EC3011 : Introduction to

Electronics and Instrumentation

S. Thananjeyan
 Introduction to Op-Amp
• Early operational amplifiers (op-amps) were used primarily to perform
mathematical operations such as addition, subtraction, integration, and
differentiation—thus the term operational.
• These early devices were constructed with vacuum tubes and worked with
high voltages.
• Today’s op-amps are linear integrated circuits (ICs) that use relatively low dc
supply voltages and are reliable and inexpensive.
 Introduction to Op-Amp …
• It has two input terminals, the inverting (-) input and the noninverting (+)
input, and one output terminal.
• Most op-amps operate with two dc supply voltages, one positive and the
other negative

Symbol Symbol with dc supply connections

Typical packages - Pin 1 is indicated by a notch or dot on dual

in-line (DIP) and surface-mount technology (SMT) packages.
 Ideal Op - Amp
• The ideal op-amp has infinite voltage gain and infinite bandwidth.
• It has an infinite input impedance (open) so that it does not load the driving
source.
• It has a zero output impedance.

Ideal op-amp representation Practical op-amp representation

 Practical Op-Amp
• Although integrated circuit (IC) op-amps approach parameter values that can
be treated as ideal in many cases, the ideal device can never be made.
• Op-amps have both voltage and current limitations.
• Peak to-peak output voltage, for example, is usually limited to slightly less than the two
supply voltages.
• Output current is also limited by internal restrictions such as power dissipation and
component ratings.
• Characteristics of a practical op-amp are very high voltage gain, very high
input impedance, and very low output impedance.
• There is always noise generated within the op-amp.
• Noise is an undesired signal that affects the quality of a desired signal
 Internal Block Diagram of an Op-Amp
• A typical op-amp is made up of three types of amplifier circuits: a differential
amplifier, a voltage amplifier and a push-pull amplifier.
• Differential amplifier is the input stage for the op-amp. It provides amplification of the
difference voltage between the two inputs.
• The second stage is usually a class A amplifier that provides additional gain. Some op-
amps may have more than one voltage amplifier stage.
• A push-pull class B amplifier is typically used for the output stage.

Basic internal arrangement of an op-amp.

 Differential Amplifier
• A differential amplifier is an amplifier that produces outputs that are a
function of the difference between two input voltages.
• Only the difference in the two signals is amplified; if there is no difference,
the output is zero.
• The differential amplifier has two basic modes of operation:
• differential (in which the two inputs are different)
• common mode (in which the two inputs are the same).

Basic differential amplifier

 Basic Operation

Both inputs grounded Bias voltage on input 1 with input 2 grounded

• It is assumed that the transistors

are identically matched by
careful process control during
manufacturing so that their dc
emitter currents are the same
when there is no input signal

Bias voltage on input 2 with input 1 grounded

 Modes of Signal Operation
• Single-Ended Differential Input
• When a diff-amp is operated with this input configuration, one input is grounded and
the signal voltage is applied only to the other input
• In the case where the signal voltage is applied to input 1, an
inverted, amplified signal voltage appears at output 1 as
shown.
• Also, a signal voltage appears in phase at the emitter of 𝑄1 .
Since the emitters of 𝑄1 and 𝑄2 are common, the emitter
signal becomes an input to 𝑄2 , which functions as a
common-base amplifier.
• The signal is amplified by 𝑄2 and appears, noninverted, at
output 2

• In the case where the signal is applied to input 2 with input 1

grounded, an inverted, amplified signal voltage appears at
output 2.
• In this situation, 𝑄1 acts as a common-base amplifier, and a
Single-ended differential input operation. noninverted, amplified signal appears at output 1
 Single-Ended Differential Input Op-Amp

In the case where the signal voltage In the case where the signal is applied to the
is applied to the inverting input, an non-inverting input with the inverting input
inverted, amplified signal voltage grounded, a noninverted, amplified signal
appears at the output. voltage appears at the output.
 Modes of Signal Operation …
• Double-Ended Differential Inputs
• In this input configuration, two opposite-polarity (out-of-phase) signals are applied to
the inputs

Differential inputs (180° out of phase) Outputs due to Vin1

 Modes of Signal Operation …
• Double-Ended Differential Inputs …

Outputs due to Vin2

Total outputs
 Double-Ended Differential Inputs Op-Amp

• In the double-ended differential mode, two opposite-polarity (out-of-phase) signals are applied to the inputs.
• The amplified difference between the two inputs appears on the output.
 Common - Mode Inputs
• One of the most important aspects of the operation of a diff-amp can be seen
by considering the common-mode condition where two signal voltages of the
same phase, frequency, and amplitude are applied to the two inputs

Common-mode inputs (in phase) Outputs due to Vin1

 Common - Mode Inputs …

Outputs due to Vin1 and Vin2 cancel because they

Outputs due to Vin2
are equal in amplitude but opposite in phase. The
resulting outputs are 0 V ac.

