” we
see death personified. It is not frightening or even intimidating but a courteous and gentle guide
leading the speaker to eternity. The speaker feels no fear when Death picks her up in its carriage;
she just sees it as an act of kindness. The overall theme of the poem seems to be that death is not
to be feared since it is a natural part of the endless cycle of nature. Similarly, a close reading of
“Kaddish” indicates the poet’s disillusionment and his aversion to the pains and sufferings imposed
on everyone by ‘Life’. Time and again, he talks about the misery of his mother and the pain it
induced on all the members of his family. He seems to be grateful to ‘Death’ which ends one’s
sufferings and eases all the pain.

The poet sums up the paranoid ravings of his mother and her final confrontation with death that
visited her in the hospital in this poem. Throughout the poem, he tries to make sense of his
mother’s disconnected neurotic activities. To do justice to the subject of schizophrenia, Ginsberg’s
imagery is heavily invested with medical terms related to neurosis. The reference to “gray tables in
long wards,” “the wires in her head,” “three big sticks rammed down her back,” “time-jumps,”
“memory lapse,” “roar and silence of a vast electric shock” bring alive the horror and trauma faced
during the psychiatric process.

Another important aspect of Ginsberg’s art is his execution of eyeball kicks i.e. fastening together
two starkly dissimilar objects or concepts. Section III is brimming with several such pairs as
‘sunlight’ and ‘dark night,’ ‘creation’ and ‘grave,’ ‘nightmare’ and ‘divided creation,’ ‘light’ and ‘black
out.’ With such contrasting parallels, the poet ponders over the opposing yet related forces of life
and death, sanity and insanity, and past, present, and future. Furthermore, the poet stresses his
ideas and urgency of feeling through capitalization of the words like ‘Being,’ ‘Nightmare,’ ‘Light,’
and ‘Creation.’ In doing so, he adds more gravity to their usage and meaning in the text.

Ginsberg translates his emotional discomfort and uneasiness in physical terms as he discharges
his emotional outpourings stressing physical details. To serve the purpose, the poet adopts
anatomical imagery referring to various faculties of his mother with which she executed diverse
tasks in her life. In this vein, the poet refers to the functioning of her ‘mouth,’ ‘fingers,’ ‘arms,’
‘belly,’ ‘chin,’ ‘voice,’ ‘nose,’ and most importantly, her ‘eyes’ that witnessed, processed and
reacted to disparate experiences and people around. The reference to eyes, however, comes as a
refrain. It can be noted that eyes act as the medium to connect with the outer world, to register
various activities and accordingly formulate an individual's outlook. Moreover, anything witnessed
by one’s own eyes casts a deep impact on the individual psyche.

Ginsberg emphasizes the importance of ‘eyes’ in Naomi’s life who witnessed different hardships in
her life through the medium of her ‘eyes:’ her departure from Russia, her penury, the false promise
of China and America, and deficient India. She also has hallucinating ‘eyes’ seeing Hitler, killer
Grandma and Aunt Elanor nurturing a plan to kill her. Besides, she has ‘eyes’ for her relatives,
caring for them and grieving at the death of Ma Rainey. Finally, her ‘eyes’ also brimmed with pain
due to various surgeries undertaken over her body, her lunacy, her divorce, and finally death.
It may also be noted that in Ginsberg’s use of physical imagery, even his mother’s private parts
find a description. The poet’s reference to ‘six dark hairs on the wen of your breast,’ ‘a long black
beard around the vagina,’ ‘sagging belly,’ ‘pissing in the park,’ and ‘running naked out of the
apartment’ is replete with strong graphical details that cast an impression in reader’s mind.
Furthermore, such an atypical description of a mother’s body by a son reeks of the underlying
feeling of incestuous desire.

4.5.7 Symbol

Amidst dark and dismal scenarios of medical wasteland, Ginsberg kindles hope and assurance by
envisioning objects like a window, sunlight, and key that promise light, knowledge, and
regeneration. ‘Window’ marks an ambivalent site that binds the two worlds — inside with the
outside, life with death. It acts as a key to access the world outside and thereby, the knowledge
that comes with life and death. Seen in this context, the ‘key’ acquires multifarious significance.
The ‘key’ that Ginsberg’s mother emphasizes is a symbol as well as a channel to reach the
ultimate truth. It becomes instrumental in unlocking the mind and the body and connects to
humanity at large. In doing so, it guides through dark passages, opening the door to bright
heavenly abodes that are attained after death. Similarly, ‘sunlight’ represents enlightenment,
regeneration and energy. The ‘sun’ is the center of the universe and the human body is a powerful
symbol of life and death. It both nurtures and destroys life. It connects cosmic energy with human
energy. There is no doubt that Naomi finds the ‘key’ to enlightenment and deliverance ‘in the
sunlight’ that can guide the way through a nightmare.

As his mother endured lifelong agony, the poet finally envisages the image of his scarred and
rammed mother at peace with her death full of flowers. The flowers here promise tranquility, peace
and contentment. By channelizing the power of flowers to broken and dead Naomi, he empowers
her in death purging her of all imperfections, ailments and agony. Moreover, the musical
instruments also find a significant place in Ginsberg’s scheme of things. Two such instruments,
mandolin and piano, represent Naomi. Mandolin reminds of Naomi’s Russian inheritance and
becomes a metaphor for her gradual transformation. The earlier playful mandolin of her young
days has now acquired a melancholic tone like Naomi herself. ‘With your fingers of rotten
mandolin’ refers to Naomi’s decadent state and her imminent death.

Similarly, the sound of piano resonates with her multiple failures in life that extend beyond her
incompetence in playing the instrument to her greater inefficiency in dealing with the other more
prominent issues in life. Naomi essentially forms a binding force that holds the family together.
With her failure, the family unit shattered and relationships disintegrated as the members grew
weary of her, abandoning her in her adversity. Likely, they mourned her loss separately in isolation.

4.6 Summary
After reading this lesson, you have learned the poems “America” and “Kaddish”. You will now be
able to critically analyze the poems. A reading of this lesson, must have enabled you to discuss
various themes of the prescribed poems and appreciate the poetry of Ginsberg.

4.7 References

Kramer, Jane. Allen Ginsberg in America. New York: Random House, 1968.

Vendler, Helen. “Books: A Lifelong Poem Including History,” The New Yorker, January 13, 1986.

Breslin, James. “Allen Ginsberg: The Origins of ‘Howl’ and ‘Kaddish,” in Poetry Criticism. David M.
Galens (ed.). Vol. 47. Detroit: Gale, 2003.

4.8 Further Reading

Hyde, Lewis and Allen Ginsberg. On the poetry of Allen Ginsberg. Michigan: University of
Michigan Press, 1984.

4.9 Model Questions

1. Write in detail the summary of Ginsberg’s poem “America.”

2. Write a note on the critical analysis of Ginsberg’s poem “America.”

3. Discuss in detail the use of autobiographical elements in Ginsberg’s poetry.

4. Write a critical analysis of Ginsberg’s poem “Kaddish.”

 L. No. 5

An Introduction to the Poetry of Adrienne Rich and

Critical Analysis of the Poem “Planetarium”

Structure
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Introduction to the Poet
5.2.1 The Form and Content
5.2.2 Confessional Poets
5.2.3 Life and Works
5.3 “Planetarium”: Summary and Analysis
5.3.1 Summary of the Poem
5.3.2 Critical Analysis
5.4 Summary
5.5 References
5.6 Further Readings
5.7 Model Questions

5.0 Objectives
After reading this lesson, you will be able to:
● learn about the great American poet Adrienne Rich
● learn about the poetic style of Rich
● know the major subjects of Rich’s poetry
● critically analyze the poem “Planetarium”
● study the development of Rich as a poet
● understand the term confessional poets

5.1 Introduction
Dear Students, you must have read about the poet Adrienne Rich. Her name is often associated
with confessional poetry and the feminist movement in America. She is also known for her active
participation in the movement against the Vietnam War. The majority of her poems are a sort of
political document that critiques social evils in society such as racism, gender discrimination,
militarism, rights of lesbians, etc. So in this unit, you are going to learn more about this most
remarkable poet of America. Though she is known as an American poet, her poetry rises beyond
the geographical, cultural, and ethnic boundaries and represents Everywoman. Apart from
introducing you to the major aspects of Rich’s poetry, the poem “Planetarium,” will be discussed in
detail in this lesson.

5.2 Introduction to the Poet

Adrienne Cecile Rich popularly known as Adrienne Rich was the most powerful poet of the 20th
century. She is one of the most influential writers of the feminist movement in the America as she
rigorously articulated the oppression of women in her poetry and prose. Being triply marginalized
as a woman, lesbian, and a Jew; her poetry is primarily concerned with identity politics. She
argued that women’s disenfranchisement (see glossary) at the hands of men must end. Therefore,
for her, the personal and political were completely linked. Partly because of such inclinations,
some critics label her poetry as polemical. However, Rich never asserted that verse or poetry can
change the society or social institutions: “Poetry is not a healing lotion, an emotional massage, a
kind of linguistic aromatherapy…Neither is it a blueprint, nor an instruction manual, nor a billboard”
(Acceptance Speech at the National Book Foundation in 2006). At the same time, she strongly
believed that “poetry is a keen-edged beacon by which women’s lives — and women’s
consciousness — could be illuminated.” In her career spanning sixty years, Rich wrote about
almost all the significant issues of her times such as feminism, the Vietnam War, Marxism,
imperialism, militarism, sexuality, lesbianism, poverty, racism, etc.

5.2.1 Form and Content of Rich’s Poetry

Rich’s poetry is divided into three stages based on its poetic persona and thematic concerns. In
the earlier poems, the speaker, persona, or protagonists are most often observers; mostly passive
and traditional intellectuals. The focus of these poems is on the narrow representation of society’s
most intimate units; the home and family. The doors and windows in such poems are closed, the
protagonist is skeptical towards development and modernity that are seen as threatening the
traditional world. However, with the passage of time, the characters become more active; they
open doors and windows, challenge traditions, revise our understanding of history, and form new
ways of being in the world. In her later poems, the persona in her poetry becomes more assertive
and attempts to transform the world. “Aware of the social disapprobation they face, women in her
early poems were initially reluctant to leave their place, the home. Only in poems written after
1970 do her women, at last, employ their strength for their own purposes as they break out of their
confinement and prepare to build new lives” argues Stein.

In terms of form as well, one can see a major transformation is Rich’s poetry at various stages of
her writing career. When she started writing poetry, as a college student her stance was apolitical
and she considered politics to be the domain of only old men. During this time, as a reaction to
nineteenth-century Victorianism, modernism was the prevailing cultural trend. Modernism valued
reconciling reason and unreason, intellect and emotion, the levels of the psyche. Its key features
were “paradox (which joins seeming opposites) and ambivalence (the fusing of contradictory
emotions such as love and hate)…. Although the Modernist seeks integration and authenticity, he
or she must also be aware that they will never fully arrive” (Singal 119–120). The novelists such as
James Joyce and Virginia Woolf were producing works that explored characters’
streams-of-consciousness.

Poetry, during this period, was supposed to focus on universals, not the individual. Moreover,
according to the New Critical literary ideology of that time, “close reading” was an appropriate way
to read and analyze poetry. In this way, careful attention was paid to the poem’s form and social,
political, historical, or biographical contexts were perceived as insignificant or unnecessary to
understand a poem. The poet was free-thinking and egotistical. In this context, Rich felt divided
between the seemingly contradictory expectations of the roles for women and the poet because
women were not allowed to choose their careers, especially as creative writers. A critic articulates
the dilemma of Rich while growing up as a poet:
At the start of her career, she struggled to fulfill the assumptions about women’s roles and the
poetic form prevalent in the early 1950s. According to these standards, a woman’s job was to raise
a family, and care for a home, to be the pure, selfless, devoted “Angel in the house” who had been
celebrated in a poem by Victorian poet Coventry Patmore (Challenging Authors 21). However, the
social upheavals of the civil rights movement and the women’s rights movement in the 1960s and
1970s generated new enthusiasm among women writers and Rich too found ways to rethink and
redefine her position. As a result, she set forth bold new visions in her poetry and prose. “As she
broke with traditional ideologies she, like many of her peers, wrote in looser, less tightly structured
forms, her poetics became more personal, her voice more strongly and clearly her own” (21).

5.2.2 Rich’s Position as a Confessional Poet

Confessional poets wrote in direct, colloquial speech rhythms and used images that reflected
intense psychological experiences, often culled from childhood or battles with mental illness or
breakdown. They tended to utilize sequences, emphasizing connections between poems. They
grounded their work in actual events, referred to real persons, and refused any metaphorical
transformation of intimate details into universal symbols. In the 1950s and 1960s, decades
saturated with ‘New Criticism dictates’ that the poet and “speaker” of a poem were never
coincident, confessional poets insisted otherwise. Their breaches in poetic and social decorum
were linked.
In the late 1960s when Rich’s poetry had become more bold, political, and assertive, confessional
poetry was in vogue. Even the subjects of Rich’s poetry became more personal. She had started
using her personal agony, pain, and dilemmas in her poetry which was not the case in her early
poems where she strived to reach universal adopting a neutral stance. So, Rich “came to view
poems themselves as experiences, and felt that to strive for objectivity was to deny and diminish
personal experience” (Gelpi, 1964, 165). In this period, the Beatniks and the confessional poets
had opened poetry up for new subject matter. The early 1950s had seen the rise to prominence of
the Beat Generation that included poets such as Lawrence Ferlinghetti, Gregory Corso, and Allen
Ginsberg, and novelists such as Jack Kerouac and William S. Burroughs.

On the other hand, confessional poets Sylvia Plath, Anne Sexton, and Robert Lowell wrote poetry
that “dealt with subject matter that previously had not been openly discussed in American poetry.
Private experiences with and feelings about death, trauma, depression, and relationships were
addressed in this type of poetry, often in an autobiographical manner” (www.poets.org). There is
no consensus among critics about defining Rich as a confessional poet. Although many critics
labeled her poetry as confessional Rich rejected the label lamenting the intense introspection of
confessional poetry and wrote of those years, “We found ourselves / reduced to I.” Karen F. Stein
writes that “though Rich would soon come to write in a more open poetic form and to include more
personal material, but she never became a confessional poet.”

5.2.3 Adrienne Rich: Early Life and Works

Though she never accepted the label of a confessional poet, Rich’s work and life follow the
famous feminist slogan “personal is political”. As you will read her poems, you will realize that she
explores and reflects upon her lived experiences. Her poems arise from and reflect her life and her
thinking. Thus, we cannot separate her personal life from her work. Therefore, a brief introduction
to the life and works of the poet is provided in this lesson.

Adrienne Rich was born in Baltimore, Maryland on May 16, 1929, into the highly cultured family of
Arnold Rice Rich whose home was suffused with books, poetry, art, and music. She attended
Radcliffe College, graduating in 1951, and was selected by W. H. Auden for the Yale Series of
Younger Poets prize for A Change of World (Yale University Press, 1951) that same year. In 1953,
she married Harvard University economist Alfred H. Conrad. Two years later, she published her
second volume of poetry, The Diamond Cutters (Harper & Brothers, 1955), of which Randall Jarrell
wrote: “The poet [behind these poems] cannot help seeming to us a sort of princess in a fairy tale.”
However, the image of the fairytale princess was not to be long-lived. After having three sons
before the age of thirty, Rich gradually changed both her life and her poetry. Throughout the 1960s
she wrote several collections, including Snapshots of a Daughter-in-Law (Harper & Row, 1963)
and Leaflets (W. W. Norton, 1969). The content of her work became increasingly
confrontational—exploring such themes as women’s role in society, racism, and the Vietnam War.
The style of these poems also revealed a shift from careful metric patterns to free verse. In 1970,
Rich left her husband, who committed suicide later that year. In 1973, amid the feminist and civil
rights movements, the Vietnam War, and her own personal distress, Rich wrote her most famous
work Diving into the Wreck. It is for this collection of exploratory and often angry poems that she
received the prestigious National Book Award in 1974. Rich accepted this award on behalf of all
women and shared it with her fellow nominees, Alice Walker and Audre Lorde.

Rich went on to publish numerous poetry collections, including Tonight No Poetry Will Serve:
Poems 2007-2010 (W.W. Norton & Co., 2010); The School Among the Ruins: Poems 2000-2004
(W. W. Norton, 2004), which won the Book Critics Circle Award; Collected Early Poems:
1950-1970 (W. W. Norton, 1993); An Atlas of the Difficult World: Poems 1988-1991 (W. W. Norton,
1991), a finalist for the National Book Award; and The Dream of a Common Language (W. W.
Norton, 1978). In addition to her poetry, Rich wrote several books of nonfiction prose, including
Arts of the Possible: Essays and Conversations (W. W. Norton, 2001) and What is Found There:
Notebooks on Poetry and Politics (W. W. Norton, 1993). About Rich’s work, the poet W.S. Merwin
has said, “All her life she has been in love with the hope of telling utter truth, and her command of
language from the first has been startlingly powerful.”

Rich received the Bollingen Prize, the Lannan Lifetime Achievement Award, the Academy of
American Poets Fellowship, the Ruth Lilly Poetry Prize, the Lenore Marshall Poetry Prize, the
National Book Award, and a MacArthur Fellowship; she was also a former Chancellor of the
Academy of American Poets. However, in 1997, she refused the National Medal of Arts, stating
that “I could not accept such an award from President Clinton or this White House because the
very meaning of art, as I understand it, is incompatible with the cynical politics of this
administration.” She went on to say: “[Art] means nothing if it simply decorates the dinner table of
the power which holds it hostage.” The same year, Rich was awarded the Academy of American
Poet’s Wallace Stevens Award for outstanding and proven mastery in the art of poetry. She died
on March 27, 2012, at the age of eighty-two. Craig Werner sums up Rich's achievement as a
poet: “As with jazz, the meaning of Rich’s poetry does not lie within the poem, but results from the
call and response between poem and audience. Only the actions of real people testing potential
meanings in their own social worlds can bring the work to life” ( 244).
5.3 “Planetarium”: Summary and Critical Analysis of the Poem
5.3.1 Summary of the Poem
“Collected Poems: 1950-2012 of Adrienne Rich contains and memorializes all of her boldly
political, formally ambitious, thoughtful, and lucid work--the whole of which makes her one of the
most prolific and influential poets of our time” explains the book jacket. In this way, this collection
delineates the evolution of her poetry: as her earliest poems are formally exact and decorous and
her later poetry is radical in both form (free-verse) and content (feminist and political). In this way,
Rich brings issues of gender, race, and class to the forefront of poetical discourse. She boldly
pushes the formal boundaries and consistently examines both self and society in these poems.
The poem “Planetarium” is a part of this collection and can be referred to as a political
commentary on gender-issue.

“Planetarium” is one of the often-quoted poems by Adrienne Rich. It is a feminist poem where Rich
refers to the life of Caroline Herschel and mentions myths about women to establish that women
have always been discriminated against due to their gender. You can find the text of the poem
“Planetarium” from the collection The Collected Poems and can also read it online from the
website Poetry Foundation by using the following link:
<https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/46568/planetarium-56d2267df376c>)

The poem “Planetarium” is written in free verse which is a deliberate break from her earlier poems.
It is a consortium of irregular lines and phrases which are carefully arranged to emphasize the
development of observations and thoughts that create the poem. Rich’s visit to a planetarium (see
Image 1 and 2) was a major prompt for the production of this poem. A planetarium is a
dome-shaped building in which images of stars, planets, and constellations are projected for public
entertainment or education (Oxford Dictionary). It is here that Rich came across and read about
the works of astronomer Caroline Herschel (see glossary). Herschel, the first female scientist,
initially worked with her brother William (who discovered Uranus) and later worked independently.
Image 1 (Inside a planetarium projection hall) (Place: Belgrade Planetarium, Serbia) Picture
Credit: Wikipedia

Image No. 2 Belgrade Planetarium theatre during the "night". (Photo Credit: Wikipedia)

The poem begins with a reference to Caroline Herschel who is identified as an astronomer and
William’s sister; the two signifiers of her identity. At the beginning of her career, she was known
because of her brother, a famous scientist, but later because of her own achievements of
discovering eight comets. It took her ninety-eight years to discover eight comets but she did not
achieve as much fame as she deserved and this is the issue that Rich foregrounds through the
poem. Rich believes that women who subvert the natural order and transcend the societal
boundaries prescribed for the ‘fair’ sex are labeled as ‘monsters’. Therefore, she says that it is not
the plight of Caroline only but of all the women who walked on the same road (not literally but
figuratively).

The opening lines of the poem “A woman in the shape of a monster/ a monster in the shape of a
woman/ the skies are full of them” refer to the constellations and their shapes that are identified
with mythological beings since ancient times. This identification of women with monster shaped
constellations leads Rich to a real woman, Caroline Herschel. The next lines “a woman 'in the
snow/ among the Clocks and instruments/ or measuring the ground with poles', portray her as
working with scientific instruments. Herschel discovered eight comets, informs Rich. Later, in
seven words, Rich deftly points out a kinship among Herschel, herself, and all women: “She whom
the moon ruled/ like us.” The image of Herschel is seen “levitating into the night sky” and “riding”
the lenses is taken from the fact that astronomers often observed planets through the telescope
from cages that were raised high in the air within the observatory.

Rich links the mythological women in the heavens with all women who are serving “penance.” It is
implied that the penance is being demanded by men who created the myths about women and
also named the constellations. The idea of naming constellations is derived from the fact that
history is created and constructed by male writers. therefore, all the stereotypical images of
women are also established and propagated through those historical, literary, and cultural
documents written by male writers. Rich relates the passion and anger and short term fame
experienced by women through an image of “NOVA”; the new star, discovered by Tycho Brahe in
1573 in Cassiopeia (actually a star that, in the final stage of its existence, had expanded to
thousands of times its original size). Rich argues that the accomplishments of women like
Herschel are counted as less significant than the men but they are going to serve as torch-bearer
for other generations of women for years to come. So the life of females such as her is not wasted;
“‘Let me not seem to have lived in vain’”

5.3.2 Critical Analysis of the Poem “Planetarium”

The poem is mainly about the discovery of the true self-worth of women and their awareness of
gender roles as social constructs. Rich begins the poem by referring to Herschel’s life and “her 98
years to discover / 8 comets'” to exhibit how society perceives the achievements of a female.
However, towards the end, the poem becomes a collective discovery of womankind because it
leads to the awakening of women about the male-dominated society’s unjust attitude towards
them.

