HMPE 13 Module No.

The Chemistry of Baking

To understand the production of pastries and sweets, a basic knowledge of chemistry is

vital. The elements found in the periodic table are the platform of all substances. These
elements cannot be broken down any further through chemical processes. They have
specific arrangements of their atomic structure and weight.

Some of the elements encountered in cooking are as follows:

▪ Hydrogen (H)
▪ Chlorine (Cl)
▪ Nitrogen (N)
▪ Oxygen (O)
▪ Carbon (C)
▪ Sodium (Na)

The atoms of these elements join together to form molecules and are more stable (e.g. H
+ H = H)). These molecules can then join with other atoms or molecules to form
compounds such as H + OH = H20 or in a lay person's term, water.

Other compounds used in cooking are as follows:

▪ Glucose (C6 H12 06)

▪ Alcohol (C2 H5 OH)

▪ Granulated sugar (C12 H22 O11)

▪ Sodium bicarbonate [Baking soda] (NaCHO3)

A compound can have characteristics which are quite different from those of the molecules
it is made from. Salt, for example, (NACI) is made up of sodium and chloride (a metallic
form of chlorine). These molecules are poisonous by themselves, but as a compound,
sodium chloride is edible and is, therefore, safe to use in cooking particularly in seasoning
food.

A mixture is a combination of compounds and molecules such as milk or flour which can
be separated without causing any explosions. For example, the gluten can be washed
from the flour, and the fat can be separated from the milk.

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 Physical changes refer to a change in appearance of a substance without changing the
substance itself. Water freezes at 0°C but turns into steam at 100°C. Ice can melt, hence
returning to water. Similarly, steam condenses and returns into it, liquid form. This idea of
physical change can be used extensively in cooking such as in the production of ice cream,
boiling of foods, mixing of sugar with liquid, o incorporating of fat into sauces.

In baking, knowledge of such physical or chemical changes is beneficial. Water in choux

paste turns into steam and pushes the product out while the protein and Starch maintain
the form or structure with the final product being light and airy, other examples are the
Maillard browning (discoloration) on apples and potatoes and Maillard reaction
(browning) on baked goods based on the reaction of simple Sugars and amino acids.

Finally, yeast and other enzymatic reactions are taken into account in breadmaking.
Denaturation of protein is observed in pastries, meat, and seafood cookery. Chemical
reactions should be considered when adding baking powder in pastries or bicarbonate
soda in mixtures.

Menu Knowledge

Knowledge of the menu is necessary to ensure guest/customer satisfaction.

Below are brief descriptions of core desserts and dishes.

• Key lime pie tangy- creamy custard with distinctive key lime flavor nestled in a flaky pie
crust.

• Brownie madness - a dollop of bittersweet chocolate mousse, perched atop a chocolate

brownie and drizzled with semi-sweet chocolate sauce.

• Banana crunchy nut parfait creamy - frozen banana custard in layers of luscious
whipped cream finished with decadent caramel fudge sauce, almonds, and macadamia
nuts.

• Low-fat strawberry shortcake -light buttermilk pound cake layered with glazed sliced
strawberries.

• Sugar-free key lime pie-tangy sugar-free key lime custard in a flaky pie crust with fresh
marinated berries.

• Warm chocolate cake -warm chocolate cake complemented by milk chocolate sauce and
sweet roasted pears.

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 • Tiramisu- a creamy dessert that combines the best of several worlds, mascarpone,
espresso, and kahlua.

• Raspberry panna cotta - light Italian dessert full of raspberry flavor served on a crunchy
almond butter cookie.

• Low-fat angel food cake- light as a feather, with Grand Marnier® marinated strawberries.

• Sugar-free chocolate mint cake- layers of moist chocolate sponge cake with silky sugar-
free chocolate mint mousse.

• Grand Marnier® soufflé- warm delicacy that melts on the tongue to release a hint of
slightly bittersweet orange liqueur.

Pastry Commodities and their Functions

It is important for the chef to be aware of the basic commodities used in pastry. This
awareness enables him/her to create and judge a product.

The ratio of the basic ingredients used in baking influences the appearance and taste of
the finished product. Flour, fat, sugar, and egg form the base for most pastry products.
The difference in ratios produces such a variation as puff paste, bread rolls, and sweet
paste.