• This action is called common-mode rejection. Its importance lies in the situation where an
unwanted signal appears commonly on both diff-amp inputs.
 Common-Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)
• Desired signals appear on only one input or with opposite polarities on both
input lines. These desired signals are amplified and appear on the outputs.
• Unwanted signals (noise) appearing with the same polarity on both input
lines are essentially canceled by the diff-amp and do not appear on the
outputs.
• The measure of an amplifier’s ability to reject common-mode signals is a
parameter called the CMRR (common mode rejection ratio).
• Ideally, a diff-amp provides a very high gain for desired signals (single-ended or
differential) and zero gain for common-mode signals.
• Practical diff-amps, however, do exhibit a very small common-mode gain (usually much
less than 1), while providing a high differential voltage gain (usually several thousand).
𝐴𝑣 𝑑
𝐶𝑀𝑅𝑅 = CMRR is often expressed in decibels (dB) as
𝐴𝑐𝑚
𝐴𝑣 𝑑
𝐴𝑣 𝑑 - differential voltage gain 𝐶𝑀𝑅𝑅 = 20 log( )
𝐴𝑐𝑚 - common-mode gain 𝐴𝑐𝑚
 Question
• A certain diff-amp has a differential voltage gain of 2000 and a common-
mode gain of 0.2. Determine the CMRR and express it in decibels.

2000
CMRR = = 10,000 => 20 log(10,000) = 80 dB
0.2

A CMRR of 10,000 means that the desired input signal (differential) is amplified 10,000 times more than
the unwanted noise (common-mode).
 Op-Amp Parameters
• Common-Mode Rejection Ratio
𝐴𝑜𝑙
• 𝐶𝑀𝑅𝑅 = 𝐴𝑜𝑙 - open-loop differential voltage gain
𝐴𝑐𝑚
𝐴𝑜𝑙 𝐴𝑐𝑚 - common-mode gain
• 𝐶𝑀𝑅𝑅 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝐵 = 20 log( )
𝐴𝑐𝑚
• Open-loop voltage gain, 𝐴𝑜𝑙 , of an op-amp is the internal voltage gain of the device
and represents the ratio of output voltage to input voltage when there are no external
components.
• The open-loop voltage gain is set entirely by the internal design
• Open-loop voltage gain can range up to 200,000 (106 dB)
• Datasheets often refer to the open-loop voltage gain as the large-signal voltage gain
 Question
• A certain op-amp has an open-loop differential voltage gain of 100,000 and a
common-mode gain of 0.2. Determine the CMRR and express it in decibels.

Ans: CMRR = 500,000 = 114 dB

 Op-Amp Parameters
• Maximum Output Voltage Swing (𝑉𝑜 𝑝−𝑝 )
• With no input signal, the output of an op-amp is ideally 0 V. This is called the
quiescent output voltage.
• When an input signal is applied, the ideal limits of the peak-to-peak output signal
are ±𝑉𝑐𝑐
• In practice, however, this ideal can be approached but never reached. 𝑉𝑜 𝑝−𝑝
varies with the load connected to the op-amp and increases directly with load
resistance.
• Input Offset Voltage
• The ideal op-amp produces zero volts out for zero volts in.
• In a practical op-amp, however, a small dc voltage, VOUT(error), appears at the
output when no differential input voltage is applied.
• the input offset voltage, VOS, is the differential dc voltage required between the
inputs to force the output to zero volts.
• Typical values of input offset voltage are in the range of 2 mV or less. In the ideal
case, it is 0 V.
 Slew rate
• Slew Rate - The maximum rate of change of the output voltage in response to
a step input voltage is the slew rate of an op-amp.
• The slew rate is dependent upon the high-frequency response of the
amplifier stages within the op-amp

∆𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
Slew rate = ∆𝑡

Where ∆𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 − (−𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 )

Step input voltage and the

resulting output voltage Step input voltage and the
resulting output voltage
 Negative Feedback
• The inverting input effectively makes the feedback signal 180° out of phase
with the input signal.

• Open-loop voltage gain of a typical op-amp is very high (usually

greater than 100,000).
• Therefore, an extremely small input voltage drives the op-amp
into its saturated output states.
• With negative feedback, the closedloop voltage gain (𝐴𝑐𝑙 ) can
be reduced and controlled so that the op-amp can function as
alinear amplifier.
• In addition to providing a controlled, stable voltage gain,
negative feedback also provides for control of the input and
Illustration of negative feedback output impedances and amplifier bandwidth
 Op-Amps With Negative Feedback
• Closed-Loop Voltage Gain, Acl
• The closed-loop voltage gain is the voltage gain of an op-amp with external feedback.
• The amplifier configuration consists of the op-amp and an external negative feedback
circuit that connects the output to the inverting input.
• The closed-loop voltage gain is determined by the external component values and can
be precisely controlled by them.