The reference to monsters and women, at the beginning of the poem, may refer to the
stereotypical images and strict gender roles women are forced into. In this regard, Langdell writes,
“in the earlier centuries in the South decent, well-bred, upper-middle-class women were not
encouraged to have careers- indeed, a woman who tried to work was often deemed monster-an
unfeminine harpy” (100). Rich also wrote in Of Woman Born that “when she grew to young
womanhood, middle-class women were supposed to be the Victorian Angel in the House, and also
do all the home decorating, entertaining, housework, cooking, cleaning, and childcare (OWB 27).
Similarly, Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar criticize such conventional roles of women either as
Angel in the house or as the madwoman in the attic (“Mad Woman in the Attic”). Therefore, when
a woman does not conform to the cultural roles assigned to her, she is labeled as a ‘monster’ or
‘mad’. However, a woman writer is “scarcely less offensive...than monsters” (Edgeworth 106). To
put it in other words, a woman is considered dangerous to society when she refuses to submit to
its standards.

The roots of the term monster can be traced back to Greek mythology in which several strong,
assertive, and bold women are portrayed in a negative light. One can refer to women such as
Medusa, Sirens, and Scylla. Medusa, once a beautiful, avowed priestess of Athena, was cursed
for breaking her vow of celibacy. She was turned into a monster with venomous snakes in place of
hair and her look would turn any man into stone. Sirens are described in Greek mythology as
dangerous creatures; bird-women who would lure men with their melodious voice and hidden
knowledge. Scylla is another legendary monster in Greek mythology who lived on one side of a
narrow channel of water. Ships who sailed too close to her rocks would lose six men to her
ravenous, darting heads. In the present context, the intellectual women are labeled as “monsters”
because of their capability to think and express themselves freely, argues Rich.

In the poem, the moon is also a mythical reference used by the poet. Rich writes: “she whom the
moon ruled/ like us/ levitating into the night sky.” In Greek mythology, the moon is associated with
love and unattainable beauty. Since it changes its size, it is considered as a symbol of time,
change, and repetitive cycles such as birth and death or creation and destruction. Therefore, the
term ruled by moon refers to feminine tendencies i.e. emotional and sentimental nature of women.
It is also the symbol of fertility which is a characteristic of women. Moreover, it is also a feminine
archetype in Jungian terms:
Luna is primarily a reflection of a man's unconscious femininity, but she is also the principle
of the feminine psyche, in the sense that Sol is the principle of a man's. ..... If, then, Luna
 characterizes the feminine psyche and Sol the masculine...a woman's "consciousness has
a lunar rather than a solar character. (Jung 179)

In this way, she relates Herschel’s experience to that of all the women. Her story represents the
story of every woman. So the evolution of the poem is from specific to general. By citing the case
of one woman in history, Rich is trying to make a case for women suppressed, oppressed, and
marginalized on various grounds.

Thereafter, Rich mentions an eye that can see the NOVA (a star that suddenly spreads intensive
light and then fades) and poses as the sixteen-century astronomer, Tycho, the builder of Uranus
Borg. She lets him “whisper” her success to the other people. By comparing her with Nova, Rich
seems to assure Caroline Herschel that although her names or deeds are or will be forgotten, her
achievements as a scientist will not go in vain. Just like NOVA, she has shone for some time, but
she is doomed to get lost in obscurity because she is a woman. The point that Rich makes is that
the accomplishments by women other than creating home and family are deliberately ignored and
are not recorded in history. So no matter what she does, the poet or the persona in the poem will
also not be remembered.

Rich refers to the constellation Taurus which commemorates the god Zeus to juxtapose it with the
feminine moon. Zeus is also known as the lord of the sky. He is said to have created the world
through light, blood, and radio waves. Therefore, Taurus and (indirectly) Zeus are marked as
symbols of patriarchy and everything related to masculinity. The phrase “The battery of signals”
refers to the discourse of male superiority which she defines as the ‘male code’ she has to
encounter all through her life. Though she cannot assign meaning to such codes (the codes may
indicate to the language and discourse that are created by male-dominated society) but can try to
stand against them i.e. she will try to resist the narrative of male superiority. Furthermore, Rich
refers to herself as a “galactic cloud so deep” because as a poet she has many creative ideas on
her mind ready to pour like rain. She does not say “I am a woman,” but she prioritizes her role as a
poet by referring to herself as “an instrument in the shape of a woman.” Rich wants her poetry to
“translate and re-interpret the waves into images which would help relieve the body and the mind
of a woman from the trap of false identification of female with fearful monster” (Shukla 58). “The
reason why she chooses an astronomical sphere for her poem might be the limitlessness of the
space. She tries to get rid of all the heavenly boundaries in order to set a true identity for herself.”

Despite all the limitations Rich recounts in the poem, she is hopeful. It is indicated in the lines
“what we see, we see and seeing is changing.” She is hopeful that the roles of women may
change in the future. Her idea about the changing role of women may be supported by various
theories of identity on how the identity of people is constructed. For instance: Foucault claims that
identity is “permanently inscribed by power relations and discourse and totally imprinted by
history,” (Grosz, 1994: 146). Judith Butler suggests that identity and “gender intersects with racial,
class, ethnic, sexual and regional modalities of discursively constituted identities” (1990:3). It
becomes impossible to separate gender from the political and cultural intersections in which it is
invariably produced and maintained.

In this context, Helen Cixous’ motivation for women writers may be cited:

Write, let no one hold you back, let nothing stop you: not man; not the imbecilic capitalist
machinery, in which publishing houses are the crafty, obsequious relayers of imperatives
handed down by an economy that works against us and off our backs; and not yourself.
Smug-faced readers, managing editors, and big bosses don't like the true texts of
women-female-sexed texts. (1976: 877)

It can be said that myths are the productions of the collective unconscious in Jungian terms. The
names or the contents might vary but the domain they are used and the connotations they present
are nearly the same for everyone all around the world. This study has handled one of these
common myths in Adrienne Rich's poem Planetarium. It is possible to infer that mythical female
figures have been and are in an ongoing fight against patriarchal standards. Since being
successful and accomplishing are seen as the rights for males, the intellectual female figures
stand for the strive for gaining what males already have.

Self-Assessment Questions:
1. Who was Caroline Herschel?
2. What is Planetarium?
3. What does a NOVA refer to in the poem?
4. What does the phrase “monster in the shape of a woman,” mean?

5.4 Summary
After reading this lesson, you have learned that the poem “Planetarium” is about the degree of
sorrow in which women have been treated in history. She attacks the social exploitation of women
by the men to station his carnal craving. Women are nearly instruments to relax them when they
are worn out and need change. They approach women to get their desires fulfilled and are least
concerned about their feelings and expectations. The astronomer Caroline Herschel is celebrated
in Rich's “Planetarium” for being an astronomer in her own right. Caroline Herschel used her
scientific talents to discover new places in space, eight comets, to be exact. Rich employs her
language talents to discover “new space within language and on the borders of patriarchy” (“When
We Dead Awaken” 49).

5.5 References
Karen F. Stein. Adrienne Rich: Challenging Authors. Sense Publishers, 2017

Ratcliffe, Krista. Anglo-American Feminist Challenges to the Rhetorical Traditions: Virginia Woolf,
Mary Daly, Adrienne Rich. Southern Illinois University Press, 1996

Jessica McCort. Getting Out of Wonderland: Elizabeth Bishop, Sylvia Plath, Adrienne Rich, and
Anne Sexton. Washington University in St. Louis, 2009.

Allison Carey. Self-Transformation: Images of Domesticity in the Poetry of Sylvia Plath and
Adrienne Rich. University of Tennessee, Knoxville, 1991.

Christopher Beach. The Cambridge Introduction to Twentieth-Century American Poetry.

Cambridge University Press, 2003.

5.6 Further Readings

Bakalarsaka Prace. Poetry of Adrienne Rich: The Sources of Female Power. Volha Lolita
Karpenka, Prague, 2009.
Kristin Lynn Stoner. Daughters, sisters, and mothers: the poetry of Adrienne Rich and the next
generation of female American poetics in the poetry of Kristin Stoner. Iowa State University Ames,
Iowa 2003.

Andrea O’Reilly. From Motherhood to Mothering: The Legacy of Adrienne Rich’s Of Woman Born.
State University of New York, 2004.

5.7 Model Questions

1. Where would you place Adrienne Rich’s poetry in the debate of feminist theories? Does she
belong to the feminist or female phase of women’s writing?
2. Confession is the ready stuff of poetry. Discuss Adrienne Rich’s poetry in the light of this
statement.
 L. No. 6

Analysis of Rich’s “Cartographies of Silence” and

“Stepping Backward”

Structure

6.0 Objectives

6.1 Introduction

6.2 “Cartographies of Silence”: Summary and Analysis

6.2.1 Summary of the Poem

6.2.2 Critical Analysis of the Poem

6.3 “Stepping Backward”: Summary and Analysis

6.3.1 Summary of the Poem

6.3.2 Critical Analysis of the Poem

6.4 Rich’s Views on Language and Art

6.5 Summary

6.6 References

6.7 Further Readings

6.8 Model Questions

6.0 Objectives

After reading this lesson, you will be able to:

● understand and analyze the poem “Cartographies of Silence”

● understand and analyze the poem “Stepping Backward”

● discuss Rich’s views on Language and Art

● describe the thematic concerns of the poems

 ● evaluate Rich’s stance as a feminist poet/writer

6.1 Introduction

Dear students, in the previous section, you have studied various personal factors that made way
for Rich’s strong political position. You have also read about Rich’s position as a feminist writer. It
was established through the reading and analysis of her poem “Planetarium” as well. Her stand
against the patriarchal structure is unwavering and undaunted. She firmly foregrounds the
problems faced by women and lesbians and boldly reacts to the oppressive system of society that
systematically controls the life of a woman through social, cultural, and political forces. In this
lesson, you are going to study two more beautiful poems by Rich. The analysis and criticism of the
prescribed poems will equip you to read, evaluate, and discuss more poems by Rich. It will also
enable you to evaluate Rich’s position as a feminist poet. It will also enable you to discuss Rich’s
view on language and art.

6.2 “Cartographies of Silence”: Summary and Analysis

6.2.1 Summary of the Poem “Cartographies of Silence”

The poem “Cartographies of Silence" is reprinted from The Dream of a Common Language-
Poems (1974-1977). It describes a love marred by a psychological separation, and a lover’s
refusal to speak openly. The poem questions the powers of language and poetry while working out
problems caused by silence. The speaker is frustrated by her lover’s silence and longs for poetry
that would be powerful enough to compel a response from him/her. But of course, a poem cannot
be a tool to force a confrontation. The speaker comes to a realization that one cannot break the
lover’s silence without her consent and without her willingness to speak. The poet realizes that
language has limits but has powers as well. Language, the poet concludes, allows for freely
chosen communication at brief, surprising intervals.

The poem highlights that silence on the part of women should not be confused with their absence.
If they are silent that does not mean they do not exist. They have a voice of their own. But through
social conditioning women are always taught to remain silent about even the core issues of their
lives. However, she does not specify the reasons behind the silence in the poem. She also argues
that silence is ‘presence’ it has a ‘history’, and a ‘form’. That is to say, history attests to the fact
that women have always been marginalized and treated as secondary to men. But it can also be
seen as a strategy devised by women to “survive in a hostile environment”. In this way, it becomes
the “blueprint of life.”
Rich’s poem indicates that social and cultural conditions are responsible for the silence women
keep on certain issues. For example, lesbians have to hide their love for each other because it is
considered a social stigma. The analysis of the history of silence represents that silence of
women or lesbians is not an innocent act; it is a carefully constructed phenomenon. Women are
bludgeoned to play male-scripted subordinate roles and the patriarchal system discourages
women from articulating their suffering. They are discouraged from reporting crimes against
themselves. If a woman tries to transcend her boundaries, she is labeled as a low-woman, whore,
or crazy. This idea is also represented by the poem Planetarium”.

To give voice to the silent subjects, Rich asserts that we have to break age-old rituals and
etiquettes attached to it. For instance, in George Eliot’s novel Mill on the Floss, the protagonist
Maggie Tulliver is trained to behave like a lady; she is forced to keep her clothes prim and proper,
sit decently, to speak in a low tone and not to indulge in aggressive activities meant only for men.
That is to say, women are always expected to behave in a prescribed way. They cannot choose to
define their own identity. Any woman who dares to be different is stigmatized and faces social
alienation. Therefore, Rich hints towards certain demands forced on a woman’s behavior. Virginia
Woolf in “Room of One’s Own” also indicates biased treatment to women even by educational
institutes. However, Rich mentions that the silence of a particular group (in this case women)
means the presence. By the term, silence is not absence Rich means that if women or lesbians
are not raising their voice against the oppression, it does not mean that they will never do. They
have their own history and maybe their own speech or language which cannot be understood by
the others.

Rich’s poem further indicates that to maintain silence women are trained to use pretense. She
talks about the secrets women have to keep and lies they have to tell, due to various kinds of
prejudices in society. For instance, women use make-up products to hide their blemishes and to
look fairer as some kind of stigma is attached to their body type and skin color. Hence, the lives of
women are defined by lies and silence imposed on them by others.

6.2.2 Critical Analysis of the Poem “Cartographies of Silence”

In 1975, the year in which she wrote “Cartographies of Silence” Rich also wrote a prose poem
“Women and Honor: Some Notes on Lying” (Lies) which helps in contextualizing the poem “The
Cartographies of Silence”. She described the poem as an attempt to become more honest and to
understand the damage that dishonesty has caused in women’s relationships (Lies, p. 186).
Similarly, the poem “Cartographies of Silence” asserts that truthfulness is a requisite for any
intimate relationship. According to Rich, women need to be truthful because they have always
been encouraged to lie, to cover up, and to transform their bodies by following fashion’s dictates
that demand corsets, make-up, body modifications, and hair treatments. In “Some Notes on Lying”
Rich enlists the ways women lie and then puts forth her hope that women in the future may be
more honest, open, and honorable (Lies, pp. 188–189). Such values, Rich thinks, will empower
women to act together in the world, to formulate a shared language, and to build intimate
relationships.

Adrienne Rich understood silences that proceed from a woman’s conditioning, particularly such
silences preserve a marriage. In general, Rich pays close attention to what goes unsaid by lies,
secrets, and silences. In another poem “Unsaid Word”, she brings out a similar theme, she
outlines the position of a wife as it was seen in the times when the poem was written. She shows
things expected from the wife and the difficulty of fulfilling these expectations. The woman, in the
poem, always has to be there for her husband; she cannot leave or choose her own way. If he
leaves, she can call him to come back to her but never on her own terms: “She who has power to
call her man/ From that estranged intensity/ Where his mind forages alone” should not risk this
power by saying anything to him about having left her alone, by reproaching him, by stating her
own will. She has to keep “her peace” and leave “him free” and be always available. The “unsaid
word” is the woman’s “I want”.

“Cartographies of Silence” depicts a lover marred by psychological separation from her beloved as
the latter refuses to speak openly. The speaker is frustrated by her lover’s silence and she longs
for poetry that would be able to compel her response. But, she realizes that a poem cannot be a
tool to force a confrontation. It makes her conclude that one cannot break the lover’s silence
without her consent and willingness. While working out problems caused by silence, the poem
questions the powers of language and poetry. The poet realizes that language has limits but has
powers as well. Language allows for freely chosen communication at brief, surprising intervals:

"[The inner voice to] a poet, a verbal kind of person, is constantly talking to himself, inside
of himself, constantly approximating and evaluating and trying to grasp his experience in
words." (Denise Levertov; Minnesota Review, 1965).

In “Cartographies of Silence,” Rich analyses the meaning of silence and also depicts various
responses to the meaning of silence. She refers to two different kinds of silence: the silence
between two people in a conversation, and the silence experienced by a poet while creating a
poem. The reasons behind both kinds of silence may vary; the lover may be silent due to the
social stigma attached to the idea of love as Rich proposes in the poem with reference to the
lesbian relationship where it can be a carefully devised strategy: “Silence can be a plan/ rigorously
executed.” However, a poem, “can be torn up,” when begun “with a lie,” but the same cannot be
done with a conversation.
Silence is a frequently used word by Rich. In Lies, Secrets, and Silence, Rich argues “The entire
history of women’s struggle for self-determination has been muffled in silence over and over” (11).
Rich also claims that over the past forty years women have been talking together much more;
discussing secrets and have broken down taboos and shattered silences. In The Fact of a
Doorframe Rich expresses her concern for women who have been silenced:

In writing poetry I have known both came happiness and the worst fear-that the world
cannot be broken down that these words will fail to enter another soul. Over the years it has
seemed to me just that-the desire to be heard, to resound in another soul-that is the
impulse behind writing poems, for me. Increasingly this has meant hearing and listening to
others, taking into myself the language of experience different from my own-whether in
written words, or the rush and ebb of broken but stubborn conversations. I have been
changed, my poems have changed, through this process, and it continues. (xv-xvi)

Rich’s desire to “resound in another’s soul that is the impulse behind writing poems, for me”
expresses her wish to show her empathy for those people in society who are marginalized
because of their color, gender, sexual preference, social-economic status, or whatever. She wants
her poems to be heard and to have any effect on people, particularly on women, to encourage
them to change. Therefore this is an emotional empathy for others. She is advocating change for
disadvantaged groups in society and as such her empathy is a power that fully comprehends the
plight of others. It can be argued that her empathy has a cognitive element. As Yorke claims, Rich
encourages women to forsake their silence and to listen not only to the voices of other women but
also to their own voices. Rich also uses the word “impulses” they are what impel her to write
poetry. On the whole, much of Rich’s motivation is to bring about change in the lives of her
readers. This is similar to what Rich expresses in “Planetarium” when she talks about pulsations.
She says:

I have been standing on my life in the

direct part of a battery of signals

the most accurately transmitted most

untranslatable language in the universe

I am an instrument in the shape

of a woman trying to translate pulsations

into the images for the relief of the body

 and the reconstruction of the mind.

Rich mentions in one of her works, that “Lying is done with words and also with silence” (81).
Similarly, in “The Cartographies of Silence” Rich explores both the possibilities; lying with words,
and with silence. Rich was trying to say that people choose to remain silent about tabooed
subjects and issues that are considered controversial in society. In the poem “Frame” the silence
is the silence of suppression, a stifling rather than a noiseless silence:

….I understand at once,

it is meant to be in silence that this happens

in silence that he pushes her into the car

banging her head in silence that she cries out (“Frame”)

A critic, Liz Yorke believes that Rich in her works considers many women in history and mythology
who because of their gender were never given full recognition- women such as Boadicea, de
Beauvoir, Dickinson, Wollstonecraft, and even Caroline Herschel (mentioned in “Planetarium”).

The images of silence pervade much of Rich’s writings. In the context of the poem, “The
Cartographies of Silence” silence can also be understood as a response or a non-response to that
which is overwhelming or ambivalent. It is something that she mentions in the poem when she
says that silence should not be confused with absence because it can be a deliberate or well-
informed strategy as well. At the same time, she wants to get across to the reader that silence is
not always golden by emphasizing silence as a negative concept in her imagery. In this context,
Yorke writes that Rich wanted to encourage women to listen to their own voices and those of the
other women and to abandon their traditional silences. She not only exhorts women to listen to
each other but to listen to men. It would appear that Rich is emphasizing the importance of the
content and the subject matter of poetry and the practical and beneficial purpose it can serve in
our lives and relationships over the form and structure of poetry. She wanted women to break their
silence on the tabooed subjects. In this way, she is showing us an ambiguous response towards
silence; in which silence is considered a positive response to a situation and also evaluates
several instances where it has negative connotations.

The other two major themes of the poem “Cartographies of Silence” are, love and home. To attain
intimacy, Rich finds it necessary that even the notion of love must be transformed. Too often, for
women love has meant self-sacrifice, escape, or an obsession. And for lesbians like Rich love has
often compelled secrecy and silence. In contrast, she now believes that love must heal self-
division, fusing the “relating”/“creating” dichotomy which tore her apart when she feared that
motherhood and poetry were incompatible (82). Her transformed idea of love is further developed
in the collection The Dream of a Common Language which contains love poems, celebrations of
women, the famous women recorded in history, and the “common women” who have shaped –
and are shaping – unwritten history.

6.3 “Stepping Backward”: Summary and Analysis

6.3.1 Summary of the Poem “Stepping Backward”

Like many of Rich’s poems “Stepping Backward” is about investigating her identity as a woman.
According to some critics, it deals with breaking off a close female relationship but some view it as
a poem about lack of communication between humans, especially between lovers. Despite being
so close to each other, they remain unaware of each other’s reality or real shelves. The poem also
seems to challenge the biased attitude of society towards certain groups such as women, lesbian,
and gay. She criticizes the idea of a unique identity in which women are put in order to control
them. They are addressed as pure, innocent, feminine, and fragile by men. And by calling them
their men provide a unique identity to each woman by making her belong to him. She also seems
to argue in the poem that her choices for a lover should be questioned and should not be anyone’s
business. Therefore, the poem means many things, and the different critics have interpreted it
differently. In this lesson, we will try to look at each of these aspects closely.

6.3.2 Critical Analysis of the Poem “Stepping Backward”

Rich, in her poetry, presented what was the hardest obstacle and the crucial moment for every
woman who wanted to re-establish her identity in the masculine world. According to her, it was
essential that women begin to explore their cultural and sexual identities even at the cost of
rebellion. It was essential not to cease questioning the irreproachability of old patriarchal dogma.
Every woman had to begin a struggle not only against the conventions within the society and the
myth of a “special woman”, (what Rich refers to as unique in “Stepping Backward”) but also
against the wrong, imposed, and unnatural views and perceptions each woman had resided in
herself. Women had to stop being “lost nouns” and “verbs surviving in the infinitive only,” they had
to write their own plays and perform themselves on the illuminated stage. Denying the “dead
language” and the distorted image of women presented in plays written by the sexists, women had
to create their own image of themselves, but a fresh one, more authentic and innate. Thus, such
concepts as knowledge and self-exploration became a driving force and the source of power for
many women.
The poem “Stepping Backward” begins abruptly when the speaker bids farewell to someone close
to her. But this goodbye seems strange as the speaker may meet this person tomorrow or next
year and maybe when she is fifty years old. So this farewell is not forever. It refers to temporarily
going away from each other only to meet again. Rich seems to be hinting at looking at her
relationship, or any relationship so to say, from a distance or taking a break for some time in order
to retrospect on it afresh. Some critics also hint that it is a poem about her breaking off with a
close female friend/lover. For Rich herself, having a female lover was simply the fulfillment of a
desire that had lain dormant through the decades of her frustrating marriage: “The suppressed
lesbian I had been carrying in me since adolescence began to stretch her limbs,” she wrote.
Therefore, the poem “Stepping Backward” is Rich’s contemplation over her identity as a woman.
She challenges society’s attitude towards the choices a woman makes in her personal life
especially about choosing her love interest.

