HYDROLOGIC CYCLE (WATER CYCLE)

PRECEPITATION PROCESS
HYDROLOGY

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 What is
PRECIPITATION
It is water falling from the atmosphere to the
ground. It can take many forms, which are a
result of different conditions.

It has to form as water vapor condenses and

forms liquid water for many forms. As the vapor
rises in the atmosphere, it cools to become liquid
water and sometimes ice if it rises far enough. To
fall, the water has to reach a size that is too
heavy to be upheld, and gravity pulls it down to
the surface.

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3
 FORMS OF
PRECIPITATION
Drizzle — a light steady rain in fine drops (0.5 mm) and intensity <1
mm/hr
Rain — the condensed water vapor of the atmosphere falling in drops
(>0.5 mm, maximum size—6 mm) from the clouds.
Glaze — freezing of drizzle or rain when they come in contact with cold
objects.
Sleet — frozen rain drops while falling through air at subfreezing
temperature.

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 FORMS OF PRECIPITATION
Snow — ice crystals resulting from sublimation (i.e., water vapor condenses to ice)
Snow flakes — ice crystals fused together.
Hail — small lumps of ice (>5 mm in diameter) formed by alternate freezing and melting,
when they are carried up and down in highly turbulent air currents.
Dew — moisture condensed from the atmosphere in small drops upon cool surfaces.
Frost — a feathery deposit of ice formed on the ground or on the surface of exposed
objects by dew or water vapor that has frozen
Fog — a thin cloud of varying size formed at the surface of the earth by condensation of
atmospheric vapor (interfering with visibility)
Mist — a very thin fog

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 TYPES OF PRECIPITATION

Thermal convection (convectional precipitation) Conflict between two air masses (frontal precipitation)

is in the form of local whirling thunder

storms and is typical of the tropics. The air
close to the warm earth gets heated and
rises due to its low density, cools
adiabatically to form a cauliflower
shaped cloud, which finally bursts into a
thunder storm. When accompanied by
destructive winds, they are called ‘tornados’.
When two air masses due to
contrasting temperatures and
densities clash with each other,
condensation and precipitation
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occur at the surface of contact.

Orographic lifting (orographic precipitation)—
The mechanical lifting of moist air
over mountain barriers, causes
heavy precipitation on the windward
side.
Cyclonic (cyclonic precipitation)
This type of precipitation is due to lifting of
moist air converging into a low pressure
belt, i.e., due to pressure differences
created by the unequal heating of the
earth’s surface. 6
ATMOSPHERE
WATER

 MEASUREMENT OF PRECIPITATION
RAINFALL MAY BE MEASURED BY A NETWORK OF RAIN GAUGES WHICH MAY EITHER BE OF
NON-RECORDING OR RECORDING TYPE.

THE NON-RECORDING RAIN GUAGE

It is used in India is the Symon’s rain gauge. It consists of a funnel with a circular rim of
12.7 cm diameter and a glass bottle as a receiver. The cylindrical metal casing is fixed
vertically to the masonry foundation with the level rim 30.5 cm above the ground surface.
The rain falling into the funnel is collected in the receiver and is measured in a special
measuring glass graduated in mm of rainfall; when full it can measure 1.25 cm of rain
 RECORDING RAIN GUAGE

This is also called self-recording, automatic or integrating rain gauge. This type of rain gauge,
has an automatic mechanical arrangement consisting of a clockwork, a drum with a graph
paper fixed around it and a pencil point, which draws the mass curve of rainfall.

TYPES OF RECORDING RAIN GUAGE

TIPPING BUCKET RAIN GAUGE.

WEIGHING TYPE RAIN GAUGE. FLOAT TYPE RAIN GAUGE
RADARS Precipitation Radar was the
instrument designed to
first spaceborne
provide three-
dimensional maps.