𝑅𝑖
𝑉𝑓 = 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑅𝑖 + 𝑅𝑓
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐴𝑜𝑙 (𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 𝑉𝑓 )
𝑅𝑖
Attenuation 𝐵 =
𝑅𝑖 +𝑅𝑓
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐴𝑜𝑙 (𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 𝐵𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 )
Noninverting amplifier 𝑅𝑓
𝐴𝑐𝑙 𝑁𝐼 = 1 +
𝑅𝑖
 Question
• Determine the closed-loop voltage gain of the amplifier in Figure

Ans : 22.3
 Buffer (Voltage follower) Circuit
• The voltage-follower configuration is a special case of the noninverting
amplifier where all of the output voltage is fed back to the inverting input by
a straight connection.
• As you can see, the straight feedback connection has a voltage gain of 1 (which means
there is no gain).
• Since B = 1 for a voltage-follower, the closed-loop voltage gain of the voltage-follower
is 1.
• The most important features of the voltage-follower configuration are its very
high input impedance and its very low output impedance. These features
make it a nearly ideal buffer amplifier
 Inverting Amplifier
• An op-amp connected as an inverting amplifier with a controlled amount of
voltage gain is shown in Figure

𝑅𝑓
𝐴𝑐𝑙 𝐼 =−
𝑅𝑖

Virtual ground
𝐼𝑖𝑛 = 𝐼𝑓 and current at the inverting input (𝐼1 ) is 0.
 Question
• Given the op-amp configuration in Figure determine the value of Rf required
to produce a closed-loop voltage gain of -100

Ans: 220 k
 Comparator
• A comparator is a specialized op-amp circuit that compares two input
voltages and produces an output that is always at either one of two states,
indicating the greater or less than relationship between the inputs.
• Because the output is always in one of two states, comparators are often
used to interface between an analog and digital circuit.
• One application of an op-amp used as a comparator is to determine when an
input voltage exceeds a certain level.

Zero-Level Detection
 Comparator- Nonzero-Level Detection

Battery reference Voltage-divider reference Zener diode sets reference voltage

Waveforms
 Question
• The input signal is applied to the comparator in Figure. Draw the output
showing its proper relationship to the input signal. Assume the maximum
output levels of the comparator are ±14 V.
 Effects of Input Noise on Comparator Operation
• In many practical situations, noise (unwanted voltage fluctuations) appears
on the input line.

Sine wave with superimposed noise

How can we reduce this effect?

 Op-Amp Integrator
• An op-amp integrator simulates mathematical integration, which is basically a
summing process that determines the total area under the curve of a
function
𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝐼𝑖𝑛 = 𝐼𝐶 =
𝑅𝑖
∆𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑉𝑖𝑛
=−
∆𝑡 𝑅𝑖 𝐶

Notice that the feedback element is a capacitor A constant input voltage produces a
that forms an RC circuit with the input resistor. ramp on the output of the integrator
How a Capacitor Charges
𝑄 = 𝐼𝐶 𝑡 = 𝐶𝑉𝑐
The constant 𝐼𝐶 charges the capacitor linearly and
𝐼𝐶
𝑉𝐶 = 𝑡 produces a linear voltage across C.
𝐶 The positive side of the capacitor is held at 0 V by
The key thing about using an op-amp with an RC circuit to the virtual ground of the op-amp.
form an integrator is that the capacitor’s charging current is The voltage on the negative side of the capacitor,
made constant, thus producing a straight-line (linear) voltage which is the op-amp output voltage, decreases
rather than an exponential voltage (as in simple RC circuit). linearly from zero as the capacitor charges
 Question
• Determine the rate of change of the output voltage in response to the input
square wave, as shown for the ideal integrator in Figure. The output voltage is
initially zero

Ans: -25 mV/ µ s

 Op-Amp Differentiator
• An op-amp differentiator simulates mathematical differentiation, which is a
process of determining the instantaneous rate of change of a function.
𝑉𝐶
𝐼𝐶 = 𝐶
𝑡
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐼𝑅 𝑅𝑓 = 𝐼𝐶 𝑅𝑓
𝑉𝑐
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = − 𝑅𝑓 𝐶
𝑡
The output is negative when the input is a
positive-going ramp and positive when the
An op-amp differentiator A differentiator with a ramp input input is a negative-going ramp,

Output of a differentiator with a series of positive

and negative ramps (triangle wave) on the input
 Question
• Determine the output voltage of the ideal op-amp differentiator in Figure for
the triangular-wave input shown.

Ans : + 4.4 V
 Reference
• Electronic Devices - Electron Flow Version by Thomas L. Floyd - Ninth Edition