However, the poem should not be understood as Rich’s declaration of her lesbian identity. As
Claire Keyes pointed out, Rich’s poems “are extraordinary not simply because they declare one
woman's love for another woman, but because they transcend sex. The poems are not narrowed
by the focus on lesbian love but expanded” (61). Indeed, Rich’s love is raised above mere
physicality, because the connection between lovers is based on far more than just physical
attraction. Similarly, in Stepping Backward, Rich seems to hint at the lack of communication
between people or the lies they tell each other, and the secrets they keep despite being in a
relationship.

The speaker further argues that we are able to look at things and people objectively or in a
detached manner when we lose them. She addresses an unknown listener (probably a female
lover), that she would have been able to think about her objectively that is her good deeds and
flaws if she were away for some time; gone to a faraway country.

If you were dead or gone to live in China

The event might draw your stature in my mind.

I should be forced to look upon you whole

The way we look upon the things we lose.

She then questions how often we let our true identity reveal. We hardly let people know about our
personal life, especially about things considered taboo in society. People try to mask their feelings
due to fear of social ostracisation. This is something that probably dissuades the lovers from
meeting each other openly and expressing their love, according to the poet.
How far dare we throw off the daily ruse,

Official treacheries of face and name,

Have out our true identity?

The speaker says that she had no answer to these questions a few years back but she is now
ready with an answer. The poem answers that our true selves can only be displayed when we
abandon self-consciousness and reserve. She says that “We are a small and lonely human race/
Showing no sign of mastering solitude. Rich means to say that humans cannot survive alone.
They need each other’s company to survive on this stony planet.

When Rich states, “They’re luckiest who know they’re not unique,” she follows by saying, “But only
art or common interchange / Can teach that kindest truth.” She emphasizes that art reminds us
that we aren’t special—or, put another way, that we aren’t alone. It is through “common
interchange” i.e. conversation/communication that we can get to know each other. Moreover, when
we will be able to accept the flaws in others and have compassion for each other’s “blunders and
blind mischances,” we will be able to truly see each other. These lines make sense of the opening
lines of the poem; she wants to make a ceremony of her leave-taking so that she can see the
lover/friend (referred to as “you” in the poem) entirely, the way we do when we are leaving
someone behind, “because we live by inches/ and only sometimes see the full dimension.” To see
the entirety is something else that art can teach us. Rich tried to answer the question of “Stepping
Backward” about how to “have out our true identity” over the decades, refining her answer, finding
more questions. This is solace, too: the art we love remains both static, in that it’s always available
to us, and changeable—throughout the artist’s life, and over the course of our own. About the idea
of uniqueness, Rich writes that the woman most men write about still proves the myth of being
“special”, and traditionally is depicted as pure, distant, and almost artificial. Neruda, for instance,
frequently uses such phrases as “absent eyes”, “flown away eyes”, “distant female”, “I like for you
to be still”, or “distant and full of sorrow as though you had died.” His woman is a perfect portrait, a
beautiful memory, a dream-like nymph - everything but the reality. Rich states that women have to
transcend this image of a woman created by men and have to come to terms with the truth
forgetting the mythical, magical, and unrealistic picture of a woman.

In the next stanza, Rich seems to be hunting at the new world she imagines to bring, a world
where people could be more truthful to each other; where they could talk to each other more
openly:
Perhaps the harshest fact is, only lovers–

And once in a while two with the grace of lovers–

Unlearn that clumsiness of rare intrusion

And let each other freely come and go.

Most of us shut too quickly into cupboards

The margin-scribbled books, the dried geranium,

The penny horoscope, letters never mailed.

Rich was constantly aware that there are subjects people were afraid to discuss. Some groups
such as lesbians, gay, and Jews were marginalized and people rarely raised their voice against
crimes towards these groups. In another poem, Rich uses a phrase to hint at the tabooed
subjects: “no one has imagined us.” According to Adrian Oktenberg, the author of Disloyal to
Civilization: The Twenty-One Love Poems of Adrienne Rich the meaning Rich gave to the phrase
“no one has imagined us” is the following: She [Rich] means that no man, no work of literature, no
member of a patriarchal culture has taken into account the possibility of two women together,
loving each other, and of this as an embryonic beginning of something new, perhaps even a
woman-centered civilization (65).

Adrian Oktenberg also suggests that, of course, there can be other interpretations of this
expression, yet the important thing is that with the phrase "no one has imagined us" (The Dream
of a Common Language) Rich emphasizes the fact that her characters are not the products of
someone's imagination (even her own). In other words, they are not fictional characters but real
people. Indeed, the life they lead and the decisions they make have the power to affect the history
of the contemporary world, “the world of pain and struggle, life and death.” Therefore, their
existence cannot be ignored for a long time. But sooner or later it has to be acknowledged and
respected. However, as society seems to be hardly ready for such an innovation, many things that
are natural for gay people still face a rather prejudicial attitude and various sorts of discrimination.
Thus by urging people to leave futile conversations, she wants them to accept people as they are
and shed their prejudices against the marginalized groups.

Gay and lesbian relationships are considered a threat to society as they undermine the traditional
values that society has been creating for centuries. It is difficult for any such couple, to live in a
patriarchal society. It is rather uncomfortable, if not impossible. Gay relationships still shock the
majority of people, and the conduct and lifestyle of people with unorthodox sexual orientation
(homo and bisexual) undermine the traditional values that society has been creating for centuries.
In her essay “Compulsory Heterosexuality and Lesbian Existence” Rich argues that
heterosexuality or at least the “normality” or “necessity” of heterosexuality keeps many women
trapped in the net of double standards and artificial conventions, while “lesbian existence
comprises both the breaking of a taboo and the rejection of a compulsory way of life” (69).
Historically, Rich argues, lesbians were stigmatized and the records of their existence were mostly
erased or distorted (70). In comparison to the history of male homosexuals, homosexual women
were always put at the lowest possible level of society due to their lack of economic and political
independence. Even the term “lesbian” was allied to a distorted patriarchal definition, and
therefore it was limited only to the erotic associations, which excluded female comradeship and
friendship (71). The essay claims that established and standardized heterosexuality limits the
possibilities of women and prevents them from discovering their true identities.

According to Rich, women without an acute feeling of their own identity can be easily manipulated
and used in patriarchy, whereas while armed with such a feeling they would present strong
opposition to the ruling class. A woman with a strong sense of identity, of course, presents a
certain danger for those at the helm, therefore they deliberately try to preserve the dogmatic
arrangement and avoid any changes. Rich claims that the whole idea of heterosexuality is
erroneous and established to serve men's interests; it distorts the reality and history to such an
extent that women accept this fabrication with no suspicion. In the essay, Rich compares the
heterosexual orientation with a political institution, which helps to deceive women and
camouflages their possibilities:

Woman identification is a source of energy, a potential springhead of female power,

curtailed and contained under the institution of heterosexuality. The denial of reality and
visibility to women's passion for each other, women's choice of women as allies, life
companions, and community, the forcing of such relationships into dissimulation and their
disintegration under intense pressure have meant an incalculable loss to power of all
women to change the social relations of the sexes, to liberate ourselves and each other.
(72)

With poem XIV from the love sequence, Rich tries to destroy the stereotype, showing a gay
couple’s routine surrounded by heterosexual couples. In the poem, everybody is cooped into a
claustrophobic space of a cabin and tries to calm down by touching the other’s hands. The act of
touching is the core of this poem: the honeymoon couples touch each other to soothe the pain,
while the same thing happens between two lesbian lovers:

(XIV)

In the close cabin where the honeymoon couples

huddled in each other's laps and arms

I put my hand on your thigh

to comfort both of us, your hand came over mine,

we stayed that way, suffering together

in our bodies, as if all suffering

were physical, we touched so in the presence

of strangers who knew nothing and cared less

vomiting their private pain as if all suffering were physical. (73)

The physical connection ("I put my hand on your thigh", "your hand came over mine"), and the
presence of the beloved comforts while one goes through some unpleasant experience. The
parallel between the gay couple and the honeymoon couples makes it obvious that on the surface,
the relationships are different, but as a matter of fact, they are almost identical if based on
compassion, helping, and staying together despite all difficulties. This is what, makes Rich
comment in the poem “Stepping Backward” :

Two-edged discovery hunts us finally down;

The human act will make us real again,

And then perhaps we come to know each other.

She emphasizes that a lesbian or gay relationship is as normal as any heterosexual relationship.
All the relationships are identical, same and this is the revelation the speaker in the poem finally
has when she refers to “human act” i.e. compassion and kindness for each human being
irrespective of their gender. Love she seems to say of every kind is the same, therefore, it should
not be judged as something different or unnatural or anti-social.

The speaker in the poem also says that we should not look for everything perfect, flawless, or
platonic as no such thing exists. It is our imperfection that makes us human. It can be interpreted
that Rich urges the love to shun lies, secret, and pretense, and rather asks her to feel complete in
her imperfection as it is “the flaws that make you both yourself and human.” At the same time,
Rich seems to indicate, women need to be truthful because they have always been encouraged to
lie, to cover up, and to transform their bodies by following fashion’s dictates that demand corsets,
make-up, body modifications, and hair treatments. In “Some Notes on Lying” Rich enlists the ways
women lie and then puts forth her hope that women in the future may be more honest, open, and
honorable (Lies, pp. 188–189). Such values, Rich thinks, will empower women to act together in
the world, to formulate a shared language, and to build intimate relationships. These lines indicate
a new attitude that women must adopt:

Seeking the garden where all fruit is flawless,

We must at last renounce that ultimate blue

And take a walk in other kinds of weather.

The sourest apple makes its wry announcement

That imperfection has a certain tang.

6.4 Rich’s Views on Language and Art

“The limits of my language mean the limits of my world” stated the language philosopher Ludwig
Wittgenstein. Indeed, language defines personal identity and frames the limits of this identity.
Willard Spiegelman in his essay “Driving to the Limits of the City of Words: The Poetry of Adrienne
Rich” claims that it is important to explore one’s language in order to define one’s distinctiveness;
however, any poet should remember that together with the exploration of language there is a risk
of “entrapment within it because it offers itself as both maze and salvation.” Like a dancer who can
be completely dissolved in the impulses of his or her body movement, driven by rhythm to the
state of trance, a poet can dissolve in the city of language and lose his or her personality without a
reliable guide, a map, or, in other words, a tradition. An old map is drawn by men and for men,
therefore women can hardly look for guidance there. “Rich wishes to discover in language a map
not only for herself but also for the larger community - often a community of women, sometimes
one that includes both sexes - of which she is a part.” A new map for a woman should be a valid
reflection of her own perception of life, of her own experiences; only in this case maze will be
transformed into salvation.

No matter how challenging the journey of finding a unique means of expression may be for a
woman, woman’s language, or, more precisely, typical ways of self-expression, can present an
unfailing source of female power. Women can confidently use their language without hesitation
and fear of borrowing or stealing men’s property; moreover, women do not have to pretend to be
“special” anymore, they can simply enjoy being themselves. Rich’s poem “Aunt Jennifer’s Tigers”
written in 1951, discusses this particular topic: a woman with a command of her language (art)
defines herself through her language (art), and also defines her relationships with the masculine
world:

Aunt Jennifer's Tigers prance across a screen, Bright topaz denizens of a world of green.
They do not fear the men beneath the tree; they pace in sleek chivalric certainty. Aunt
Jennifer's finger fluttering through her wool, find even the ivory needle hard to pull. The
massive weight of Uncle's wedding band sits heavily upon Aunt Jennifer’s hand.

When Aunt is dead, her terrified hands will lie still ringed with ordeals she was mastered by. The
tigers in the panel that she made will go on prancing, proud, and unafraid. Despite living in a
situation of palpable domination by her spouse, expressed by “The massive weight of Uncle's
wedding band! Sits heavily upon Aunt Jennifer's hand”, the unfailing creativity of the poem's
protagonist and her art seem to be amaranthine and stronger than any kind of oppression. As
Thomas Byars pointed out in one of his essays, “tigers display the values that Aunt Jennifer must
repress or displace in her daily behavior: strength, assertion, fearlessness, the fluidity of motion.” It
also shows the connection between the lines “The tigers in the panel that she made/ Will go on
prancing, proud and unafraid”, and an old Latin proverb “vita brevis, ars longa”, meaning “life is
short, art is eternal.” Indeed, the “tigers” may also be a metaphor for words, musical notes, dance
moves or pictures; in other words, art expressions, which remain present even when their creators
are gone and forgotten. With her own tiger, the poem, Rich proves the perpetuity of poetry, also
suggesting that “art is a vehicle for personal immortality”.

According to Rich, the problem of female artists of her time was the impossibility to combine the
fulfilling of the traditional female roles with the fruitful process of creation because, as is commonly
believed, art requires freedom, both physical and emotional, as well as freedom of the imagination.
As Rich mentions in one of her essays, “... to be a female human being trying to fulfill traditional
female functions in a traditional way is in direct conflict with the subversive function of the
imagination.”

For many, the revelation that she was a lesbian came as a shock. However, the critics believe that
the observant readers of Rich’s poetry could see that “Stepping Backward” had dealt with breaking
off a close female relationship. Rich herself confessed it in many of her works. In many ways, the
re-emergence of her true sexuality was as much a political choice as it was a personal imperative:
“There was so much being questioned, so much up for grabs,” she says, "I don't think the phrase
“lifestyle” was even being used. There was a women’s movement, in which arts were exploding
along with politics. It wasn't as simple as falling in love - though falling in love always helps.”

The impact of this personal, political, and sexual revolution in Rich's life was immediately
evident in her work, firstly in The Will To Change (1971). One of the most powerful poems in the
collection, “Planetarium”, celebrates Caroline Herschel, the 18th- and 19th-century astronomer
whose life and work was overshadowed by her brother William. Equally impressive is “The
Burning of Paper Instead of Children”, a complex prose/verse poem that manages to tackle
themes of pacifism, patriarchy, and the artificiality of a life refracted through books: “I know it
hurts to burn. The typewriter is overheated, my mouth is burning. I cannot touch you and this is
the oppressor's language.”

Self-Assessment Questions:
1. What is the theme of the poem “Cartographies of Silence”?
2. What is the meaning of the phrase, “Silence is not absent?”
3. What is the basic idea of the poem “Stepping Backward”?
4. Elaborate: The human act will make us real again,/And then perhaps we
come to know each other.

6.5 Summary

In this lesson, you have read an analysis of two of Rich’s poems. The summary and analysis of
the poems will help you to understand and evaluate Rich’s position as a feminist poet as both the
poems deal with this theme. In the “Cartographies of Silence”, she criticizes the silence women
are supposed to keep in a man-woman relationship. She blames the patriarchal dogmas for
perpetuating such a subsidiary position of women. She differentiates between various kinds of
silence. On the other hand, in Stepping Backward, she pleads for an equal, democratic world
order in which humans are kind and caring to each other forgetting prejudices people have for
groups such as gay, lesbians, or Jews. Apart from this, you have read Rich’s views on language
and art.

6.6 References

Myriam Diaz-Diocaretz. Translating Poetic Discourse: Questions on Feminist Strategies in

Adrienne Rich. John Benjamins Publishing Company, Amsterdam/Philadelphia, 1985.

Carmen Birkle. Women’s stories of the looking glass autobiographical reflections and self
representations in the poetry of Sylvia Plath, Adrienne Rich, and Audre Lorde. Munchen, 1996.

Andrea O’Reilly. From Motherhood to Mothering: The Legacy of Adrienne Rich’s Of Woman Born.
State University of New York, 2004.

Carol Margaret Houston. Emotional Intelligence in the Later Poetry of Sylvia Plath, Anne Sexton,
and Adrienne Rich. Griffith University Brisbane, 2007.
Lester C. Olson, “A Cartography of Silence: Bias Crimes and Public Speechlessness”. The Journal
of Intergroup Relations, Volume XXXI, No. 4, Winter, 2004/2005.

6.7 Further Readings

Claire Keyes, The Aesthetics of Power: The Poetry of Adrienne Rich, University of Georgia Press,
2008.

Albert Gelpi and Barbara C.Gelpi ed., Adrienne Rich’s Poetry and Prose, Norton Critical Editions,
1993.

6.8 Model Questions

1. Discuss Rich as a feminist poet in the light of prescribed poems. Substantiate your answer with
examples from the poems.

2. Discuss the theme of silence with special reference to Rich’s poem “Cartographies of Silence”.
 L. No. 7

Sam Shepard’s Buried Child:

Summary, Themes, and Critical Analysis

Structure

7.0 Objectives

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Background to American Literature

7.3 Background to American Drama

7.4 Main Themes in the Works of 20th Century American Playwrights

7.5 Sam Shepard – A Bio-note

7.6 An Overview of Shepard’s Works

7.7 Background to Buried Child

7.8 Detailed Act-wise Summary of the Play Buried Child

7.9 Critical Analysis of Buried Child

7.10 Summary

7.11 References

7.12 Further Reading

7.13 Model Questions

7.0 Objectives

After reading this lesson, you will be able to:

● know about the period in which Sam Shepard was writing

● learn about the history of American Drama

● discuss main themes in the works of 20 century American Playwrights

th

● understand the development of Sam Shepard as a literary writer

● familiarize yourself with literary corpus of Shepard

● understand the setting of Buried Child

 ● summarize Buried Child in a comprehensive detail

● critically analyse Buried Child

7.1 Introduction
Dear students, Sam Shepard, a 20th-century American dramatist, has created a niche for himself
with his versatility. In order to make you well-versed with the author and the work we are
concerned with, this unit brief discussion on the history of American Literature, and the history of
American Drama. It also discusses in detail the themes that the American dramatists were
incorporating in their works, the biographical sketch of the author, and his literary corpus etc. This
unit will also give space to a brief background to the text Buried Child, a very detailed summary of
the text and its critical analysis.

7.2 Background to American Literature:

The era between the two World Wars witnessed the Great Economic Depression beginning in
1929. This epoch is also marked by the development of literature that is commonly referred to as
‘Modern Literature.’ This literature rivalled the literature produced during the American
Renaissance of the mid-nineteenth century. The flashy and colourful 1920s during American
literary development are sometimes referred to as ‘the Jazz Age,’ a title popularized by F. Scott
Fitzgerald’s Tales of the Jazz Age. A lot of African-American writers rose and became famous in
this decade which is also called the period of the Harlem Renaissance. Many prominent American
writers of the earliest twentieth century being disillusioned by their war experiences by the end of
World War I became insensitive to ‘puritanical’ repressions of American culture and were given the
appellation, the Lost Generation.

The radical 1930s, the period of the Great Depression, saw many economic and social reforms.
Some prominent authors joined radical political movements, while others talked about pressing
social issues of the time in their literary works. World War II and many other major happenings like
the disillusionment with Soviet Communism, and Stalin’s signing of the Russo-German were
largely responsible for the end of the literary radicalism of the 1930s. The conservative southern
writers also called the Agrarians of the 1930s believed in the return to an agricultural economy
from an industrial one. They retained intellectual adherence to Soviet Russia, but with the
dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, New Criticism took over the literary arena. The literature
was now separated from the life of the author and from society, and it began to exist as a
sovereign unit. The 1950s were marked by the emergence of vigorous anti-establishment and anti-
traditional literary movements. In the 1960s many eminent and influential critics continued to
associate a work of literature with the author’s life, his times, outlook, and social milieu. The 1960s
and early ’70s continued some of the modes of the past like confessional poetry, the literature of
erotic openness, and literature of the absurd but it also gave space to the rebellious movement of
the youth and opposition to the war in Vietnam.

America produced eminent and internationally recognised poets like Edgar Lee Masters, Edwin
Arlington Robinson, Robert Frost, Carl Sandburg, Wallace Stevens, William Carlos Williams, Ezra
Pound, Robinson Jeffers, Marianne Moore, Amy Lowell, T. S. Eliot, Edna St. Vincent Millay;
novelists like Vladimir Nabokov, Eudora Welty, Robert Penn Warren, Bernard Malamud, James
Gould Cozzens, Saul Bellow, Mary McCarthy, Norman Mailer, John Updike, Kurt Vonnegut Jr.,
Thomas Pynchon, John Barth, Donald Barthelme, E. L. Doctorow, Cynthia Ozick, Edith Wharton,
Sinclair Lewis, Ellen Glasgow, Willa Cather, Gertrude Stein, Sherwood Anderson, John Dos
Passos, F. Scott Fitzgerald, William Faulkner, Ernest Hemingway, Thomas Wolfe, and John
Steinbeck; and dramatists like Eugene O’Neill, Clifford Odets, Maxwell Anderson, Thornton Wilder,
Lillian Hellman, Arthur Miller, Tennessee Williams, Edward Albee, Wendy Wasserstein, David
Mamet, Tony Kushner and Sam Shepard.

7.3 Background to American Drama:

When we look at the early 20 century, we witness that most American intellectuals and writers
th

who had been travelling in Europe came back to their homeland and founded the Little Theatre
movement. These playwrights who had received formal classroom training in college and
community playhouses experimented with dramatic forms and methods of production. Their works
were noticeable for innovative revolution and a new gravity. Admired dramatists of this period were
Eugene O’ Neil, Maxwell Anderson, Robert E. Sherwood, Marc Connelly, Elmer Rice, Lillian
Hellman, Marc Blitzstein, Orson Welles, John Houseman, Thornton Wilder, William Saroyan and
Clifford Odets to name a few.

In the post-World War II era, Arthur Miller and Tennessee Williams became famous for their
intense family dramas and for creating emphatic roles for actors, especially women. In the 1960s
Edward Albee established himself as a major figure in American drama. The centre of American
drama shifted from Broadway to Off-Broadway with dramatists such as Jack Gelber, David Rabe,
David Mamet, Amiri Baraka and Ed Bullins August Wilson, John Guare, Ntozake Shange, Wendy
Wasserstein, Lanford Wilson and Maria Irene Fornés etc.

The hegemony and predominance of the Off-Broadway theatre was established and increased
with creative and investigational playwright, Sam Shepard, who won the Pulitzer Prize for Buried
Child in 1979. The playwright touched the heights of success with a series of offbeat dramas
dealing with fierce family conflict. Some women playwrights like Marsha Norman, Beth Henley,
Tina Howe, and Wendy Wasserstein also gained prominence as Off-Broadway dramatists. Writers
like Tony Kushner, David Henry Hwang, Richard Nelson, Richard Greenberg, Suzan-Lori Parks
also raised the benchmark of their works. Like Broadway, Off-Broadway theatres began to suffer
from mounting budgets and expenses which led to productions later labelled as Off-Off-Broadway.