The radar signals reflected by the rain are

helpful in determining the magnitude of storm
precipitation and its areal distribution. This
method is usually used to supplement data
obtained from a network of rain gauges. The IMT)
has a well established radar network for the
detection of thunder storms and six cyclone
warning radars, on the east cost at Chennai,
Kolkata, Paradeep, Vishakapatnam,
Machalipatnam and Karaikal.
 these are the departments that
maintain rainfall records.
APPLICATION INDIAN METEOROLOGICAL
DEPARTMENT (IMD)
OF RADAR PUBLIC WORKS DEPARTMENT (PWD)
AGRICULTURAL DEPARTMENT
REVENUE DEPARTMENT
FOREST DEPARTMENT, ETC

There are three application RAIN-GAUGE DENSITY

of radar.
AREA RAIN-GAUGE DENSITY
Plains 1 in 520 km2
*the areal extent Elevated regions
Hilly and very heavy
1 in 260-390km2
1 in 130 Km2 preferably
* orientation and with 10% of the
rainfall areas rain-gauge stations equipped
*movement of rain storms, with the self
is of great use. recording type
 ESTIMATES OF MISSING DATA AND ADJUSTMENT RECORD
(i) Station-year method—In this method, the records of two or
more stations are combined into one long record provided station
records are independent and the areas in which the
stations are located are climatologically the same. The missing
record at a station in a particular year may be found by the ratio
of averages or by graphical comparison.

(ii) By simple proportion (normal ratio method)–This method is

illustrated by the following example.
(iii) Double-mass analysis—The trend of the rainfall records at a station may slightly
change after some years due to a change in the environment (or exposure) of a station
either due to coming of a new building, fence, planting of trees or cutting of forest nearby,
which affect the catch of the gauge due to change in the wind pattern or exposure. The
consistency of records at the station in question (say, X) is tested by a double mass curve
by plottting the cumulative annual (or seasonal) rainfall at station X against the concurrent
cumulative values of mean annual (or seasonal) rainfall for a group of surrounding stations,
for the number of years of record (Fig. 2.9). From the plot, the year in which a change in
regime (or environment) has occurred is indicated by the change in slope of the straight
line plot. The rainfall records of the station x are adjusted by multiplying the recorded
values of rainfall by the ratio of slopes of the straight lines before and after change in
environment.
 GROUP 1

RAINFALL ·RAINFALL IS THE AMOUNT OF PRECIPITATION,

IN THE FORM OF RAIN (WATER FROM CLOUDS),
THAT DESCENDS ONTO THE SURFACE OF
EARTH, WHETHER IT IS ON LAND OR WATER.

·RAIN IS THE MAJOR FROM PRECIPITATION IN

THE FORM OF WATER DROPS SIZES GREATER
THAN 0.5 MM.

·THE MAXIMUM SIZES OF RAIN DROP IS

ABOUT 6 MM BASED ON THE INTENSITY,
RAINFALL IS CLASSIFIED AS LIGHT RAIN
(>2.5MM - 5MM/HR), MODERATE RAIN (2.5 - 7
MM/HR) AND HEAVY RAIN (>7.5MM/HR).
 RAINFALL
CHARACTERISTIC

•
DEPTH DURATION
• Measurements in high-rainfall The period of time during which rain fell
• Measured in mm @ cm • Rain time interval fall measured in minutes and hour
• Measured by the hour, day, week, month and year • time at which rain occur (hr)

INTENSITY

INTENSITY RAINFALL FREQUENCY

• amount of rain in a certain time (depth/time)
(mm/hr)
• Depth of rainfall per unit time
• Example: 30 mm in 3 hours; intensity = 10mm/hr
• The frequency of rainfall occurred
• Repeat for the rain -This situation can be illustrated by the rainfall that
is:
a) Uniform distribution: suitable for agriculture and reduce erosion
b) Distribution of single-mode: rainfall in the wet season c) Distribution
of dual mode
 GROUP 1

MEAN AREAL DEPTH OF PRECIPITATION (Pave)

Point rainfall - it is the rainfall at a single station
Small areas less than 50 km2, Point rainfall = average depth

METHODS IN TAKING THE AVE. DEPTH IN LARGE AREAS:

1. ARITHMETIC AVERAGE METHOD

- obtained by simply averaging arithmetically the amounts of rainfall at the individual rain-gauge
stations in the area
- yields good estimates in flat country if the gauges are uniformly distributed