Dear students, please note that the word Broadway is almost identical to the American
theatrical movement and the Off-Broadway theatre movement began shortly after World War
II. It concentrated on isolated theatres, often located within rehabilitated places, and indulged
in productions that were seen as or estimated as too risky by Broadway theatres. These small
professional productions served as a substitute for the commercially oriented theatres of
Broadway.

7.4 Main Themes in the Works of 20 Century American Playwrights:

th

● The civil rights, women’s movements, gay liberation, and the AIDS crisis became major
themes for the new playwrights.
● The works of the playwrights of later decades of the twentieth century are set in stark
surroundings.
● These dramas deal with social problems by creating an illusion of the real American life on
the stage and compel their audiences to experience their own life staged.
● Another major theme of these dramas is the depiction of contemporary life in its familiar
mode of living.
● These dramas are also a criticism of manners and institutions of the times.
● The dramatists use grim language and lay stress on meaningful silences.
● These authors project a powerful streak of madness and their works thus become eruptions
of real or virtual violence.
● The basic themes of modem drama also focus on modern man’s tortured self.
● The dramas look at numerous facets of the anguish of the individual alienated from society
and himself.
● These plays deal with the characters’ dreams, illusions, and disappointments, and with the
frustrations and defeats of their lives.
● They caricature America’s martial chauvinism and ethnic superficiality.
● Some playwrights dramatize racial confrontation.
● These works are remarkable in their assessment of women’s interactions with themselves
and with society.

7.5 Sam Shepard — A Bio-note:

An important figure in the Off-Broadway movement, who united harsh humour, satire, myth, and
evocative language to create a seditious vision of America, Samuel Shepard Rogers III
professionally known as Sam Shepard was born on November 5, 1943, in Fort Sheridan, Illinois.
He was named Samuel Shepard Rogers III after his father, Samuel Shepard Rogers, Jr., who was
a teacher and farmer and served in the United States Army Air Force as a bomber pilot during
World War II. His mother, Jane Elaine, a native of Chicago, was a teacher. Shepard spent his
childhood on military bases across the United States and in Guam before his family settled on a
farm in Duarte, California. He did his schooling in South Pasadena, California and in 1961
Shepard graduated his high school and began training in animal husbandry. He worked on a ranch
in his youth before moving to New York in 1962, where he first lived with Charlie Mingus Jr. From
Samuel Shepard Rogers III, he changed his name to Sam Shepard in 1963 and started working as
a busboy at the Village Gate discotheque in Greenwich Village. He also joined a touring company
of actors to pursue his theatrical interests. His earliest one-act plays found an interested and
approachable audience.

Shepard began to gain name and fame with Cowboys and The Rock Garden premiered at Theatre
Genesis in 1964; Dog and Rocking Chair premiered at Café La MaMa in 1965 and Red Cross
premiered at Judson Poets’ Theatre in 1966 and so and so forth. Shepard got married to O-Lan
Johnson in 1969. Shepard lived in England from 1971 to 1974 and many important plays like The
Tooth of Crime and Geography of a Horse Dreamer were premiered in London. This was the time
when he added an avant-garde or an unusual dramatic vision to a more conformist dramatic form
of the earlier times. Shepard made his film debut in Terrence Malick’s “Days of Heaven” in 1978
and won praise for his performances in the film. For “The Right Stuff” (1983) he received an
Academy Award nomination. “Fool for Love” (1985), which was very well received and was written
by Shepard himself, was based on his 1983 play of the same name. While he was shooting for
“Frances” in 1982, Shepard fell in a relationship with Jessica Lange that continued until 2009 and
this relationship was perhaps one of the reasons for his divorce from his wife. He won Pulitzer
Prize for Drama for his play Buried Child in 1979. The year 1984 was turbulent for Shepard as he
lost his father and his divorce from O-Lan was also finalized this year. But in this year his
screenplay “Paris, Texas” was released and won Palme d’Or at the Cannes Film Festival. He was
bestowed upon New York Drama Critics Circle Award for Best Play for A Lie of the Mind in the
very next year. In 1986, Shepard was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Letters. In
1992 Shepard was awarded a Gold Medal for Drama by The American Academy of Arts and
Letters. He also appeared in screen adaptations of other writers’ novels like “The Pelican Brief”
(1993), “Snow Falling on Cedars” (1999), “All the Pretty Horses” (2000), and “The Notebook”
(2004).

Shepard’s works are an amalgamation of images of the American West, science fiction, and other
elements of popular and youth culture. Shepard was sick with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. During
his struggle with the disease, he wrote the novel Spy of the First Person which could be
considered as his final work. It presents reflections of a dying man. The novel was published in
December 2017, almost five months after Shepard’s death.

7.6 An Overview of Shepard’s Works:

The versatile personality, Sam Shepard, wrote many plays like Chicago (1965), September: 4-H
Club (1965), La Turista (1967), The Unseen Hand (1969), Operation Sidewinder (1970), Curse of
the Starving Class (1977), Buried Child (1978), Seduced (1978), True West (1980), A Lie of the
Mind (1985), States of Shock (1991), Simpatico (1994), The Late Henry Moss (2000), The God of
Hell (2004), Ages of the Moon (2009), Heartless (2012) and Particle of Dread (2014).

His prose works include stories, meditations, reminiscences, and other pieces that are collected in
Hawk Moon (1973), Motel Chronicles (1982), Cruising Paradise (1996), Great Dream of Heaven
(2002), and Day Out of Days (2010).

His novellas, The One Inside (2017) and Spy of the First Person (2017), are autobiographical in
nature.

Other than these works, Shepard wrote the screenplays for The Right Stuff (1983) and he wrote
and directed Far North (1989) and Silent Tongue (1994).

Sam Shepard’s early plays Cowboys and The Rock Garden were produced in 1964 by Theatre
Genesis in New York City. For several seasons he worked with Off-Broadway and Off-Off-
Broadway theatre groups.

From 1975 to 1983, he was Playwright in Residence at San Francisco’s Magic Theatre. In 1979
Shepard was awarded the Pulitzer Prize for Drama for Buried Child, and in 1984 he won an Oscar
nomination for his performance in The Right Stuff. His play, Spring: Fourteen Hundred Thousand
was filmed for National Educational Television. He was elected to the American Academy of Arts
and Letters in 1986. In 1992, he received Gold Medal for Drama from the Academy and was
inducted into the Theatre Hall of Fame in 1994.

Shepard appeared in over thirty films like “Days of Heaven,” “Francis,” “Country,” “Crimes of the
Heart,” “Steel Magnolias,” “Voyager,” “The Pelican Brief,” “Hamlet,” and “The Pledge” to name a
few.

The Late Henry Moss was Shepard’s last play which he wrote and directed in the year 2000.

The readers can always witness experiments with dramatic form and structure in Shepard’s works.
He chooses a nowhere land on the American Plains as his setting. His characters are no less than
loners and vagabonds torn apart by a fabled past and the mechanical and materialistic present. A
tussle among faith, logic, and social coherence continuously goes on in his works. We also find
uncertainty and a near-absence of love as prominent themes. In a malevolent world of Shepard,
his characters encounter a sense of perplexity, defeat and physical, psychological, and moral
assaults. Shepard’s works are laced with sadness, uncertainty and complexity that arise out of the
problematic nature of love relationships between men and women, between brothers and fathers,
or between parents and their children. It may also not be forgotten that momentary glimpses of
hope are also an integral part of his works. More than ten of Shepard’s plays have won Obie
Awards.

7.7 Background to Buried Child:

A moral and economic leader of the world, the United States, witnessed an oil crisis, a stock
market crash, high rates of inflation and unemployment leading to an economic recession in the
mid-1970s. Buried Child portrays a Middle-class American agricultural family affected by the
financial stagnation of this era. This commercial hit, divided into three acts, studies the American
family life and brought Shepard into the mainstream and he won the Pulitzer Prize for the play in
1979. Buried Child is considered to be a part of a family trilogy – the other two being Curse of the
Starving Class (1976) and True West (1981). All these plays present damaging blood
relationships. Buried Child was first premiered at the Magic Theatre in San Francisco on June 27,
1978, directed by Robert Woodruff. Its New York premiere was at Theatre de Lys in New City on
October 19, 1978. The show was revived at Steppenwolf Theatre in Chicago in 1995 and followed
a two-month run on Broadway in 1996. Shepard reworked a little on the script for the Steppenwolf
production. In February 2016, the play was once again revived for performances at Off-Broadway.
It was produced by the theatre company, ‘The New Group’ and directed by Scott Elliott, starring Ed
Harris and Amy Madigan. It is also believed that Buried Child is autobiographical in nature. The
character of Dodge is seemingly based on Shepard’s father who was an alcoholic farmer, and like
Vince, Shepard had left his rural background to pursue Arts.

7.8 Detailed Act-wise Summary of the Play Buried Child:

The first act of the play Buried Child opens with Dodge who is a sickly man in his late seventies. It
is a rainy day in rural Illinois in 1978. Dodge sits on the couch in the living room of his old and
neglected farmhouse gawping continuously on the television. After a few minutes, he secretly pulls
a bottle of whiskey from underneath the cushion on the couch and keeps it back after taking a long
sip. He begins to cough but fails to supress it. Halie, his wife who is in a room upstairs, hears him
coughing and asks him to take his medicine. She thinks that Dodge’s health has deteriorated
because of torrential rains. Ignoring her, Dodge takes another sip and also lights a cigarette which
produces another fit of coughing. Halie threatens that if he will not take his medicine she would
come downstairs, but Dodge forbids her to do so. Halie prohibits Dodge from watching programs
like horse racing which may excite him and cause more coughing. Soon, they enter into an
argument about the day of the week when horse races are held. Reminiscing the past, Halie here
narrates a story describing how a handsome man had once escorted her to a horse race before
she was married to Dodge, but Dodge insults her for her promiscuity. Halie tells Dodge that she is
going out to meet the minister, Father Dewis, for lunch and that their middle son, Bradley, will
come over later in the day to cut his hair. Dodge reacts angrily against the cutting of his hair by
Bradley. To calm him, Halie says that Tilden, their eldest son, is in the kitchen and he will be by his
side to protect him when Bradley comes. Dodge does not agree with Halie’s ideas and when he
calls out for Tilden repeatedly he goes into a horrible fit of coughing.

When Tilden, a man in his forties, comes inside the room, he is wet with rain and carrying an
armful of newly handpicked corn. Tilden gazes at Dodge while his coughing fit decreases. On
being asked, Tilden tells Dodge that he has picked fresh corn from the fields in their backyard
while Dodge insists that there hasn’t been corn in the fields since 1935. Dodge instructs Tilden to
take corn back to the place he stole it from but Tilden dumps the ears of corn into Dodge’s lap.
Telling Tilden that Halie has already communicated to him about some shadowy incident in New
Mexico which had brought Tilden back home, Dodge asks Tilden if he is in some kind of trouble.
Dodge pushes the ears of corn off his body and Tilden brings a chair and pail and begins to husk
the corn. When Dodge begins the topic of Tilden’s future and his concern for him, Tilden tells
Dodge that he should have shown his concern when he was in New Mexico. Soon he changes the
subject and asks Dodge to share with him the hidden whiskey. Dodge remains quiet for some time
and then denies that there is any bottle. Halie calls from upstairs to tell Dodge that Tilden should
not be drinking anything. She also says that she and Dodge to have look after their health
because neither can Tilden take care of them, nor their older son Bradley who accidentally cut off
his leg with a chainsaw. Halie laments Tilden’s fall from an All-American quarterback to a disturbed
criminal.

Halie, a woman in her sixties wearing full mourning attire, appears on the stage for the first time
when she comes into the living room from upstairs. As she descends, she is talking about placing
her hopes in her youngest son, Ansel, due to the failure of her other two sons, Tilden and Bradley.
She praises Ansel for his intelligence, valour, and talents. She remembers him as a basketball
player and a soldier. She mourns over the fact that he died in a motel room on his honeymoon.
She believes that his death was caused because of his marriage in a Catholic family. Halie tells
everyone in the room that Father Dewis wants to recommend to the city council that Ansel be
commemorated with a statue. The husks spread everywhere on the floor of the living room brings
Halie out of her reverie and she angrily asks Tilden where did he get the corn from. She also
claims that there is no corn in the fields in their backyard. Once again, Tilden is scolded and
Halie’s threats that she will kick Tilden out of the house makes him start to cry. Dodge rebukes
Halie for disturbing Tilden. Before leaving for lunch with Father Dewis, Halie warns Dodge and
Tilden to clean up the mess before Bradley comes home. At the mention of Bradley’s name,
Dodge feels irritated and talks about disowning him as his son, claiming that the real being who
belongs to him is ‘buried in back yard!’ This statement suddenly changes the mood of the scene
and everyone around Dodge seems to freeze. Warning Tilden from going out in the backyard,
Halie leaves for her lunch with Father Dewis.

Tilden and Dodge argue and indulge in a blame-game about the backyard and Tilden’s failure to
be a self-sufficient adult. Against Halie and Dodge’s directions, Tilden still begins to go out to the
backyard. Dodge calls after him and has another fierce fit of coughing. Tilden gets him some water
and finally, Dodge takes a pill. Tilden helps Dodge get settled on the sofa and covers him with a
blanket. When Dodge lies down, Tilden agrees to stay with him. Tilden tries to remove Dodge’s
baseball cap but because of the fear of Bradley coming there for the haircut, Dodge does not let
him take it off. Soon, Dodge falls asleep and Tilden steals Dodge’s bottle of whiskey, covers him
with the corn husks and goes out to the backyard stealthily. After some time, Bradley, whose left
leg is a wooden prosthetic, enters limping from the screen porch. He sees his father sleeping on
the couch under corn husks. The first act ends when Bradley kneeling down beside Dodge with
difficulty, sadistically removes Dodge’s cap and begins to shave his head with a pair of electric
clippers.

At the beginning of the second act of the play, there is rain outside. This act too, like the first one,
is set in the living room of the old and neglected farmhouse of Dodge. Dodge is sleeping on the
sofa and his scalp is bleeding from aggressively short haircut but the mess of the corn husk is not
visible anymore. In this act, we come across two new characters, Vince and Shelly. Vince is
twenty-two-year-old and he is Tilden’s son. Shelly is Vince’s girlfriend and she is nineteen-year-
old. The pastoral setting of Dodge’s house charms Shelly and she begins to compare the
farmhouse to a Norman Rockwell painting. Vince is in a very solemn mood as he is going to meet
his family after six years. He goes upstairs to see if anyone is home, Shelly notices Dodge on the
couch. Suddenly, Dodge wakes up and Shelly is frightened. While Vince spends some time
upstairs looking at the old photographs, Shelly is trying to explain to Dodge that Vince wished to
meet his father Tilden and everyone else in the family so they have stopped here on their way
to New Mexico. In the meanwhile, Vince comes downstairs but Dodge does not recognize him.
When Vince asks about his grandmother, Halie, Dodge says that she won’t be back for a few
days. Confused, Vince asks about his father and Dodge tells that Tilden is at the farmhouse rather
than in New Mexico as Vince was thinking. Dodge lasciviously comments on Shelly’s physical
beauty. Shelly is surprised and frightened to see that Vince’s grandfather does
not recognise him and so she repeatedly tells Vince that they should leave. But Vince is adamant
to stay back. Soon, Dodge calls for Tilden, who enters with an armful of carrots this time.

Like Dodge, Tilden also does not seem to recognize Vince. On Shelly’s insisting on the fact that
Vince is his son, Tilden says that his son is dead and buried in the backyard. Vince stands utterly
muddled by the situation he is in. Shelly takes the carrots from Tilden, offers to help him and on
Tilden’s saying begins to help peeling carrots. When Dodge finds out that his bottle of whiskey has
been stolen and finished, he tells Vince to get him a new bottle of alcohol. Shelly urges Vince to
obey his grandfather. Vince says that Shelly is adding to the confusion and problems. While Vince
makes a number of attempts to remind Dodge and Tilden that he is Dodge’s grandson and Tilden’s
son, Dodge is all concerned about his alcohol and frequently begs of Vince to get him a bottle.
Finally, Vince agrees to get a bottle of alcohol for Dodge but Shelly is scared to be left behind
alone in the house and she wishes to accompany Vince. Vince is dazed and wants to be alone so
he leaves Shelly, saying that he is going to get the bottle and will be back very soon.

When Vince leaves, Shelly tries to find if Tilden really does not remember his son. Tilden tells her
that he feels something familiar about Vince but he cannot recall him fully. Tilden and Shelly talk to
each other about secrets. Tilden likes Shelly’s rabbit-fur coat, and Shelly allows him to feel it. He
puts it on and takes pleasure in the softness of the material like a kid. When Tilden and Shelly
become comfortable talking to each other, Tilden tells Shelly that he was leading an adventurous
life in the past but now he cannot do the same. Tilden reveals a secret and tells Shelly that there
was a baby in the family but Dodge drowned it and no one knows what he did with the body and
where the corpse of the baby is buried. Dodge gets frantic because he does not want Tilden to
share that story with Shelly. He tries to stand and walk towards Tilden, but he falls down. Shelly
wishes to help Dodge to get back on his couch, but Tilden keeps her seated forcibly. Soon,
Bradley enters and the squeaking of a wooden leg is heard as he walks in. He sees Shelly and
asks questions about her. Bradley tells Shelly that Tilden used to be a great football player but is
now a failure like his father Dodge. He takes Shelly’s coat from Tilden, gives it to her and tells her
to take Tilden away with her. Intimidated and confused, Tilden leaves the house. Now, when Shelly
offers to help Dodge, Bradley says that they should drown Dodge instead. Although Shelly is
petrified, she tells Bradley to shut up. Bradley forces Shelly to open her mouth and puts his fingers
into it. The second act ends with Bradley’s one hand in Shelly’s mouth and he drops the fur coat
on Dodge and covers Dodge’s head.

The setting remains the same in the third act also. It is the next morning, the rain has stopped and
sun rays fall in the living room of the old and neglected farmhouse of Dodge. Bradley is seen
sleeping on the couch and his prosthetic leg is detached and kept by the side of the sofa. Weak-
looking Dodge sits against the television. He is wearing his cap and Shelly’s coat. Shelly brings a
bowl of soup for Dodge, but he refuses to drink it because he is still craving for a bottle of
alcohol. Dodge tells Shelly to give him a massage, but she does not agree. Dodge gets irritated
because Vince has taken so long to come back that he is almost losing hope of his return. Shelly
thinks that Vince will return to take his saxophone if for nothing else but Dodge ridicules her
hopefulness. Shelly confesses that she is feeling more comfortable in his house today than
yesterday. She talks about her fears regarding Bradley. Dodge suggests that Bradley cannot do
any harm to her if his prosthetic leg is thrown away. When Shelly is shocked at Dodge’s ideas and
heartlessness, he tells her that he does not want to be judged in his own house.

Shelly then starts to talk about the old family photographs which she had seen in Halie’s room
where she slept for the night. She particularly refers to one photograph depicting the whole family
standing on a farm full of corn and wheat, with Halie holding a baby. Dodge tries to deflect her
questions by showing his disinterest in the photos and her questions. Continuing with the same
subject, Dodge asks Shelly if Tilden told her some truth about the killing of a baby. Suddenly,
Dodge becomes angry and asks her where Tilden is. She tells Dodge that Bradley rushed him out
of the house. It increases Dodge’s worries. He is scared that Tilden will get hurt without anybody
with him. Dodge tells Shelly that Tilden is in trouble and cannot be left alone.

While Shelly and Dodge are talking about Tilden, Halie comes back with Father Dewis. Halie is
now wearing a bright yellow dress and is holding yellow roses. Father Dewis is dressed in the
traditional attire of a minister and both of them are slightly drunk. As they enter the living room,
they are seen flirting with each other. They are joking about being as wicked as Catholics, but they
are shocked to see Shelly in the living room. Halie feels ashamed and begins to tidy up the room.
She removes the fur coat from Dodge’s body and covers Bradley’s prosthetic leg with it. When
Dodge protests against her taking the coat away, Halie pulls the blanket back from Bradley’s leg,
revealing his amputated leg, and throws the blanket on Dodge. Bradley wakes with a shock and
begins to beg for the blanket, but Halie reprimands him emotionlessly and he starts crying. Halie
asks for advice from Father Dewis who is himself astounded and at a loss for words. Halie
reaches into Dewis’ pockets seductively to find a bottle of whiskey. She takes a gulp and says that
the roses which Father Dewis has presented to her will help to wash away the smell of sin in the
house. Halie declares that a statue of Ansel, holding a basketball and a rifle, will soon be erected
in the town. Interfering with her claims, Bradley mentions that Ansel never played basketball. Halie
does not want anyone to interfere and tells Bradley to shut up. She continues to speak and also
laments the deterioration of society and its values. She says that lack of values has rendered
Dodge mad.

Shelly finally comes forward and tells Halie that she came to the house with Vince, her grandson.
Like others, Halie also does not seem to immediately recognize her grandson. Shelly keeps telling
her what had happened in her absence which makes Halie suddenly become worried about
Tilden’s whereabouts. Halie yells at Dodge for allowing Tilden to leave. In this maddening
atmosphere, Dodge continuously implores for alcohol, Shelly shouts at Halie to pay attention to
her, and Bradley yells at Shelly for insulting his mother. Halie begins to lament at the chaos in the
family. In the meanwhile, Bradley steals the blanket from Dodge’s back, causing another bout of
yelling and screaming at one another. In frenzy, Shelly smashes the bowl of soup against the door.
Bradley and Shelly begin to argue. Shelly takes the fur coat which was hiding Bradley’s prosthetic
leg and makes fun of him. Bradley covers himself in the blanket and sobs once again. Father
Dewis tries to persuade Shelly to return Bradley’s leg, but she pays no heed. Shelly tells the family
that she had come with Vince and they were both excited to meet the family. But she is surprised
that his family is totally different from the way he had described. Shelly yells at the family for
keeping their ghastly secret. Everyone orders Shelly to stop interfering in their business, but
Dodge finally concedes and decides to tell Shelly the truth. Dodge declares that Halie had a baby
and it was seemingly Tilden’s child. Although Tilden loved the baby, Dodge was ashamed of it, and
so he killed the child. Halie says if Ansel were alive, he would have saved the child.

As soon as Dodge brings the truth to light, Vince comes into the living room tearing the door off of
the screen porch in a drunken stupor. He takes out empty liquor bottles from a paper bag and
smashes them. Dodge and Halie finally seem to recognize him as their grandson, but there is a
reversal of the situation as Vince cannot recognize anyone now in his drunken state. Halie asks
Father Dewis for help but he says that he’s outside of his parish so he cannot help her in that
matter. He invites Halie upstairs. For a few moments, Halie mourns her grandson having turned
into a monster and then follows Dewis to the bedroom. Dodge here delivers his last will and
testament in a speech. He declares that the house will be inherited by Vince, the tools will go to
Tilden, and the tractor and all the rest of his belongings will be burned in the middle of the field.

Shelly wishes to leave, but Vince wants to stay now and tells her that he thought of running away
from the situation last night and drove all the way to Iowa. Then he saw his image and the
reflection of his ancestors on the windshield of his car and he was compelled to return by an
unseen force. Shelly leaves him. Vince throws Bradley’s leg out of the room. Bradley crawls to
retrieve it. Father Dewis comes down the stairs and urges Vince to go and see Halie. Vince tells
Dewis that he should leave. Dewis leaves. Vince then notices that Dodge is dead. He covers
Dodge in blanket and places roses on his chest, then lies down on the sofa and begins to stare at
the ceiling. Halie calls out for Dodge from upstairs and tells him that Tilden was right. She tells him
that the field is full of vegetables. At this moment Tilden enters the house and he is covered in
mud. He is holding the decayed corpse of a small child. Tilden ascends the stairs and Halie is
heard talking aloud about the rain and the sun, and how they make the plants grow.

7.9 Critical Analysis of Buried Child

Shepard, an important postmodern voice in American drama, has been experimental in nature
which is visible in the present drama under analysis. Rather than a straightforward narrative or
coherent characterization, Buried Child explores domestic and family life. This theme is in contrast
to his earlier focus on characters who were recluses. The play has a realistic and naturalistic
setting and relatively realistic characters. This framework relies on and incorporates symbolic
actions and features. Some critics believe that Buried Child is a powerful reflection of America’s
self-perception and the dilemmas of its contemporary times. Through the play, Shepard is trying to
show the limitations of the American dream and also the deterioration of the mental and spiritual
health of the nation. The language used in the play is poetic and the play is replete with imagery
and sinister suggestiveness or foreboding. Along with the major characters, Shepard’s minor
characters like Ansel and the priest play a significant role and are meaningful to the main structure
of the work. Shepard is experimental in nature and that is the reason that sometimes he is
shocking and repulsive while depicting human instinct and wild behaviour. He traverses the roads
forbidden and looks into the areas where others are scared to tread. Supporting the main ideas of
the play with the use of recognizable rituals makes Buried Child profound. On its surface, it may
be a dark family drama but the employment of sacrificial and harvest rites and agricultural rituals
like sowing, nurturing, reaping, and rejoicing the ripe crops, take the readers of an industrialized
world on a ride to an agrarian society. As a realistic play, Buried Child narrates a story about the
passing of a family farm, once barren but perhaps now revitalized, from the older to the younger
generation. At the metaphorical level, it suggests how the legacy of emotional unproductiveness
can cripple the younger generation. Shepard unearths the fragmentation and disintegration of the
American family and also agrees that there exists an inevitability of conflict. The play shows how
the younger generation can progress only through a displacement of the preceding one. In Buried
Child almost every character is shown to lose something but the fertility and the growth of crops at
the end suggest progress despite losses.

7.10 Summary

After reading this lesson, you have learned about the period in which Sam Shepard was writing
and the history of American Drama. You have also learned about the main themes in the works of
20 century American Playwrights. Besides, the lesson has enabled you to understand the
th

development of Sam Shepard as a literary writer. It has helped you to familiarize yourself with the
literary corpus of Shepard. The note on the setting of Buried Child must have helped you to
understand the play better. The lesson also provided you with the summary and critically analysis
of Buried Child which must have helped you to understand the play deeply.
7.11 References

Bottoms, Stephen J. The Theatre of Sam Shepard: States of Crisis. Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press, 1998.

Marranca, Bonnie. “Sam Shepard” in American Playwrights: A Critical Survey. p. 108.

Gussow, Mel. “Review of Buried Child” in The New York Times, January 2, 1979, p. C7.

7.12 Further Reading

Bottoms, Stephen J. The Theatre of Sam Shepard: States of Crisis. Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press, 1998.

Marranca, Bonnie. “Sam Shepard” in American Playwrights: A Critical Survey. p. 108.

Gussow, Mel. “Review of Buried Child” in The New York Times, January 2, 1979, p. C7.

7.13 Model Questions

1. Discuss a detailed summary of Buried Child.

2. Discuss the themes that are generally employed by the playwrights of the 20 century.
th

3. Attempt a detailed critical analysis of Buried Child.

L. No. 8
 Sam Shepard’s Buried Child:
Characterization and Thematic Concerns

Structure

8.0 Objectives

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Themes employed in Buried Child

8.2.1 The Decaying of Family due to Conflict

8.2.2 Failure of the American Dream

8.2.3 The Buried Past

8.2.4 Religion and Rituals

8.3 Symbols used in Buried Child

8.3.4 Dodge’s Farmhouse

8.4 Major and Minor Characters in Buried Child

8.5 A Note on the Setting and the Beginning of Buried Child

8.6 A Brief Note on the American Dream

8.7 Discussing Buried Child as a Postmodern Text

8.8 Summary

8.9 References

8.10 Further Reading

8.11 Model Questions

8.0 Objectives
After reading this lesson, you will be able to:

● discuss the themes in Buried Child

● discuss the symbols used in Buried Child

● learn about the major and minor characters

● familiarize yourself with the setting and the beginning of Buried Child

● understand the meaning of the American Dream

● discuss Buried Child as a Postmodern Text

8.1 Introduction
Dear students, in order to understand a text thoroughly we need to read in detail different aspects
of the work. So, to make you well-versed with Buried Child this unit will introduce you to the
themes and symbols that one comes across in the text. We will also read about major and minor
characters. Since the text talks about the failure of the American Dream, we will also read the
meaning of this term, and then we will also discuss Buried Child as a postmodern text.

8.2 Themes employed in Buried Child:

No story is complete without a multidimensional protagonist who has to overcome a conflict, an

attention-grabbing setting, an appealing series of events, a theme and a message. The theme is
defined as the central and universal idea or underlying meaning in a literary work, which may be
detailed implicitly or explicitly. A writer presents the theme in a literary work in numerous ways.
This can be presented through feelings and experiences of the protagonist about the subject-
matter, through thoughts and conversations of different characters and through actions and
events taking place in the narrative. Theme generally transcends cultural barriers and being
universal in nature it touches human experience irrespective of race or language. The main
themes in Buried Child have been discussed below:

8.2.1 The Decaying of Family due to Conflict:

Shepard’s play Buried Child is based on the conflict the members of a family and it gives
importance to the conflict amongst different generations. The collapse of Dodge’s traditional family
represents a breakdown of twentieth-century family units in general. When Shelly, Vince’s
girlfriend, comes to Dodge’s house for the first time, she compares the farmhouse to a perfect,
idyllic house in a Norman Rockwell painting. But the image of a ‘picture-perfect’ family is soon
subverted and she encounters a family that has fallen into total dysfunction. At the very beginning,
we see that Dodge is nearly immobilized by illness and the family’s land now lies fallow. Dodge
and Halie do not share the same room. Halie is always yelling against Dodge’s uselessness. Halie
is seemingly having an affair with Father Dewis and she tries to hide this fact from everyone. She
misuses Dodge’s immobility, and when she is going out with the Father, she tells Dodge that she
will come back later in the day but she comes home the next day. Tilden, the older son, has
recently returned home and needs to be cared for like a child. Bradley, the second son, has
become vicious, cowardly, bitter, frustrated, abusive and power-hungry because he lost one leg in
his youth. Vince returns home as a ray of hope. When he is not recognised by his father and
grandfather, he tries to escape the nightmare but he realizes that he cannot leave behind his
ancestors, and that coaxes him to return. So, we see that in Dodge’s family all the members are
continuously telling lies to each other. Telling a lie can further be extended to lack of faith, lack of
trust and lack of love among them. In the play, we find that the members of the family of Dodge do
not love each other. They are engaged in a struggle for power and authority.

8.2.2 Failure of the American Dream:

American Dream is a multi-dimensional concept. If for one it stands for prosperity and happiness
of the family for the other it may signify freedom, adventure on the open road or venturing into far-
off frontiers to explore something new. If for some it symbolizes wealth and owning property for
others it may mean to outshine the earlier generation. And, failing to achieve these desired and
most sort-after goals represents the failure of the American Dream. Almost all the members of
Dodge’s family have failed at reaching their destinations. Through this family, Buried Child
presents the disintegration of the American family in general and a scarcity of sanctity and ethics
in contemporary society. Dodge, once a prosperous farmer, is now an alcoholic who has become
immobile from old age and illness. His farm lies desolate and he is leading a life in utter disorder.
Dodge has tilled the land for years and hasn’t had a crop on his land in the last fourty years but
whenever Tilden comes on the stage, he is carrying a crop that according to him is growing in their
backyard. Dodge has buried his grandchild in the yard and that is why his sons are hostile towards
him. Halie and Dodge have fallen apart from each other especially after Dodge murdered the child
who was a product of Halie and Tilden’s incestuous relationship. His house is neglected. We just
see him sitting on the sofa, drinking and staring at the television. He is an utter failure in every
possible sense.

Other members of the family in Buried Child are also a representation of a failed attempt. Halie is
a failure as a mother and a wife too. She experiences extreme unhappiness in her marriage and
takes recourse to deceitful religiousness and promiscuity. Though she pretends to be pious and
yearns for the olden days when traditional values were upheld and practiced, in her old age she
has an affair with the family’s pastor and in her younger days, she had committed the sin of incest
with her oldest son. Her admiration for her football-playing son, Tilden, had led to a most
unfortunate sexual relationship with him. Her family has fallen apart. Both her older sons are
burned out, and the youngest one is dead.

Tilden had left for New Mexico in search of autonomy. He has returned not only as a failure but
also as a burden on his old father and mother. He could not secure his own prosperity and
freedom. Bradley could also not take responsibility for the farm and other members of the family
since he had lost a leg. His physical deficiency fills him with frustration and makes it difficult for
him to live independently and happily. He, thus, develops a bitter relationship with his family.
In the beginning, it seems that Vince will disrupt the pattern of failure and stagnation in his family.
Following his dream, Vince an artist had moved out of rural Illinois to pursue a career in music. He
is living with a beautiful and intelligent girlfriend. It seems as if this character embodies the modern
American dream. To connect to his past, he comes to visit his family but only to find a horror that
he cannot escape. In the end, Dodge’s giving everything to Vince also hints that he may shoulder
the role of a perfect patriarch and farmer and lead the family which shows that Vince has learned
the reality of the mythical American dream and he seems to have put aside his dream of success
through music, travelling, and Shelly. He is ready to take Dodge’s place.

The failure of Dodge’s family and by extension the failure of a false and unobtainable American
Dream is a general warning for all against drifting towards the cultural ideal of the American
Dream. The perfection that the family always sorted — an affluent household, beautiful home,
flourishing farm, faultless children — is visible only in the photographs hanging in Halie’s room.
Shepard seems to portray that the desire to achieve the American Dream has turned the
population into vicious, ruthless, and insincere wannabes who have lost the emotional bonds with
one another and are seeking physical pleasures and power.

8.2.3 The Buried Past:

The family’s past weighs heavily on its present. Almost all the characters live in their past since
their present is barren. At the beginning of the play, when Halie is talking to Dodge, she recalls
going to a horse race. Before leaving the house for a meeting with Father Dewis, she talks about
her dead son Ansel. Tilden has come back running away from his dreary past in New Mexico.
When Bradley is in the house he hangs the prosthetic part of his leg on the arm of the sofa, his act
is again an effort to forget the past when he lost his leg. Vince has come back home with his
girlfriend to meet his father and family, and confront his past. But he is shocked to find that he
seems to have become a forgotten past for all of them. Halie describes him as a sweet and
unassuming little boy but one is not sure if she is actually talking about Vince or she is mistaking
him for Ansel. And, when Vince tries to leave the family, a vision of his past and his ancestors
stops him and he realises that he cannot exist without an association with his past. The play
revolves around another memory of the past that connects every character. This memory is the
memory of an infant who was murdered and buried in the yard by Dodge. That dead and buried
past of the family is unearthed and brought into the present when Tilden enters the living room
with a corpse of a child in his arms at the end of the play. It seems that encountering history and
bringing the past into the present lifts the curse from the family and that is why in the end Halie
finds loads of vegetables growing on their farm.
8.2.4 Religion and Rituals:

Thematically religion has been presented in a negative shade in Buried Child. From the very
beginning of the play, Halie talks about what is and isn’t ‘Christian’ behaviour. She also expresses
her contempt for the Catholics and believes that they are responsible for the death of her dearest
son, Ansel. Religion then can be seen as a yardstick or a benchmark to judge the characters. It is
noticeable that Father Dewis, Halie’s so-called religious guide and an epitome of true religion in
the play, is an incompetent and corrupt man. When he first comes on the stage, he is drunk. He
has an affair with Halie and both of them indulge in a sensuous act in front of dying Dodge. After
Dodge confesses that he had murdered the infant of Halie and Tilden, Father Dewis goes to
appease his disturbed mistress who has run into her bedroom upstairs, but he comes back quickly
saying that he cannot help her. Father Dewis is seemingly misrepresenting and manipulating the
institution of religion for his own ends and finds it insufficient when it comes to deal with trauma.

The play revolves around two important rituals which are harvest and burial and they foreshadow
the possibilities of rebirth. It begins on a rainy day and ends on the next day which is sunny
symbolising the religious and ritualistic washing away of the family’s sinful past. Every time when
Tilden enters the stage, he is carrying a rich crop which he proclaims to have harvested from their
backyard. The readers tend to believe Tilden though Halie and Dodge share their doubts. They
say that Tilden has stolen the corn and the carrot because they had not tilled their land for the past
many years. It may also be noticed that in the first act after Tilden husks the corn, he spreads the
husks over Dodge who is sleeping on the sofa. This symbolic burial demonstrates Dodge’s
powerlessness and lack of authority over his family. Bradley’s putting Shelly’s coat on Dodge
symbolises his second burial and also shows Bradley’s desire for dominance. His third and real
burial happens when he dies and Vince covers him in his blanket and he assumes the role of the
head of the family. Dodge’s confession, his death and Tilden’s unearthing of the corpse of the
buried child are swiftly followed by harvest in their backyard. Halie finally notices that the fields
behind the house are full of vegetables. Harvesting is customarily seen as renewal or regeneration
and here too it symbolises and foreshadows change that will soon come in the degenerated family
of Dodge.

8.3 Symbols used in Buried Child:

A symbol is a literary device that contains numerous coatings of meaning. The deeper meaning
may be and is often concealed at first sight. Symbols are objects, characters, figures, and colours
used to represent several other abstract ideas or concepts and traits. It also means using an
object or an action that means something more than its literal meaning. Authors use symbols to
give multiple meanings to their works and to make a story much more than a collection of events.
Symbols add layers of meaning to a piece of creative work. They enable an author to deliver an
idea or message on numerous planes.

8.3.1 Cutting of Hair

As the play begins, in the first conversation between Dodge and Halie, Halie insists that Dodge
should get his hair cut and their son Bradley would come in some time to cut his hair. But Dodge
refuses and says that he is scared and does not want Bradley to come to him. He tries to prevent
his hair from cutting by covering his head with a cap. However, Bradley sneaks into the living room
and while Dodge is fast asleep, Bradley cuts his hair. He does so very crudely and coarsely,
causing injury to Dodge’s head. Dodge’s scalp is bleeding because Bradley uses the electric
clippers. After the hair-cut, Bradley again covers his head with the same cap. Bradley’s cutting of
Dodge’s hair symbolizes his attempt to take on the role of the patriarch and snatch away from his
father the power of his role and replace him. The image of Dodge with a bleeding scalp brings out
Bradley’s spitefulness. On the one hand, hair cutting of Dodge shows how little Bradley cares for
his relations, and on the other, it stands for Dodge’s vulnerability and weakness. The cutting of hair
symbolizes the loss of power, influence and authority and this example could be supported with
the story of Samson and Delilah from the Book of Judges in the Hebrew Bible. Samson lost his
power after his hair was cut. Bradley’s cutting of Dodge’s hair is symbolic of his effort to strip
Dodge of his position as a patriarch.

8.3.2 Rain:

When the play opens, we come to know that it is raining outside and it keeps raining in the first two
acts. The heavy downpour signifies the purgation of humiliation and guilt that had ruined the
family. Once the secret is revealed, Tilden comes back wet in the rain holding the corpse of the
buried child in his arms. When Halie rushes to her room upstairs, she yells that she could see a
healthy crop in their backyard. The rain brings long-dead crops back to life suggesting a renewal
of peace and prosperity in the family.

8.3.3 The Corn and the Carrots:

In the first and the second acts when we meet Tilden, we see him carrying corn and carrots
respectively which he proclaims to have harvested from their backyard and his parents are not
ready to believe his story since they know that they have not tilled the land for quite a few years.
Dodge thinks that Tilden has stolen the corn from somewhere and orders him to keep it back. But
Tilden says that the corn that has been harvested once cannot be put back which signifies the
irreversible nature of the family’s sins. When Dodge goes to sleep, Tilden buries Dodge in corn
husks, symbolizing his death. Moreover, the blossoming of corn symbolises that soon the secrets
of the family will emerge. In the third act when Dodge confesses the truth about burying of an
infant; the family’s barren farm grows fertile and prosperous. Halie observes a field full of crops,
indicating that the time is ripe to move beyond a sinful past.

8.3.4 Dodge’s Farmhouse:

Quite early in the play, we meet Vince who has returned home to meet his family. Not knowing
about the situation of Vince’s family, his girlfriend, Shelly, compares Dodge’s decaying farmhouse
with a perfect pastoral painting by Rockwell. But soon she observes that Dodge spends all his time
in a living room and the bedroom is occupied by Halie. Both Dodge and Halie, are not seen sitting
or spending time together. Tilden has come back after facing failure in New Mexico and Bradley
does not live in this house with the family. The two separate rooms in the house symbolize the two
different lives the characters are leading. Dodge is crumbling due to the weight of guilt, Halie is
perhaps hiding her sin and guilt in religiosity and both the sons are still looking for an anchor.
Dodge’s decaying farmhouse thus, symbolises the state of Dodge’s family and also the
disintegration of the American Dream.

8.4 Major and Minor Characters in Buried Child

A character is a person, animal, being, creature, or thing used to perform actions and speak
dialogue. A character may be wholly fictional or based on a real-life person — that is a historical
figure or a contemporary figure. Plot and character are equally important for a work of art. A lapse
in the construction of any one of these, plot and character, can cause damage to the building up of
a complete story. At times, the story and the plot require only one character for its development
and at other times there could be more than one character. Internal conflict in a character or
his/her conflict with some natural aspect can also help in the development and completion of the
plot of the story. Most of the plots in the works of literature have a protagonist interacting with or
having a conflict with multiple characters or antagonists. The protagonist is the main character in a
literary work for whom the readers or the audience develop a sense of empathy, even if he plays a
negative role. The problems and conflict of the protagonist help to move the plot forward. In most
of the literary narratives, the protagonist is opposed by an antagonist.

8.4.1 Dodge:

We first meet Dodge sitting on the sofa of his living room continuously watching TV and suffering
from bouts of chronic cough. He is a very thin and sickly looking man in his seventies. Once a
robust, enthusiastic, prosperous patriarch and farmer, he has collapsed into an unkempt and
drunken state in which nobody takes him seriously. Dodge is not respected anymore by anyone in
the family. His wife, who is seen yelling at him from her room upstairs, has an affair with Father
Dewis. Like Dodge himself, both his sons have failed in their lives. Tilden has come back home as
a failure from New Mexico and has to be looked after like a child because of some mental
problems that he is suffering from. Dodge is scared of his other son Bradley and feels extremely
uneasy in his presence. He does not want Bradley to come and cut his hair. But Halie tells him that
when Bradley comes to cut his hair, Tilden would be there to take care of him. Dodge’s fears prove
true when we see Bradley using electric clippers and cut his hair very roughly causing injury to his
head. Dodge is not seen regretting the death of his third son Ansel. When his grandson, Vince,
comes back home after a gap of six years, Dodge is unable to recognise him. And towards the
end, we see that he leaves his house, property and farm in the name of his grandson before
dying. Dodge could be seen as a symbol of the failure of the American dream. He owned a
prospering farm, but his crops have failed since the 1930s. It cannot be ignored that it is due to
Dodge’s confession about his burying the infant, a result of an incestuous relationship between his
wife and son, that there is regeneration and Halie sees their backyard blooming with the crop at
the end of the play. His strength to bring to light the secret of the family redresses the family from
the curse of death and degeneration.

8.4.2 Halie:

In the beginning, Halie is heard in a conversation with her husband Dodge. She occupies a room
upstairs and talks to her husband from there while she is getting ready to go out with Father
Dewis. While Dodge is lying down on the sofa drinking whiskey, smoking cigarettes and watching
television all day, Halie yells occasionally to encourage him to take his pills for chronic coughing.
This elderly and ignored woman seems deeply religious and complains that the contemporary
mannerism is anti-Christian. She believes if her third son, Ansel, had not got married to a Catholic,
he would have been alive. But her speeches and ideas sound hypocritical in nature because she
has an affair with the family pastor, Father Dewis. After a long time, she descends the stairs
dressed in all black as if she were mourning the death of her favourite son, Ansel. She proclaims
that Father Dewis is going to help her have Ansel’s statue raised in the town square. She supports
her theory with her lies that Ansel would have been a success, had he not died. She also asserts
that her late son was a brilliant baseball player and a war hero and thus, deserves to be respected
publically. But we come to know that he had never played any of those sports and he wasn’t a war
hero also. Her claims are refuted by the members of her own family.

The readers and the audience do not feel much sympathy for Halie because of her hypocritical
and promiscuous nature. She continuously pesters her husband, forces him that he should get his
hair cut from Bradley, and holds him responsible for the failure of her sons. She has developed an
affair with her reverend friend, Father Dewis. She leaves the house telling her husband that she is
going out with the Father and will be back soon, but she returns the next day, slightly drunk and
giddy. When Halie comes back, she is dressed gaily in a bright yellow dress and is carrying an
armful of roses. Halie has also committed incest with her eldest son, Tilden. The play ends with
Halie noticing their farmland blossoming with a healthy crop from her room after Dodge has
revealed the secret of the buried child and died.