Where;
Pave = average depth of rainfall over the area
ΣP1 = sum of rainfall amounts at individual rain-gauge stations
n = number of rain-gauge stations in the area
 1.THIESSEN POLYGON METHOD

- for non-uniform distribution of gauges by providing a weighting factor for each gauge
- Perpendicular bisectors are drawn to the straight lines, joining adjacent stations to form polygons,
known as Thiessen polygons
its non-flexibility

Where;
ΣA1 = A = total area of the basin

3. ISOHYETAL METHOD
-the point rainfalls are plotted on a suitable base map and the lines of equal rainfall (isohyets) are
drawn giving consideration to orographic effects and storm morphology

Where;
A1–2 = area between the two successive isohyets P1 and P2

ΣA1–2 = A = total area of the basin

 GROUP 1
EXAMPLES:
EX.
Point rainfalls due to a
storm at several rain-gauge
stations in a basin are
shown in the figure below.
Determine the mean areal
depth of rainfall over the
basin by the three
methods.
 GROUP 1

ARITHMETIC AVERAGE METHOD:

THIESSEN POLYGON METHOD:

ISOHYETAL METHOD:
OPTIMUM RAIN-GAUGE NETWORK DESIGN

-to obtain all quantitative data averages and extremes that define the statistical distribution of the
hydrometeorological elements, with sufficient accuracy for practical purposes
OPTIMUM RAIN-GAUGE NETWORK DESIGN

Network of rain-gauge stations set up so that any addition of rain-gauge

stations will not appreciably alter the average depth of rainfall estimated.
Such a network is referred to as a saturated network.
OPTIMUM RAIN-GAUGE NETWORK DESIGN

For the basin shown, the normal annual rainfall depths recorded and the isohyetals are given. Determine the optimum number of rain-gauge
stations to be established in the basin if it is desired to limit the error in the mean value of rainfall to 10%. Indicate how you are going to
distribute the additional rain-gauge stations required, if any. What is the percentage accuracy of the existing network in the estimation of the
average depth of rainfall over the basin ?

NOTE: Arithmetic mean, σ = standard deviation.

The optimum number of rain-gauge stations to limit the
error in the mean value of rainfall to p = 10%.
OPTIMUM RAIN-GAUGE NETWORK DESIGN

∴ Additional rain-gauge stations to be established

= N – n = 11 – 5 = 6
OPTIMUM RAIN-GAUGE NETWORK DESIGN

The additional six raingauge stations have to be distributed in

proportion to the areas between the isohyetals as shown below:
OPTIMUM RAIN-GAUGE NETWORK DESIGN

The percentage error p in the estimation of average depth of rainfall in

the existing network,

Or, the percentage accuracy = 85.2%

(i) Determine the day of greatest average rainfall,

(ii) Plot a map of maximum 1-day rainfall and construct isohyets;

(iii) The isohyetal map, say, for maximum 1-day rainfall, is divided
into zones to represent the principal storm (rainfall) centres.

(iv) Starting with the storm centre in each zone, the area enclosed
by each isohyet is planimetered.

(v) The area between the two isohyets multiplied by the average of
the two isohyetal values gives the incremental volume of rainfall.
(vi) The incremental volume added with the previous accumulated
volume gives the total volume of rainfall.

(vii) The total volume of rainfall divided by the total area upto
the encompassing isohyet gives the average depth of rainfall over
that area.

(viii) The computations are made for each zone and the zonal values
are then combined for areas enclosed by the common (or extending)
isohyets.
(ix) The highest average depths for various
areas are plotted and a smooth curve is
drawn. This is DAD curve for maximum 1-day
rainfall.