8.4.3 Tilden:

Tilden is Dodge and Halie’s eldest son. We meet him first in the first act. He is in his late forties
and is ‘burned out,’ and ‘profoundly displaced.’ He enters the living room with an armful of corn
which he claims to have harvested from their backyard which Dodge and Halie assume to be
barren. Tilden husks the corn and spreads the husks over Dodge who is sleeping on the sofa. This
symbolic burial demonstrates Tilden’s hidden aspiration for revenge.

We come to know that in his youth, he was an All-American football player and like typical
American families, Tilden’s family also expected him to follow the American dream and become a
success. They also anticipated that Tilden would take care of his aging parents and handicapped
brother. But Tilden goes astray and the reasons for the same remain untold in the play. We only
get to know that he was jailed while he was in New Mexico. After that incident, he had come back
home, and being mentally unstable, has become a liability to his parents. Due to his mental
imbalance, he is unable to recognise his own son, who had left the house six years ago.

Tilden tells Shelly that he loved to drive for adventure and that he was leading an exciting life in
the past, but now he cannot do the same. When he becomes comfortable talking to Shelly, he
asks for Shelly’s rabbit-fur coat, and Shelly allows him to feel it. He puts it on and takes pleasure in
the softness of the material like a kid. Here he talks about a secret of the family to Shelly. Years
ago, Tilden had committed the sin of incest with his mother and Halie produced his child. Dodge
had murdered this baby boy and buried it in the backyard. Dodge confesses his sin at the end of
the play and we see Tilden enter the living room with the corpse of the buried child in his arms.

Tilden’s adventurous youth and failure to achieve greatness is perhaps the most substantial
example of the failure of the American Dream. Also, Tilden’s harvesting vegetables from their
thought-to-be barren fields throughout the play and his unearthing of the corpse of the buried child
at the end of the play suggest the reinstitution of reconciliation of past and present and opulence in
the family.
8.4.4 Bradley:

Bradley is Dodge and Halie’s middle son approximately five years younger than Tilden. He is huge
in size with muscular arms and shoulders, developed from using crutches. His left leg is wooden
having been amputated above the knee. He walks with a hyperbolic mechanical limp accompanied
by a squeaking sound of leather and metal from harness and hinges. After he accidentally cut off
one of his legs with a chain saw, his parents give up all hope on him and think that Tilden would
take care of Bradley. This accident has perhaps filled Bradley with so much frustration that he
turns into a violent bully. Although he no longer lives with his parents, he visits them often and
comes especially to give Dodge a haircut. He is continuously involved in a power struggle with his
father and that is why using electric clippers he cuts Dodge’s hair very roughly causing injury on
his head. Bradley intimidates Tilden by taking Shelly’s coat away from him and runs him off. He
bullies Shelly also. He calls her a prostitute and to abuse and degrade her, he forcefully puts his
fingers in her mouth and when asked later he denies to have done that. In the end, he is bullied by
Vince who takes his prosthetic leg away from him in a power move and throws it out of the house,
and Bradley chasing the leg symbolises his exit forever.

8.4.5 Ansel:

Ansel is the third son of Dodge and Halie who never appears on the stage. We just hear about
him. The narrative conveyed about him is contradictory in nature. First of all, Halie talks about
Ansel’s death in a motel room. She believes that her son was an excellent player and a war hero
whose death should be commemorated. But the other members of the family do not agree with
Halie, so his character remains mysterious for us. Ansel, with all the qualities associated with him
by his mother, seems to be an epitome of the American Dream and represents its failure in the
play.

8.4.6 Vince:

Vince is a twenty-two-year-old adventurous boy whom we meet at Dodge’s house. He has come
here with his girlfriend Shelly, on a cross-country trip from New Jersey to New Mexico for a
reunion with his father, Tilden, and the rest of the family. Vince’s past is uncertain for we never get
to know anything about his mother, the reason for his leaving the house and what was he doing
while he was away from his family. He plays saxophone and wants to be a musician. It is
exceptionally weird that Vince had left the house only six years ago and when he comes back no
one remembers him. He desperately wants to unite with the family and makes all the efforts to
remind them about his existence. Vince was expecting a warm welcome in his ancestral home,
with a lavish dinner on the table and enthusiastic chat about the past but he is depressed to meet
the disrespectful and drunken grandfather and a half-crazed father. In a panic and anxiety to
remind his estranged relatives about himself he even leaves Shelly and goes to buy some whiskey
for Dodge, hoping that liquor will pacify him and help him remember everything.

Vince spends the entire night out. In his absence his uncle, Bradley terrorizes Shelly, his
grandmother, Halie returns home and she too ignores his girlfriend. Shelly confronts the
idiosyncratic family. Towards the end of the third act, Vince comes back crashing through the door.
He is drunk and is hurling liquor bottles. Dodge admits the truth about the ‘buried child’ in their
backyard. Strangely, identifying in Vince a hope for his family’s future, Dodge announces his last
will and testament and dies leaving the farm and the house to Vince. Vince suddenly takes on a
new role and tells Shelly that he would ‘now carry on the line of his family.’ Firing his confused
girlfriend, he chases Bradley out of the house, begins to put his house in order and then reclines
on the sofa symbolising that he is now the new patriarch of the family. It may then be ascertained
that Dodge’s leaving everything to Vince suggests that the grandfather believed that his grandson
would shoulder the responsibility of patriarch and farmer and lead the family. The end of the play
also shows that Vince has learned the reality of the mythical American dream and he seems to
reject his dream of success by abandoning Shelly, music and travelling. But it can also not be
ignored that we do not find any hint if Vince would be happy and successful which further shows
the slipperiness of the American dream and that it is a myth.

8.4.7 Shelly:

Shelly is Vince’s girlfriend. She comes to Dodge’s house with her boyfriend who wanted to meet
his family. She is an attractive and intelligent young woman in her early twenties. She had come
here imagining that she was going to meet picturesque and idealistic country folk. Shelly
compares Dodge’s decaying farmhouse with a perfect pastoral painting by Rockwell. She is soon
startled and unnerved by the reality of the family’s eccentricity. She tries to persuade Vince to
leave but Shelly encounters Vince’s weirdness when he abandons her to get a bottle of whiskey
for his grandfather. In his absence, Shelly cleans the house, helps Tilden with the vegetables he
keeps bringing in from outside, and examines and analyses family pictures. She is insulted and
degraded by Bradley but the next morning she appears as a transformed and an energized person
who is ready to take on the responsibility of taking care of this crazy family for the sake of her
boyfriend. She tries to encourage Dodge, brings him soup broth and calls him ‘grandpa.’ She
finally becomes the cause of the family’s secret to come to light. But when Dodge rejects her,
Halie disregards her, and Vince disrespects her by pushing her aside, an exasperated Shelly
rushes out of the house telling Vince that she could not hang around for the ones who are not
even related to her.
8.4.8 The Buried Child:

Buried Child revolves around a memory of the past that connects every character of the play. This
memory is the memory of Halie and Tilden’s child. Dodge murdered this baby and buried it
somewhere, and the family has kept the secret for decades. When Dodge finally admits the
murder at the end of the play, Tilden exhumes the corpse of the child from the backyard and brings
it into the house. Dodge’s confession, his death, and Tilden’s unearthing the corpse of the buried
child are swiftly followed by fertility in their backyard. Halie finally notices that the fields behind the
house are full of vegetables which foreshadows regeneration that is now seeping in the
degenerated family of Dodge.

8.4.9 Father Dewis:

In the first act of the play, we hear about Father Dewis from Halie who tells Dodge that she was
going for lunch with the Father. She tells Dodge that she is meeting Father Dewis because he is
going to help her to convince the City Council to erect a statue of their dead son, Ansel. But the
purpose of her meeting the Father is not only related to Ansel’s statue, she has an affair with
Father Dewis. Halie promises to return after lunch but she comes back home with Father Dewis,
the next day. Halie comes in changed clothes with a bouquet of roses which hints that she has
spent the night with him. Moreover, Halie is drunk and when she needs more drink we see that
Father is carrying liquor in his pocket which Halie fetches very seductively. When tension among
members of the family increases in Dodge’s house and Father Dewis is asked for counsel, he
backs away claiming that the matter under discussion is out of his domain. After Dodge confesses
that he had murdered the infant of Halie and Tilden, Father Dewis goes to conciliate distressed
Halie who has run into her bedroom upstairs, but he soon leaves the house with Halie crying in her
room. In the play, Father Dewis should have been the embodiment of true religion but he turns out
to be an ineffectual and unethical man who is seemingly employing the institution of religion for his
own ends.

8.5 A Note on the Setting and the Beginning of Buried Child:

The play Buried Child is set in rural Illinois in 1978 in an old and neglected farmhouse of Dodge.
The setting shows Dodge, the family patriarch, as a feeble and helpless man whose family has
lost all success and everyone is a failure. The crumbling farmhouse in the setting has been used
as an appropriate metaphor for the failure of the American Dream. When the play opens it is
raining outside which reminds the readers of the Biblical flood in Genesis. Rain symbolises
flooding, ruin, and regeneration. Dodge and Halie are incompetent and constantly fighting with
each other right from the beginning which foreshadows that we will encounter an antagonistic
relationship between husband and wife and also amongst the rest of the members of the family.
Halie does not appear on the stage until much later. She is only heard talking to Dodge from her
room upstairs. It not only hints that the couple seems to want to avoid each other but it also shows
the position of women. Halie’s reminiscing the past at the very beginning signifies that the author
wishes to tell us about family is in a specific stage of dysfunction now. We also learn about Halie’s
extra-marital activity and the failure of their sons. Instead of taking care of their aging parents, both
sons are rather dependent upon them.

8.6 A Brief Note on American Dream:

In a layman’s language, American Dream is the belief that any human being, irrespective of the
place where he is born and the class he is born into, can attain a sort after version of success
because he is a part of a society which gives free opportunity to everyone for upward mobility to
reach the zenith of success. The achievement of this dream depends on sacrifice, risk-taking
ability, and heavy labour, rather than on fortune and coincidence. The term, American Dream, was
coined by writer and historian James Truslow Adams in his best-selling 1931 book Epic of America
where he says that it is the dream of a land where life should be better and completer for everyone
and where everyone may get the opportunity according to his/her ability. According to Adams,
American Dream is concerned not only with industrialisation and materialism but it also gives
space to a social order in which everyone attains recognition of their abilities and as a result, they
achieve what they can, according to their mettle. This social order does not recognise any
discrimination on the basis of birth, race, colour, gender, creed, etc. It is also believed that roots of
the idea of the American Dream can be found in the Declaration of American Independence, which
states: ‘We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are
endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and
the pursuit of Happiness.’ The promise of freedom to think and labour for, and equal opportunity to
achieve the dream made the Americans seek superior ideas, to pursue the possibility of
accumulating wealth, and to chase the opportunity to lead a dignified life according to their own
values. At times, the ownership of home, owning a business, being one’s own boss, access to
education and healthcare are also quoted as examples of attaining the American Dream since
they symbolise financial independence and success.

But it cannot be ignored that limitations like the spread of settlers into Native American lands,
slavery, the limitation of the right of vote to white male landowners, increasing income inequality
and a long list of other injustices and challenges weakened the realization of the Dream. In the
19th-century mass emigration of many highly-educated Germans took place who were in turn
affected by the American Dream. Moreover, different political and economic phases within the
country brought changes over many years and in the 20 century, many had grown tired and
th

skeptical of the idea of the American Dream. Accordingly, the depiction of the American Dream in
literature also turned unfavourable. For example, in Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby American
Dream comes with an inflow of affluence though bereft of true love and bliss. It depicts the
American Dream as a destructive force rather than a beneficial one. Arthur Miller’s Death of a
Salesman depicts the consequences that the blind followers of the American Dream have to face.
The Harlem Renaissance poet, Langston Hughes shows that minority groups were never given
the opportunity to follow the American Dream and achieve success. In the same vein, Shepard
also presents that the American Dream is a treacherous myth that is ceaselessly casting its dark
shadows on its followers. Buried Child does not only depict the failure of the characters to achieve
the American Dream, but also the limitations, falsity, and inaccessibility of the dream.

8.7 Discussing Buried Child as a Postmodern Text:

A general reading of the concept of postmodernism tells us that it talks about how certain
challenges in our socio-political world have led to a crisis of authority. Of late, profound changes in
life-style have been perceived everywhere. The new times are in contrast to traditional notions and
manner of living. Postmodern literature is hard to be defined comprehensively and there is little
agreement on the precise features and scope of postmodern literature. However, the term
postmodern literature is used to describe certain characteristics of post–World War II literature and
a reaction against Enlightenment ideas contained in Modernist literature. Rejecting absolute
meanings, postmodern authors celebrate the possibility of multiple meanings or a complete lack of
meaning. The term postmodernism was first used in the 1960s by American cultural critics and
commentators such as Susan Sontag and Leslie Fiedler. They used the term to describe a 'new
sensibility' in literature which either excluded modernist approaches and practices or modified or
stretched them. According to Ihab Hassan postmodern literature is a form of literature which is
noticeable, both stylistically and ideologically, for dependence on literary elements like ambiguity,
discontinuity, pluralism, perversion, deformation, disintegration, deconstruction, difference,
fragmentation, paradox, unreliable narrators, unrealistic and categorically impossible plots, games,
parody, paranoia, dark humour, authorial self-reference, the celebration of silence and otherness.

The three-act structure of the play, Buried Child corresponds to the three generations of a
grotesque family. In the first act, we are introduced to conflicts that get stronger in the second act
and are resolved in the last act. The weird conduct and overstated imperfections of the characters
symbolize their inner psychological shortcomings and archetypal generational conflicts that have
made these characters what they are. On the surface level, the play relates to the passing of the
family farm and by extension patriarchy from one generation to the other, but on the deeper level,
it narrates the story of guilt, betrayal and cycles of decay and regeneration. Buried Child revolves
around seeking roots and a sense of identity is a postmodern text in its style of narration. It is
marked for its frequent discontinuity and an irresolvable tension. The whole play is engulfed in
mystery and suspense. Until the end, the only effort of the readers and audience is to try to
unravel the secret. With the use of a complex network of similes, metaphors, symbols, and myths,
the play explores the guilt and betrayal of a family.

Buried Child displays the quality of a pastiche (parody or imitation) by replicating a number of
works from Oedipus to Osiris. While reading Buried Child one is reminded of Pinter’s The
Homecoming, Ruth and The Birthday Party, Ibsen’s Ghosts, Miller’s Death of a Salesman,
Williams’s The Glass Menagerie, O’Neill’s Desire under the Elms and Long Day’s Journey into
Night. The play is also an ironic pastiche of the gothic genre. An atmosphere of death and decay
gives the play a gothic quality. Buried Child abounds in language fragmentation which is another
prominent aspect of postmodernist literature. Many times, we see that one character is unwilling to
talk when the other wants to indulge in a conversation and it has been done to show that the
characters need to talk to avoid becoming a victim of nothingness. Moreover, the characters of
Buried Child live a life that is far away from reality. In their lives, reality and fiction seem intimate.
For example, Ancel’s reality is uncertain, the existence of Vince’s mother is ambiguous, the reason
behind Tilden’s mental imbalance is never clarified and more importantly obscure is the fact about
the buried child. A postmodern drama is generally a mix of genres. Into the realistic framework of
Buried Child distinct elements of surrealism and symbolism have also been added. The use of
symbols such as the corn, husks, vegetables and rain give the play a symbolist element. The
multiple burials of Dodge are surreal or dreamlike in nature. All the above-mentioned features
show that Buried Child is a postmodern drama in nature.

8.8 Summary
The play Buried Child is shows Dodge, the family patriarch, as a feeble and helpless man whose
family has lost all success and everyone is a failure. The crumbling farmhouse symbolizes the
failure of the American Dream. Dodge and Halie are depicted as an incompetent couple and their
constant fight with each other right from the beginning foreshadows an antagonistic relationship
between husband and wife and also amongst the rest of the members of the family. Halie is only
heard talking to Dodge from her room upstairs which not only hints that the couple seems to want
to avoid each other but it also shows the position of women. Halie’s reminiscing the past at the
very beginning depicts the author’s wish to tell us about family in a specific stage of dysfunction. In
this way, the play is scathing critique of the myth of American dream and can also be read as a
postmodern text.

8.9 References
Auerbach, Doris. “Buried Child” in Sam Shepard, Arthur Kopit, and the Off Broadway

Theatre. US: Twayne, 1982, pp. 53-61.

Hart, Lynda. “Realism Revisited: Buried Child” in Sam Shepard’s Metaphorical Stages.

US: Greenwood Press, 1987, pp. 75-87.

Roudane, Matthew Charles. The Cambridge Companion to Sam Shepard. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press, 2002.

8.10 Further Reading:

Wade, Leslie. Sam Shepard and the American Theatre. US: Greenwood Press, 1997.

Wilcox, Leonard. Rereading Shepard: Contemporary Critical Essays on the Plays of Sam

Shepard. UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 1993.

8.11 Model Questions:

1. Discuss the themes used in Buried Child.

2. Write a detailed note on any one major character in Buried Child.

3. Briefly discuss any two minor characters in Buried Child.

4. Write a detailed note on the symbols that appear in Buried Child.

5. Discuss Buried Child as a postmodern text.

6. How does Buried Child depict the failure of the American Dream?
 L. No. 9

August Wilson’s The Piano Lesson:

Summary and Characterization
Structure

9.0 Objectives
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Introduction to the Playwright
9.3 Short Notes
9.4 Introduction to the Play
9.5 Plot Overview
9.6 Characters in the Play
9.7 Summary
9.8 References
9.9 Further Readings
9.10 Model Questions

9.0 Objectives

After reading this lesson, you will be able to:

● learn about the Afro-American playwright August Wilson

● learn about the peculiarities of the Afro-American drama
● discuss various aspects related to Afro-American literary dramas and the reasons behind its
development
● discuss the historical and social timeline of the play
● understand the plot of the play ‘The Piano Lesson’.
● discuss in detail the characterisation in the play

9.1 Introduction
The current module is based on August Wilson’s play ‘The piano Lesson’ as prescribed in the
syllabus. It is a 1987 play and is ascribed as the fourth play in Wilson’s The Pittsburgh Cycle. This
module is divided into two lessons, the first lesson deals with the overview of the play and it levels
the ground on which various aspects of the play would be discussed in the next lesson. This
particular lesson introduces you to the play and discusses various social and historical movements
that affected the literature of the Blacks in America. It begins with the biographical details of the
dramatist August Wilson and goes on to discuss the plot of the play. It also contains an in-depth
analysis of the characters of the play. The lesson also contains model questions in the end to help
you access and evaluate your understanding of the various concepts discussed in the play.
9.2 Introduction to the Playwright
August Wilson, who was originally named as Frederick August Kittel, was born on April 27, 1945
in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, U.S. and died on October 2, 2005 in Seattle, Washington. He is a
famous American playwright, author of a cycle of plays, each set in a different decade of the 20th
century, about black American life. He won Pulitzer Prizes for two of them: Fences and The Piano
Lesson. The complexity of Wilson’s experience of race while growing up would be expressed in
his plays. His mother was black, his father white, and his stepfather, David Bedford, black. The Hill
District was mostly black, and the suburb, Hazelwood, was predominately white. Wilson and his
family were the targets of racial threats in Hazelwood, and he quit school at age 15 after being
accused of having plagiarized a paper. He turned to self-education, reading intensively in a public
library and returning to the Hill District to learn from residents there. He changed his last
name from Kittel to Wilson, and in the late 1960s he embraced the Black Arts movement. In 1968
he became the co-founder and director of Black Horizons Theatre in Pittsburgh. He also
published poetry in such journals as Black World (1971) and Black Lines (1972).

In 1978 Wilson moved to St. Paul, Minnesota, and in the early 1980s he wrote several plays,
including Jitney, which was first produced in 1982. Focused on cab drivers in the 1970s, it
underwent subsequent revisions as part of his historical cycle; it was published in 2000. His first
major play, Ma Rainey’s Black Bottom, opened on Broadway in 1984 and was a critical and
financial success. Set in Chicago in 1927, the play centers on a verbally abusive blues singer, her
fellow black musicians, and their white manager. Fences, first produced in 1985 and published in
1986, is about a conflict between a father and son in the 1950s; it received a Tony Award for best
play, and a film adaptation was released in 2016.

Wilson received numerous honours during his career, including seven New York Drama Critics’
Circle Awards for best play. He also held Guggenheim and Rockefeller fellowships. Shortly after
his death, the Virginia Theatre on Broadway was renamed in his honour. The August Wilson
Center for African American Culture opened in Pittsburgh in 2009.

9.3 Short Notes

9.3.1 Pittsburgh cycle

Playwright August Wilson wrote about the complexity of the African American experience, of
undocumented lives, and of the people he grew up within the Hill District of Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania. Ten of his plays comprise a deliberate body of work unto itself: “The Pittsburgh
Cycle,” also known as the “Century Cycle.” Each of the plays is set in a different decade of the
20th century, representative of their time from which the past insists on being acknowledged and
taken into account. The Pittsburgh Cycle, interestingly enough, was not written in chronological
order. In the 2015 documentary, August Wilson: The Ground on Which I Stand, the playwright
describes how the plays revealed themselves to him: “Generally I start with a line of dialogue and I
often don’t know who is talking or why their talking and then I’ll give the character a name. And by
probing him and questioning him I begin to find out things I need about the character and from out
of that comes the story.” The plays are not connected in the manner of a serial story but
characters do repeatedly appear at different stages of their lives and the offspring of previous
characters also feature; the figure of Aunt Ester features most often in the cycle. Another
dominating feature of the work is the presence of an apparently mentally-impaired character;
examples include Gabriel in Fences and Hedley in Seven Guitars. The names of the plays that
comprise the Pittsburgh Cycle are as follows:

1. ‘Jitney’ (Set in 1977; Premiered in 1982)

2. ‘Ma Rainey’s Black Bottom’ (Set in 1927; Premiered in 1984)
3. ‘Joe Turner's Come and Gone’ (Set in 1911; Premiered in 1984)
4. ‘Fences’ (Set in 1957; Premiered in 1987)
5. ‘The Piano Lesson’ (Set in 1936; Premiered in 1990)
6. ‘Two Trains Running’ (Set in 1969; Premiered in 1991)
7. ‘Seven Guitars’ (Set in 1948; Premiered in 1995)
8. ‘King Hedley II’ (Set in 1985; Premiered in 1999)
9. ‘Gem of the Ocean’ (Set in 1904; Premiered in 2003)
10. ‘Radio Golf’ (Set in 1990; Premiered in 2005)

9.3.2 The Great Depression

Lasting from 1929 to 1939, the Great Depression was the worst economic downtown in the
industrialized world. While no group escaped the economic devastation of the Great Depression,
few suffered more than African Americans. Said to be “last hired, first fired,” African Americans
were the first to see hours and jobs cut, and they experienced the highest unemployment rate
during the 1930s. In early public assistance programs, African Americans often received
substantially less aid than whites, and some charitable organizations even excluded blacks from
their soup kitchens. Since they were already relegated to lower-paying professions, African
Americans had less of a financial cushion to fall back on when the economy collapsed. There was
no relief from the liberal Roosevelt administration, whose National Recovery Act (NRA) of 1933
was soon referred to by Blacks as the Negro Removal Act. Although its stated goal was non-
discriminatory hiring and an equal minimum wage for whites and Blacks, NRA public works
projects rarely employed Blacks and maintained racist wage differentials when they did. The
intensified economic plight sparked major political developments among African Americans.
Beginning in 1929, the St. Louis Urban League launched a national “jobs for Negroes” movement
by boycotting chain stores that had mostly black customers but hired only white employees. Efforts
to unify African American organizations and youth groups later led to the founding of the National
Negro Congress in 1936 and the Southern Negro Youth Congress in 1937.

9.3.3 Black Arts Movement

The Black Arts Movement was the name given to a group of politically motivated black poets,
artists, dramatists, musicians, and writers who emerged in the wake of the Black
Power Movement. The poet Imamu Amiri Baraka is widely considered to be the father of the Black
Arts Movement, which began in 1965 and ended in 1975. The Black Arts Movement was formally
established in 1965 when Baraka opened the Black Arts Repertory Theater in Harlem. The
movement had its greatest impact on theater and poetry. Although it began in the New
York/Newark area, it soon spread to Chicago, Illinois, Detroit, Michigan, and San
Francisco, California. In Chicago, Hoyt Fuller and John Johnson edited and published Negro
Digest (later Black World), which promoted the work of new black literary artists. Also in Chicago,
Third World Press published black writers and poets. In Detroit, Lotus Press and Broadside Press
republished older works of black poetry. These Midwestern publishing houses brought recognition
to edgy, experimental poets. New black theater groups were also established. In 1969, Robert
Chrisman and Nathan Hare established The Black Scholar, which was the first scholarly journal to
promote black studies within academia. There was also a collaboration between the cultural
nationalists of the Black Arts Movement and mainstream black musicians, particularly
celebrated jazz musicians including John Coltrane, Thelonious Monk, Archie Shepp, and others.
Cultural nationalists saw jazz as a distinctly black art form that was more politically appealing
than the soul, gospel, rhythm and blues, and other genres of black music. Although the creative
works of the movement were often profound and innovative, they also often alienated both black
and white mainstream culture with their raw shock value which often embraced violence. Some of
the most prominent works were also seen as racist, homophobic, anti-Semitic, and sexist. Many
works put forth a black hyper masculinity in response to historical humiliation and degradation of
African American men but usually at the expense of some black female voices.

9.4 Introduction to the Play

The Piano Lesson is a 1987 play by the American playwright August Wilson. It is the fourth play in
Wilson’s The Pittsburgh Cycle. Wilson began writing this play by playing with the various answers
regarding the possibility of “acquir[ing] a sense of self-worth by denying one’s past”. The Piano
Lesson was awarded with the 1990 Pulitzer Prize for Drama. The Piano Lesson won Wilson his
second Pulitzer Prize in 1990, making the playwright one of a very select handful of writers with
multiple Pulitzers, and the only African American repeat winner. It was also given a New York
Drama Critics’ Circle award and a Drama Desk award, and the Broadway production received a
nomination for the Tony.
It was actually a Romare Bearden painting named The Piano Lesson that inspired Wilson to write
a play featuring a strong female character to confront African-American history, paralleling Troy in
his earlier play Fences. However, on finishing his play, Wilson found the ending to stray from the
empowered female character as well as from the question regarding self-worth. What The Piano
Lesson finally seems to ask is: “What do you do with your legacy, and how do you best put it to
use?”

The play The Piano Lesson is set in 1936 Pittsburgh during the aftermath of the Great
Depression. It follows the lives of the Charles family in the Doaker Charles household and an
heirloom, the family piano, which is decorated with designs carved by an enslaved ancestor. The
play focuses on the arguments between a brother and a sister who have different ideas on what to
do with the piano. The brother, Boy Willie, is a sharecropper who wants to sell the piano to buy the
land (Sutter’s land) where his ancestors toiled as slaves. The sister, Berniece, remains emphatic
about keeping the piano, which shows the carved faces of their great-grandfather's wife and son
during the days of their enslavement.

‘The Piano Lesson’ came to life through three years of extensive work-shopping, a process which
allowed Wilson to find the ending of the play naturally. “I didn’t want to say what happened to the
piano, because I didn’t think it was important”, Wilson recalled in a 1993 interview. “But the
audience, as I discovered, wanted to know, and they felt it was very unfair to sit there for three
hours and not find out what happened to the piano. I always knew what happened: it was just a
question of keeping the lights on for another two minutes at the end”.

‘The Piano Lesson’ did receive some negative criticism as well, largely focusing on the elaborate
kitchen-sink realism of the production. But Robert Brustein at The New Republic was uniquely
vicious, accusing Wilson of merely trying “to stimulate the guilt glands of liberal white audiences,”
and offensively placing Wilson in a separate category from the likes of Eugene O’Neill because
Wilson wrote only about “the black experience” while O’Neill tackled “the human experience”. But
this virulent criticism was largely drowned out in a wave of approval, and the original production
ran for 328 performances.

9.5 Plot Overview

The Piano Lesson is set in Pittsburgh in 1936, with all the action taking place in the house of
Doaker Charles. A 137-year-old, upright piano, decorated with totems in the manner of African
sculpture, dominates the parlor of the house. The play opens at dawn. Boy Willie, Doaker's
nephew, knocks at the door and enters with his partner, Lymon. Two have come from Mississippi
to sell watermelons. Willie has not seen his sister Berniece, who lives with Doaker, for three years
as he has been serving a sentence on the Parchman Prison Farm.
Willie asks his uncle for a celebratory drink as the Ghosts of the Yellow Dog have drowned Sutter
in his own well. Willie intends to sell the family piano and use the money to buy Sutter’s land, the
land where his ancestors had once worked as slaves. Doaker, however, is sure Berniece will not
part with the piano. Indeed, Avery Brown—a preacher who has been courting Berniece since her
husband Crawley died—has already tried to get her to sell it. Willie schemes to get in touch with
the prospective buyer himself.

Suddenly Berniece cries out off-stage, “Go on get away”. Berniece claims she has seen Sutter’s
ghost, calling the name of Boy Willie. She is convinced that her brother pushed Sutter into the
well. Shaken, she refuses to cooperate with his plans.

Three days later, Doaker’s brother Wining Boy, a wandering, washed-up recording star, sits at the
kitchen table discussing the recent events with the men. Wining Boy mentions that he heard Willie
and Lymon were on Parchman Farm. Willie explains that some whites had tried to chase Willie,
Lymon, and Berniece’s husband Crawley from some wood they were pilfering. Crawley fought
back and was killed while the other two went to prison. The men reminisce about Parchman and
sing an old work song.

Doaker then explains the piano’s history to Lymon. During slavery, a man named Robert Sutter,
who was the grandfather of the recently deceased Sutter, owned the Charles family. He wanted to
make an anniversary present out of his friend’s piano but could not afford it. Thus he traded a full
and a half grown slave—Doaker's grandmother Berniece and his father—for the instrument.
Though initially Sutter’s wife loved the piano, she eventually came to miss her slaves, falling
desperately ill. So, Sutter asked Doaker’s grandfather, Willie Boy, to carve the faces of his wife
and child into the piano. Willie Boy did not only immediately carve his family, however, but included
his mother, father, and various scenes from the family history.

Years after slavery, Berniece and Boy Willie’s father, Boy Charles, developed an obsession over
the piano, believing that as long as the Sutters held it, they held the family in bondage. Thus, on
July 4, 1911, he, along with Doaker and Wining Boy, stole it. Later that day, the lynchers set Boy
Charles’s house on fire. He fled to catch the Yellow Dog, but the mob stopped the train and set his
boxcar on fire. Boy Charles died along with the hobos in his car, all of whom became the ghosts of
the railroad.

Once Doaker has finished his story, Willie and Lymon attempt to move the piano. Berniece enters
and commands Willie to stop, since the piano is their legacy. Berniece invokes the memory of their
mother, who attended to the piano until the day she died. She attacks Boy Willie for perpetuating
the endless theft and murder in their family, blaming him for the death of her husband. Suddenly,
Maretha, Berniece’s daughter, is heard screaming upstairs in terror, as Sutter’s ghost has
appeared again.
The following morning, Wining Boy enters with a suit he has been unable to pawn. Shrewdly, he
sells his suit to Lymon, promising that it has a magical effect on the ladies. Lymon and Boy Willie
plan to go out of the local picture show and find some women.

Later that evening, Berniece appears preparing a tub for her bath. Avery enters and proposes to
Berniece anew. Berniece refuses and wonders why everyone tells her that she cannot be a
woman unless she has a man. Changing the subject, Berniece asks Avery to bless the house as
she hoped that the ghost of Sutter can be exorcised in the manner. Avery suggests that she use
the piano to start a choir at his church. Berniece replies that she deliberately leaves the piano
untouched to keep it from waking its spirits.

Several hours later, Boy Willie enters the darkened house with Grace, a local girl. They begin to
kiss and knock over a lamp. Enraged, Berniece comes downstairs and orders them out. Later
when Berniece is making tea, Lymon returns, looking for Willie. He is tired of one-night stands and
dreams of finding the right woman. Musing on Wining Boy's magic suit, he withdraws a bottle of
perfume from his pocket and gives it to Berniece and they kiss.

The final scene begins the next day with Willie telling Maretha of the Ghosts of Yellow Dog. He has
already called the buyer about the piano. Berniece enters and once again orders Willie out of her
house. They argue anew and Willie invokes the memory of his father, arguing that he only plans to
do as he might have done. Willie and Lymon begin to move the piano. Berniece exits and
reappears with Crawley’s gun. Suddenly a drunken Wining Boy enters, comically breaking the
tension of the scene. He sits down to play a song that he had written in the memory of his wife,
shielding the piano from Willie. A knock at the door follows, and Grace enters. She and Lymon
have a date for the picture show and suddenly Sutter’s presence asserts itself. Grace flees with
Lymon, thus leaving only the members of the Charles family and Avery in the house.

Avery moves forward to bless the piano. Boy Willie intercedes, taunting Sutter as Avery attempts
his exorcism. He charges up the stairs, and an unseen force drives him back. He charges back up,
and then engages with Sutter in a life-and-death struggle. Suddenly, as if in a dream, Berniece
realises what she must do and begins to play the piano. "I want you to help me," she sings,
naming her ancestors. Eventually, a strange calm comes over the house. Willie reappears and
asks Wining Boy is he is ready to catch the train back south. Willie says goodbye to his sister, and
Berniece thanks him, thus ending the play with this goodbye.

9.6 Characters in the Play

9.6.1 Berniece

At the heart of The Piano Lesson is a brother and sister couple at war over the question of using
the family legacy. Berniece, the sister, fiercely protects the piano from being sold. She figures as
the guardian of the family’s past. Unlike other characters, the stage notes for Berniece are
somewhat sparse, describing her as a thirty-five-year-old mother still mourning for her husband,
Crawley. She blames her brother, Boy Willie, for her husband’s death, remaining sceptical of his
bravado and chiding him for his rebellious ways. Berniece still constantly thinks about Crawley and
has refused to re-marry. Though the play ultimately stages her seduction by Lymon—in some
sense to recuperate her femininity—it is crucial that she figures as a woman-in-mourning. In this
respect, she doubles as her mother, Mama Ola, a woman who, in her mourning for her husband,
spent the rest of her days attending to the piano that cost him his life. She is a hard woman to
please. Her husband died three years ago, and she has lived with her uncle and daughter since,
living day to day and worrying only about raising Maretha. Her stubborn refusal to change her
ways is shown in her unwillingness to marry Avery or to sell, or even play, the piano. She is the
type of woman who thinks men are only good for messes, and leaving women to clean up after
them. Berniece will continually invoke her memory against her brother and his own appeals to his
father, thus appearing as heir to a certain maternal legacy. Indeed, her mother led her to the piano
in the first place.

Berniece played for her mother as a child, and served as a priestess in the channelling of the
family’s ghosts, her music enabling her mother to speak with her dead father and animating it's
carved figures. The adult Berniece now leaves the piano untouched in an attempt to lay these
spirits to rest. Moreover, she has refused to pass the piano's history onto her daughter and
celebrate it within the family. Berniece can do nothing but carry the past and its traumas with her.
In the final struggle between Willie and Sutter’s ghost, Berniece will play the piano and resume her
old role as priestess, calling the family’s spirits to assist in the exorcism. Mystically, she will at once
speak from the family’s place of origin (Africa) and address the family’s spirits from the present.
Berniece thus assumes her duties as the link to the ancestors.

9.6.2 Boy Willie

Boy Willie is the thirty-year-old brother of Berniece. He is brash, impulsive, and fast-talking and
introduces the central conflict of the play. Coming from Mississippi, he plans to sell the family
piano and buy the land where his ancestors had once worked as slaves. His impulse is to use the
family’s legacy practically—that is, convert it into capital. In this sense, Willie will appear guilty of a
denial or turn away from his family’s traumatic past.

Willie approaches everything with a certain boyish and occasionally crude bravado. He is
especially vehement on questions of race. He is a schemer who is always embroiled in some plot
or another. His current ambition is to validate his family’s past and secure its future by purchasing
the land they worked as slaves. But in order to do this, he must sell the piano. He gets his way not
through persuasion but by bulldozing people, but his sister’s conviction proves an insurmountable
road block. Declaring himself the equal of the white man, he continually refuses to accept the
racial situation that he imagines the others accommodate themselves to. Thus he insists that he
lives at the “top” rather than the “bottom” of life and remains intent on leaving his mark on the
world. Aware of the fear he arouses in whites, he knows that he wields the “power of death”, that
is, the power both to risk one’s life and kill if necessary—that ostensibly equalizes all men. Though
the white man may wield the legal and political authority to punish him, he will only follow laws that
he considers just.

Willie seeks Sutter’s land as a means of standing shoulder-to-shoulder with the white man.
Moreover, in a play intimately concerned with memory and inheritance, he imagines this purchase
in terms of a certain paternal legacy. By selling the piano, he avenges his equally brash and
impetuous father, Boy Charles, who spent his life property-less, doing as he might have done. The
mark he would leave on the world memorialises the father. Similarly, he proposes that the family
should consider the day that Boy Charles stole the piano their own holiday and their own Day of
Independence. In light of this legacy, it is also not for nothing that Willie’s namesake is his
grandfather, Willie Boy, the slave who transgresses white authority, the carving of the piano, and
leaves a literal “mark” on the world that sets the story in motion. In the final scene, Boy Willie
comes to incarnate these paternal ancestors, engaging in a battle with Sutter’s ghost that
allegorises the struggle between white and black across the generations. Though Berniece
eventually calls to the ancestors through the piano which will lead him to understand the
importance of the piano, he, in a sense, was already living in the memory of his ancestral legacy.

9.6.3 Wining Boy

One of the most memorable characters of the play, Wining Boy is a wandering, washed-up
recording star who drifts in and out of his brother Doaker’s household whenever he finds himself
broke. A comic figure, he functions as one of the play’s primary storytellers, recounting anecdotes
from his travels, glory days, and the family history. He is one of the two older players in Wilson’s
scenes of male camaraderie, playing a sort of godfather to Lymon when he deftly sells him “magic
suit” with the promise that it will assist him in the arts of seduction. Finally, Wining Boy also
appears as the other character in the play who can speak to the dead, conversing with the Ghosts
of Yellow Dog and calling to his dead wife, Cleotha. As with Berniece, his musical abilities
apparently put him in closer communication with the deceased, the call and response of the play's
many songs often a call across the grave as well.

9.6.4 Doaker Charles

Doaker Charles is the uncle of Berniece and Boy Willie, and the owner of the household in which
the play takes place. Doaker is a tall and thin man who is forty-seven years old. He spent his life
working for the railroad. He functions as the play’s testifier, recounting the piano’s history. Like
Wining Boy, the other member of the family’s oldest living generation, Doaker offers a connection
to the family's past through his stories. Doaker is the closest thing the Charles family currently has
to a patriarch, as the more stable and grounded of the two surviving siblings. He has worked his
entire life on the railroad, first laying rail and now as a cook, and is given to incorporating the
mythos of the rail into his everyday philosophy. He refuses to take sides in the drama over the
piano, but steps in to stop the situation from getting out of hand.

9.6.5 Lymon

Lymon is Boy Willie’s long-time friend. The twenty-nine-year-old Lymon is more taciturn than his
partner, speaking with a disarming “straightforwardness”. Fleeing the law, he plans to stay in the
north and begin life anew. An outsider to the family, he functions particularly in the beginning of the
play as a sort of listener, eliciting stories from the family’s past. Obsessed with women, he will also
appear prominently in his seduction of Berniece, where he helps bring her out of her mourning for
her dead husband. Although Boy Willie considers himself the brains of the operation, Lymon is just
more inclined to geniality and taking things as they come. He can be proactive, in a mild yet
effective way that is often upstaged by Boy Willie's brash style. In the end, he gains a will and
identity of his own, and parts ways from Boy Willie.

9.6.6 Maretha

Maretha is Berniece’s eleven-year-old daughter. She is beginning to learn the piano. She doesn’t
know much about her family's history, but she is interested when Boy Willie starts to tell her. Her
mother allows Maretha to take piano lessons, but never explains why she herself would not play it.
Maretha’s fear of the ghost upstairs leads to Boy Willie’s confrontation with the specter. She
symbolizes the next generation of the Charles’ family, providing the occasion for a number of
confrontations on what the family should do with its legacy.

9.6.7 Avery Brown

Avery Brown is a preacher who is trying to build his congregation. Avery moves north once
Berniece’s husband dies in an attempt to court Berniece. Thirty-eight years old, he is honest and
ambitious, having “taken to the city like a fish to water”, and found opportunities unavailable to him
in the rural South. Fervently religious, he brings Christian authority to bear in the exorcism of
Sutter’s ghost. He more than anyone in the cast has settled into his role in the white man’s world,
and enjoys his steady job as an elevator operator while saving money to start his true calling as a
preacher. Although not well educated, he makes a good show of it, and is called upon to help
dispel the spirits from the house.
Self-Assessment Questions:
1. Name any two plays belonging to Pittsburg Cycle?
2. Name the characters who reappear in the Pittsburgh Cycle.
3. Who is the protagonist of the play The Piano Lesson?
4. What is the play about?

9.7 Summary
You are now acquainted with the story of the play The Piano Lesson composed by the playwright
August Wilson. The complexity of Wilson’s experience of race while growing up has been
poignantly depicted in his play. You have also read about the characters of the play. The lesson
has provided you with the historical background of the play, so that you would be able to deal with
the finer aspects of the play in the next lesson.

9.8 References
“August Wilson: American dramatist”, Encyclopaedia Britannica,
<www.britannica.com/biography/August-Wilson>.
“ August Wilson’s ‘Pittsburgh Cycle’ Plays”, Biography,
<www.biography.com/news/august-wilson-pittsburgh-cycle-century-cycle-plays-summary>.
“Blacks and the Great Depression”, SocialistWorker.Org,
<socialistworker.org/2012/06/28/blacks-and-the-great-depression>.
“African American life during the Great Depression and the New Deal”, Encyclopaedia Britannica,
<www.britannica.com/topic/African-American/African-American-life-during-the-Great-Depression-a
nd-the-New-Deal>.

9.9 Further Readings

“August Wilson and Black Horizon Theatre”, Pitt Chronicle, University of
Pittsburgh. <www.chronicle.pitt.edu>.
“August Wilson: The Ground on Which I Stand, Biography and Timeline”, American Masters
PBS" , American Masters.
“Remembering August Wilson 1945–2005", The Pitt Chronicle. The University of Pittsburgh.
9.10 Model Questions

1. Discuss the play The Piano Lesson in the light of the historical events that happened in the
era of the Great Depression.
2. Elaborate the character of Berniece and Boy Willie in the play The Piano Lesson.
 L. No. 10

August Wilson’s The Piano Lesson:

Critical Analysis of the Play
Structure

10.0 Objectives
10. 1 Introduction
10. 2 Act-wise Summary of the Play

10.2.1 Summary of Act I Scene I

10.2.2 Summary of Act I Scene II

10.2.3 Summary of Act II, Scene I and II

10.2. 4 Summary of Act II, Scene III and IV

10.2.5 Summary of Act II Scene V

10.3 Critical Analysis of the Play

10.4 Summary

10. 5 References

10.6 Further readings

10.7 Model questions

10.0 Objectives
After reading this lesson, you would be able to:

● Discuss the play ‘The Piano Lesson’ by August Wilson.

● Discuss the play of factors of race and identity in the play.
● Attempt a critical evaluation of the play.
● The lesson provides you a detailed summary and analysis of the text to help you
understand the concepts better.
10.1 Introduction
The current lesson is based on the play ‘The Piano Lesson’ by August Wilson. In the previous
lesson, you had read about the historical and social factors that led to the creation of this text,
while this lesson gives you a detailed summary and analysis of the text. This lesson contains Act-
wise summary of the whole play, so that you are able to understand the finer nuances of the text.
Model questions are provided at the end of the lesson to facilitate understanding.

10.2.1 Summary of Act I- Scene I

The play opens early morning in the house shared by Doaker, his niece Berniece, and her young
daughter Maretha. The action starts with the arrival of Boy Willie, Berniece’s brother, and his
friend Lymon. They bang on the door until Doaker wakes up, and explain that they have come
from Mississippi to Pittsburgh to sell the load of watermelons waiting in a truck outside. The truck
broke down three times on the way north, but they made it. And Boy Willie aims to see his sister,
no matter what the time is.