(x) Similarly, DAD curves for other

standard durations (of maximum 2, 3, 4 day
etc. or 6, 12, 18, 24 hours etc.) of
rainfall are prepared
GRAPHICAL
GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION
REPRESENTATION
OF
OF RAINFALL
RAINFALL
GRAPHICAL
GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION
REPRESENTATION
OF
OF RAINFALL
RAINFALL
ANALYSIS OF
RAIN FALL DATA
Statistical analysis -are carried
out to determine the rainfall
event intensity for specific return
periods.
Correlation of Rainfall Records
- It is possible to correlate the
intensity and duration of storms,
and the intensity, duration and
frequency of storms.
And if there are storms of different intensities as well as the
durations, then you can obtain its relation by plotting the
intensities against durations of the respective storms either
on the natural graph paper or on a double log paper, and
relations of the form given below may be obtained.

if there are rainfall records for 30 to 40 yrs, the various

storms during the period of record may be arranged in the
descending order of their magnitude ( of maximum depth or
intensity).
Descending order

if there are total number of n items and the order

number or rank of any storm ( max depth or intensity)
is m, then the recurrence interval T (return period) of
the storm magnitude is given by one of the following
equations:
Frequency of that storm magnitude (Having recurrence interval
T) is given by

Recurrence interval is the average number of years during

which a storm of given magnitude (maximum depth or
intensity) may be expected to occur once, i.e., may be
equalled or exceeded.
Frequency F is the percentage of years during which a
storm of given magnitudemay be equalled or exceeded.
 MEAN AND MEDIAN

Example 2.6 The annual rainfall at a place for a period of 10 years from 1961 to 1970
arerespectively 30.3, 41.0, 33.5, 34.0, 33.3, 36.2, 33.6, 30.2, 35.5, 36.3.

Determine the mean andmedian values of annual rainfall for the place.
Solution (i) Mean x = Σxn = (30.3 + 41.0 + 33.5 + 34.0 + 33.3 + 36.2+ 33.6 + 30.2 +
35.5 + 36.3)/10 = 343 910. = 34.39 cm(ii)

Median: Arrange the samples in the ascending order 30.2, 30.3 33.3, 33.5, 33.6,
34.0,35.5, 36.2, 36.3, 41.0

∴ Median = 33 6 34 0+ = 33.8 cm. . 2

No. of items = 10, i.e., even
 Mass curve of precipitation. The
plot of ‘accumulated rainfall (cm)
vs. time
(min)’ gives the ‘mass curve of
rainfall’

Hyetograph. The intensity of rainfall at

successive 5 min interval is calculated
and a
bar-graph of ‘i (cm/hr) vs. t (min)’ is
constructed; this depicts the variation
of the intensity of
rainfall with respect to time and is
called the ‘hyetograph;
(a) Mass curve of precipitation. The plot of ‘accumulated rainfall (cm)
vs. time
(min)’ gives the ‘mass curve of rainfall’

(b) Hyetograph. The intensity of rainfall at successive 5 min interval is

calculated and a bar-graph of ‘i (cm/hr) vs. t (min)’ is constructed; this
depicts the variation of the intensity of rainfall with respect to time
and is called the ‘hyetograph
 2 GEOSTATISTICS
Geostatistics is a class of statistics used to analyze and predict
the values associated with spatial or spatiotemporal phenomena.

The conventional methods cannot estimate the uncertaintywith the results.

Kriging is a geostatistical estimation technique for regionalized

variables that exhibit an autocorrelation structure.

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Geostatistical analysis of precipitation in
the island of Crete (Greece) based on a
sparse monitoring network
Probable Maximum Precipitation (PMP) is
termed as “theoretically the greatest depth of
precipitation for a given duration that is
physically possible over a given size storm area
at a particular geographic location at a given
time of the year”.1 Originally PMP was defined
as the Maximum Possible Precipitation (MPP),
the value of precipitation that could not be
exceeded.
The snowpack remains on the ground until the
arrival of above-freezing temperatures in the
spring, which causes it to start to melt. The
water from the melting snowpack is called
snowmelt.

ds-depth of the snow cover

Gs- water equivalent (density) of
snow.
dw- depth of water storage in the
snow
MOVING AVERAGES CURVE
MOVING AVERAGES CURVE
MOVING AVERAGES CURVE
MOVING AVERAGES CURVE

MOVING AVERAGES CURVE

BORRES, ANDREW JORDAN LAGUROS, ROEDEN
BRILLANTE, ROJAN LORDE MANLOSA, BRIX
CATAO,JEMAICA MENDEZ, ALLAN
DELA PENA, GELOU SEVILLA, MITZIE MAE
DELA CRUZ, OLIVER BRANZ TUBO,ANTONIO JR,
Thank you!