Berniece awakes, grumpy at the noise. Boy Willie reports that Sutter drowned in his own well, and
was probably pushed. Boy Willie thinks he was done in by the Ghosts of the Yellow Dog. Sutter, as
gradually becomes clear, owned the land once worked by the Charles family, and was a frightful
man. Berniece challenges the origin of the truck outside, and Lymon insists he bought it, though
he does not say from where he got the money. He also refuses to say why he is avoiding the
sheriff, and plans to stay in Pittsburgh after selling the cargo, whereas Boy Willie will take the train
home. Berniece exits to wake Maretha to see her uncle. Doaker mentions Wining Boy, his brother,
who pops in and out of their lives every few years, whenever he has money troubles. The beautiful
carved upright piano in the house was his for a time.

Boy Willie’s master plan is to sell that piano. With his savings, the watermelon sales, and the
money from his share of the piano, he will have enough cash to buy Sutter’s place. Doaker says
Berniece will never sell that piano. He tells him about Avery, the fledgling preacher, who once sent
a man trying to buy the instruments, and he made a fine offer but Berniece refused. Also, Avery is
trying to marry Berniece, but she refuses him as well, she is still mourning her husband Crawley,
three years dead.

Berniece rushes downstairs in a fright. She has just seen the ghost of Sutter. The ghost wore a
suit and said Boy Willie’s name, leading Berniece to believe that Boy Willie pushed Sutter in that
well. Boy Willie denies it as impossible and reasons the ghost could not know who pushed him
anyway, as Sutter was pushed from behind. Berniece says if it were not for Boy Willie, Crawley
would be alive. He scoffs and says that the way to lose the ghosts is to sell the piano. Berniece
tells them to get out, and she and Doaker go upstairs.

Boy Willie says Lymon is staying north because he is afraid of working, but Boy Willie intends to
work that land hard. Doaker returns and says he believes Berniece saw Sutter in the suit he was
buried in. He begins to talk about his twenty-seven years on the railroad, first laying rail and now
cooking. He muses about why people ride the trains, concluding that the train will never take you
where you are going, only where it is going.

11-year-old Maretha comes downstairs. She has been taking lessons on the piano, and Boy Willie
asks her to play. She does, and Boy Willie then demonstrates a boogie woogie tune, but Maretha
cannot copy it because she needs to read music. Boy Willie says he will get her a guitar so she
would not need any music paper. Avery enters, and explains how he is trying to start a church and
become a preacher. He was called by God in a dream, in which he volunteered to lead a flock of
sheep-men through a field of woods. Berniece re-enters and takes Doaker’s market order. Boy
Willie unsubtly asks the name of the guy who wanted to buy the piano previously, and tells
Berniece of his plan to buy the Sutter land. Berniece dismisses any thought of selling the piano,
and leaves. Boy Willie tells Doaker that if Berniece does not let him sell the piano, he will cut it in
half and sell his share.

10.2.2 Summary of Act I Scene II

Three days later, Wining Boy comes to town and is updated by Doaker. Wining Boy mentions that
his ex-wife Cleotha died. He is saddened by this, and carries the letter with the news. He says that
she was a good woman,. Boy Willie and Lymon enter and report that the truck broke down on the
way to the white area, and one of them will have to sleep with the truck that night to protect the
watermelons. Boy Willie accuses Wining Boy of being broke, but Wining Boy denies it.

The men tally off the names of those who have been killed by the Ghosts of Yellow Dog. Wining
Boy has stood on the tracks and spoken to these ghosts, and believes it but Berniece does not.
Boy Willie is sure Sutter will wait on him to buy the land, but the others smell a con. He also
explains that Crawley died while helping him and Lymon to steal lumber. Lymon is on the run from
the same event. Wining Boy says that white men can fix the law but the colored man cannot; they
must be cautious or they will end up working back on Parchman farm. This leads to everyone
singing a work song about a girl named Alberta who should marry a steady-working railroad man
and not a farmer.

Wining Boy tells how he gave up the piano after years of carrying a piano on his back and growing
sick of being paid in whisky and women. Doaker then tells the story of the piano to explain why
Berniece would not sell it. When the family was owned by the Sutters, Mr. Sutter wanted to buy a
present for his wife Ophelia. Nolander had a piano, and Sutter traded Doaker’s grandmother and
9-year-old father for it. Ophelia loved the piano but soon missed her slaves; Nolanger, however,
would not trade it back. So Sutter called in the first Willie Boy, Doaker’s grandpa, who was not sold
with his family, and who was an expert woodworker. He was asked to carve likenesses of his wife
and son into the piano for Ophelia. He went a step further and carved their entire family’s history.
After the war, the piano was still owned by Sutter. So the brothers Doaker, Wining Boy, and Boy
Charles (Berniece and Boy Willie’s father) schemed to steal it. They got away with the piano, but
the white men caught up with Boy Charles on a boxcar on the Yellow Dog train, and set it afire with
him and four hobos inside. And they became the ghosts of Yellow Dog. Berniece would not sell the
piano, because her father died over it.

Boy Willie does not care, because the piano is not doing anyone any good. Farming creates
capital, but a piano does not. He wants to own the land his family long worked. Wining Boy goes to
the piano and sings a song from his bar-playing days. Berniece comes home. While she is out of
the room, Boy Willie and Lymon test lifting the piano. The sound of the ghost is heard. Berniece
enters, angry that they still think they can sell the piano, when it would be equal to selling their
soul. Boy Willie explains that he would understand if she gave lessons on it or ran a choir, but that
it only has sentimental value. He says their father would have understood that it was more
important to own land.

Berniece offers a sharp rebuttal, saying that their mother polished the piano with her tears for
seventeen years. All men do is to thieve and kill. Boy Willie says he never killed, but Berniece says
he killed Crawley, by mixing him up in his scheme. Boy Willie denies it, and Berniece insists,
getting angry and raining blows on Boy Willie’s chest. Their fight is broken up by Maretha shouting
from upstairs in terror.

10.2.3 Summary of Act II- Scene I and II

Wining Boy has failed to pawn his silk suit for an acceptable price, and tries to get five dollars from
Doaker. Doaker says he saw the ghost of Sutter before Berniece, sitting by the piano. Doaker
thinks he should just get rid of it. Wining Boy agrees with Berniece and does not care what a ghost
thinks. Boy Willie and Lymon come home victorious from a day of melon sales, and count their
earnings. Wining Boy talks Lymon into buying his suit from him at full price, and the young men get
ready to go out to find women. Wining Boy tells how he bailed Lymon’s father out of jail once, and
spent a night with his mother in return. His father had bad luck and was killed shortly thereafter.

Later, Berniece is fixing her bath when Avery comes. He observes that the melons are almost all
gone. His real purpose is to propose again; soon his church will be established, and a preacher
needs a wife. Berniece is not ready to re-marry. Avery asks whether she is still a woman. She is
hurt and angry why a woman is not a woman unless she has a man. Avery tells her she can carry
Crawley around with her forever. But Berniece has other things to worry about, like Sutter’s
ghost. Maretha saw it too, last night. She asks Avery to bless the house to rid it of ghosts, but he
does not know if he can do that. Avery thinks she should start a choir at his church so that Boy
Willie will understand keeping the piano. But Berniece refuses to play the piano. She hasn’t since
her mother died as it awakens too many ghosts. Avery likens her inability to move past her
husband to her inability to move past the piano’s history. Berniece dismisses Avery, at which point
Avery says he will be back tomorrow to bless the house.

10.2.4 Summary of Act II- Scene III and IV

Boy Willie brings home a young woman, Grace, at night. Boy Willie tries to romance her, but she
hesitates when she realises that there is no bed, only a couch. Grace tries to get Boy Willie to go
back to her place, maintaining that her ex, Leroy, probably won’t be there, but Boy Willie refuses to
go anywhere Leroy might show up. They begin to kiss, and knock over a lamp. Berniece enters
from upstairs, and sees Grace. Berniece does not allow overnight guests, and tells Grace to leave.
Grace is happy to go, but Boy Willie resists. With some pressure, the two leave.

Berniece puts on the kettle, and Lymon comes home. He tells Berniece that the only woman he
found wanted to use him for free drinks. He saw one woman he liked, but Boy Willie got her first; it
was Grace. Lymon is wistful about missing his opportunity with Grace. He says that Maretha looks
like Berniece, and that he likes kids. Lymon is staying in the city because the sheriff is looking for
him down south, and he figures that up north he can get a job and get himself settled down.
Berniece remarks that the women in saloons, who go home with men, get old very fast. She does
not understand that life. Lymon figures them as lonely. He used to be the same, but now he has to
really like a girl to want to be with her. He just has not found the right one. Berniece says she is
doing the same, and Avery is not anything special. Lymon asks if she goes out much, but she
replies that she just stays home with Maretha. Lymon compliments her fancy nightgown, and gives
her a bottle of perfume that he had bought to give to Dolly if he had liked her more. Lymon puts
some of the perfume behind Berniece’s ear, and they kiss briefly. Berniece leaves. Lymon strokes
his magic silk suit lovingly.

The next morning, Boy Willie comes home and wakes Lymon. Boy Willie did in fact have a run-in
with this Leroy, but he got away. Boy Willie has called the man about the piano, and he has offered
1150 Dollars. Lymon says he should have asked for more; white folk have a lot of money. They try
to lift the piano, and the sound of Sutter’s ghost is heard. The piano would not budge. They keep
trying, but it is stuck in place. Doaker comes in and shoos them away, saying that no one carries
anything out of his house without his permission; he insists they leave it till Berniece gets home.
They ignore Doaker and keep trying to budge the piano. Doaker tells them off threateningly, and
they leave to find some string and wheels for the job.

10.2.5 Summary of Act II Scene V

Boy Willie is screwing wheels on a plank and telling Maretha the history of the Yellow Dog train
and its ghosts. He has not spoken to them, but Wining Boy has. Berniece comes home and sends
Maretha upstairs, though she is afraid of the ghost. Boy Willie goes with her to fight off the ghost
for her. Berniece tells Doaker she is done playing games with Boy Willie, and has a gun if need be.
She and Boy Willie go another round, with Doaker refusing to take sides. Boy Willie says he is not
scared of death, ever since he killed a cat and discovered he can wield death just like the white
man. Avery goes to get his Bible to bless the house, and Boy Willie argues that they are taking the
Bible halfway, ignoring the “eye for an eye” section.

Berniece begins to grease Maretha’s hair with a hot comb. Boy Willie rants that Berniece has not
told Maretha about the piano, when it should be a cause for celebration, not sadness and shame.
Berniece says that he should have his own child if he’s so keen on raising one. But Boy Willie
would not want to bring a child into this world. His father had to work for the man because he had
no other way of working for himself, and Boy Willie aims to change that cycle by having his own
land. With land, everything else falls into place. He refuses to live at the bottom of life. Berniece
says he is on the bottom with the rest of them, but Boy Willie says you are only on the bottom if
you think you are. Boy Willie just wants to make a mark on life, to say he was here.

Avery enters, and Boy Willie asks him whether he can get to heaven on half the bible. Avery says
that you must be born again. Boy Willie refers to the “eye for an eye” line, but Avery begins talking
about his congregation. He’s there to bless the house, which should make any ghost leave.
Lymon enters with the string. He runs into Grace on the way. Boy Willie and Lymon start trussing
the piano. Berniece goes upstairs and comes back with Crawley’s gun in her pocket. Lymon for
the first time wants Berniece to have her say, but Boy Willie yells at him. Lymon apologises to
Berniece, but she is only focused on Boy Willie. He says she will shoot him to stop him and sends
Maretha upstairs.

Wining Boy enters, drunk. They try to put him to bed, but he intends to play the piano. He sings a
song he wrote for Cleotha. Boy Willie tries to get him up so he can move the piano, but Wining
Boy says that if they take it he is going along with it. Grace knocks on the door. She had been
waiting in Lymon’s truck. Berniece tells Lymon to leave with Grace, but Boy Willie says he has to
help move the piano first. Everyone suddenly senses Sutter’s presence. Grace feels it too, and
runs off. Lymon follows to take her home.

The characters acknowledge that Sutter is upstairs. Bernice tells Avery to bless the house. Doaker
says to bless the piano, for it is what is causing all the trouble. Avery reads the Bible and casts
holy water on the piano. Boy Willie grabs his own pot of water and flings it about, yelling at Sutter.
He runs upstairs, and is thrown back. He tries again and again, wrestling the ghost upstairs while
everyone listens, stunned.

Berniece crosses to the piano and begins to play, singing repetitively “I want you to help me,” and
invoking her dead family members. There is the sound of a train, and the ghost of Sutter
disappears. Bernice thanks the ghosts, and embraces Boy Willie. He takes his leave, heading
home on the next train, and telling Berniece that if she does not keep playing that piano, he and
Sutter will be back.

10.3 Critical Analysis of the Play

A whole network of family, friends, and enemies—and their histories and conflicts—are fluidly
established in this opening scene. Wilson subtly tells that Sutter was an evil white landlord, without
ever saying those words explicitly. It is clear in Boy Willie’s announcement of his death, and
Berniece’s non-reaction to the news. Likewise, the concept of the Ghosts of Yellow Dog is seeded
at this early juncture, over an hour before any explanation of their name and origin is given. We
see the psychological effect of Sutter and of the ghosts, not the details of their histories.

The basic premise of the conflict is simple and quickly expressed. Boy Willie wants to sell the
piano. Berniece wants to keep it. But since the piano is a symbol for the family’s history, it runs
much deeper than that. The scholar Alan Nadel sums it up succinctly:

Berniece, we could say, wants to hide from history and Boy Willie wants to get rid of it.
Wilson, however, wants to rewrite it, even if he has to use traditionally white instruments,
even if he has to resurrect some ugly ghosts, for the alternative, it would seem, is to deny
African Americans their art and their history.

The watermelons signify one third of Boy Willie’s master plan to raise the money to buy Sutter’s
land. Watermelons are a stereotypically African American food, but Boy Willie subverts this
stereotype by selling a truckload of the fruit to white northerners eager to experience something
exotic, and willing to pay through the nose for it. Boy Willie’s other refrain is a call to
consciousness. He enters the play and the other characters’ lives by shouting. “Wake up!” he
cries. “Wake up! It’s time for the story to start!”

The long, powerful speeches describe what that piano is and what it means to each person on
stage. For Doaker, it is a symbol of family history and suffering. For Wining Boy, it is his connection
to his old performing life on the road, and as such is both a souvenir and a shackle. For Berniece,
it is a symbol of loss and waste and her mother’s suffering; the women must esteem the piano
priceless in order to justify the price paid for it in blood. And for Boy Willie, it means economic
freedom.

It is from these warring interpretations of a single symbol that arises the action of the play. Wilson
deftly folds these explanations into the scenes, with each character’s ideology toward the piano
(and, by extension, toward their lives and the legacy of slavery they live with) revealed both in
stand-alone speeches and in repeated actions and comments. The dialog repeats endlessly,
circling around the piano like water toward a drain. The conflict over the piano can be boiled down
to two representative concepts: the deprivation of African Americans of their past, and the
hopelessness of their future. Berniece clings to the one symbol of their history, and Boy Willie
strives for a chance at a future, but these goals are mutually exclusive. The past must be sold out
in order to reach for the future. To do nothing breeds stagnation, as in Berniece’s love life, since
she has not sullied the memory of her husband by taking any other man.

Wining Boy’s other speech about the piano reflects a conflict in African American identities. Am I
Wining Boy, or am I the piano player? Black men in America have historically been defined by their
roles, not by their actual individual identities. Wining Boy felt the same conflation taking place in
his own life, until the piano he once loved became a symbol of his nonexistence in the eyes of
white men. His only recourse, then, was to “shoot the piano player.” Wining Boy’s story about
Lymon’s mother is more than an amusing anecdote: it also serves as thematic reinforcement.
Throughout the play and particularly the second act runs the idea of selling one’s soul to achieve
economic independence. African Americans in this era were forced to compromise their morals
and do things they might not have wanted to do in order to wiggle out from under the thumb of the
white man. Whether selling the piano for farm money or selling oneself for bail money, the play’s
characters are forced to create new values in order to survive within the white world’s rules.

Berniece is the only woman of significance in the play. The roles Maretha and Grace are
insubstantial and functional. Therefore, the burden falls on Berniece to show the woman’s role in
this world, that is, of shouldering disproportionate burdens. Berniece, like her mother before her,
felt compelled to carry all grief and history of her family on her own. Bitterness ensues, as
Berniece inherited from her mother a distrust of all male plans, knowing from sad experience that
they always result in imprisonment or death. Only the women are responsible enough to safeguard
the family and to shoulder the burden of its past. Avery doesn’t understand this, even less so than
Boy Willie and Lymon. He accuses Berniece of frigidity, but to her mind she is just busy: busy
caring for her daughter, scraping together a living, protecting herself from the memories and
ghosts.
The character of Avery also shows an interesting contrast between the traditional folk beliefs of the
African American community and their received Christianity. Throughout the play, Christian and
folk beliefs intermingle, with the characters seeing no distinction between the two sets of
mythologies. Avery is a Christian preacher, but he is asked to remove ghosts from the Charles
household. The Christian symbols and structures, Wilson suggests, have been appropriated by
the African American community, while at the same time the folk beliefs of ghosts and curses that
make up the peculiarly Southern cosmology are preserved as though in amber. Like the piano,
which is a European instrument decorated in an African style, the religion of Avery and the Charles
family is an amalgamation of what their people preserved of their own culture, and what they
received from the white man.

In a lighter scene, Berniece blocks Boy Willie’s attempt to spend an evening with Grace. In her
home, all sexual behaviour is forbidden. The critic Kim Marra reads this moment as Wilson
implicating the black matriarchy as a partner with white supremacy in the emasculation of the
black man. Wilson aligns Berniece with the white man, Marra writes, by having each of Boy
Willie’s attempts to move the piano interrupted by the anger of either Berniece or Sutter’s ghost;
they are effectively interchangeable. And this scene drives home the point by having Berniece
prevent Boy Willie from even having a romantic evening. The portrayal of Berniece is rather cold
and hard, but this scene serves to slowly soften some of her defences. Boy Willie and Avery had
tried the tactic of attacking Berniece like a fortress, but Lymon makes more progress by quiet, slow
steps. He is a dreamer, looking for the right woman.

There is a significant contrast established between Lymon and Boy Willie. Up till this point they
have functioned mostly as a traditional comic duo, with Boy Willie taking the lead and Lymon
following passively, existing just to provide colour and someone for Boy Willie to scheme with. In
the night-time scene the difference in their respective characterizations is noticed. Boy Willie is
annoyed by Grace’s reluctance to spend the night on the couch, noting that his grandpa took
women on the backs of horses. Lymon, on the other hand, compliments Berniece on her fancy
nightgown and gives her perfume. Boy Willie “sure is country,” and Lymon is aiming to become a
city man, but their differing attitudes toward women speak volumes.

Boy Willie talks more of his plan to cut the piano in half and sell his share. This imagery is meant
to evoke the biblical story of King Solomon and the two mothers. A child was in dispute, with each
woman claiming motherhood, so Solomon proposed to cut the body in half. One woman protested,
saying she would rather lose her baby than have it killed. Solomon deemed her the true mother.
By evoking this story, Wilson cues the audience: Boy Willie is not the true owner of the piano,
because he is willing to cut it in half. But the unspoken part of the Solomon story is the question of
how well exactly the true mother was caring for her child, if that child could be so easily claimed by
another. Berniece is vulnerable to the same suspicion in her neglectful stewardship of the piano
and its legacy.

The dramatic finale of ‘The Piano Lesson’ brings the problem of the play to its inevitable
conclusion, but not through easily anticipated means. The Solomonic compromise offered by Boy
Willie early on foreshadowed that he would not end up with the piano, but neither could Berniece’s
status quo be maintained without any changes to her life or lessons learned. Yet Wilson has
created two characters who were so set in their plans and ways that no amount of yelling at one
another would produce a dramatically suitable outcome. Indeed, in later interviews, Wilson noted
that the Broadway production went into rehearsals without an ending yet chosen. The ending
Wilson found might be the only possible satisfactory conclusion to this story. Through the outside
force of the ghosts, Berniece is forced to play the piano and release its spirits - which forces Boy
Willie to relinquish his claim to the instrument. This invocation of the spirits of the piano is not a
defeat of Berniece, but a triumph. The song that calls upon the ancestors of the Charles family is
joyful and redeeming.
It is also a battle cry for a nascent African American community. At one point, Wilson even hoped
that members of the audience would contribute the names of their own ancestors to the cause.
Although this did not come to pass, the idea still penetrates the theatrical moment. Throughout the
play, there are many criticisms of the African American community, it is divisiveness and
transience and gender-coded battle lines. But Berniece calls upon the common history that binds
all the members of the Charles family - and all their friends and neighbours and acquaintances - to
work together. Past, present, and future, the entire African American community is united to drive
out the spirit of the white slave-owner. It is not difficult to read a political context into this moment
when so considered. A family is a unit that can be defined in many ways - including a family with
two sets of siblings and no couples - and branches out to friends, lovers, and even the dead. All
are present for the final battle against Sutter, because all must bear witness and work together for
the final battle to be a success. In a true community, no one fights alone.

Self-Assessment Questions:
1. Who wrote the epigram of the play The Piano Lesson?
2. What is the setting of the play?
3. What is the central theme of the play?
4. Comment on the ending of the play.

10.4 Summary
Now that you have read the lesson, you are acquainted with the text. There have been various
issues which are raised in the text by the playwright Wilson, for instance, what role does race and
identity play in the life of an individual; rising up from the stigma of racial inferiority; what it means
to be a woman; and most importantly, whether it or not one’s past and history can be ignored.
Model questions have been provided for you to test your understanding of the issues.

10.5 References
“The Piano Lesson: Comprehensive Storyform”, Dramatica,
<dramatica.com/analysis/the-piano-lesson>.
“Essay about Analysis: The Piano Lesson by August Wilson”, Bartleby Research,
<www.bartleby.com/essay/Analysis-The-Piano-Lesson-by-August-Wilson-FKJJHSEYVJ>.

10.6 Further Readings

“August Wilson: The Ground on Which I Stand, Biography and Timeline”, American Masters PBS",
American Masters.
“Remembering August Wilson 1945–2005", The Pitt Chronicle. The University of Pittsburgh.

10.7 Model questions

1. Describe the role of history and past in August Wilson’s play ‘The Piano Lesson’.
2. How are supernatural elements used to carry forward the action of the play ‘The Piano
Lesson’? Explain with the help of examples from the text.