TYPES OF FLOUR

➢ Flour is produced from cereal grains such as rye, barley, oats, rice, peas, corn (maize),
and wheat. Although cereals are similar in their composition, flours have different
properties.

• Barley is used as malt, contributes to the product’s color and flavor, and serves as
food for yeast.

• Oats, which are used in breakfast cereals, provide a distinct flavor, and texture such
as in oatmeal cookies. They have high-fiber content and nutritional value.

• Pea flour is made from chickpeas. It is also referred to as besan flour and has little
use in Western cooking. In Indian cooking, pea flour forms the base for batters used
in the production of savories such as pakoras.

• Maize is the source of corn flour, the main functions of corn flour include the thickening
of custards and fillings and the “weakening” of the stronger flour being added to the

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 flour used for sponges or biscuits. Corn syrup or liquid glucose is also made from corn
and is used in baking.

• Rice flour is used similarly with corn flour to soften the texture of baked such as
biscuits and cakes. It also provides crunch in the finished product and can also be
used for dusting the baking trays to prevent the product from sticking during baking.

• Wheat forms the most commonly used flour in baking and pastry cooking because it
contains more gluten-forming proteins than any other cereal, when water is added to
flour, the proteins form an elastic, extensible substance called gluten. Gluten has
remarkable properties; it stretches and expands to trap air or carbon dioxide. When
heated above 60 °C, the gluten strands coagulate (set hard).

• Rye flours and rye meals provide much the same functions as wheat flour in bread-
making. They form the structure for the dough during mixing fermentation and proving
as well as for the bread during baking. Rye proteins are not as strong as the wheat
proteins, so rye breads should not be overmixed. The composition and balance of
starches in rye flours also differ from those of wheat. There are more short chain starch
molecules which means that rye breads have a stickier, heavier eating texture and are
moister, longer-keeping products. Rye flours are, therefore, excellent in restaurants as
they provide unique flavor, add fiber, and give longer storage life to breads.

TYPES OF WHEAT

➢ Wheat grows in temperate regions and prefers a harsh cold winter, moderate rainfall in
spring, and a warm dry summer, Differences in climate and soil type affect the quality of
wheat.

➢ There are three types of wheat used for flour production in baking:

Hard red wheats Soft white or yellow wheats Purple wheats

Slim, long grains Plump short grains Konini and amethyst varieties
Excellent color grown in Australia and New
Dark brown bran
Lower-protein content Zealand
Good quality proteins
Blended and milled to make
Dark, reddish-brown bran
Strong flour for making baking flour or biscuit flour
breads Mixed grain flour

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THE WHEAT GRAIN

The individual grain or kernel has three distinct parts: the bran, the endosperm, and the
germ which are separated during the milling process.

Individual Grain Components

The bran layer (~14.5%) contains vitamins,

protein, trace minerals, dietary insoluble fiber
and enzymes. it is included in whole meal
flour.

The endosperm (~83%) is the main source

of white flour. It contains carbohydrates and
the proteins glutenin and gliadin, the major
group of B-vitamins and soluble fiber. The
proteins glutenin and gliadin produce gluten
when they swell with liquid and provide the
stickiness in the flour.

The germ (~2.5%) is the sprouting section of

the seed and contains fat (10%), fatty acids,
and vitamin B, protein, and trace minerals. It
is separated from the kernel in the milling as
the fat content reduces shelf life. It forms
part of whole meal flour,

➢ Cereal products contain approximately 70% starch and provide carbohydrates to our
diet. Because these are complex carbohydrates, the body breaks them down gradually
and absorbs and releases the energy slowly.

➢ Wheat products used in baking:

• Whole wheat grains are used in mixed grain breads. Whole wheat grains should be
soaked in equal parts of cold water overnight before using them in bread-making. Soaking
the grain in cold water makes it easier to chew and digest and prevents it from cutting too
much into the dough during mixing and molding.

• Kibbled wheat comes in various grades from coarse to fine. Just like whole wheat, kibbled
wheat should be soaked before using.

• Rolled wheat flakes are mainly used as a topping but are also used in mixed grain
breads. Rolled wheat flakes do not need soaking before using and are, therefore, more
convenient to use than whole wheat or kibbled grains.

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 • Whole meal flour that is stone-ground or rolled (milled) contains all parts of the wheat
grain. The germ in the wheat grain is high in oils, enzymes, minerals, and vitamins. It gives
poor storage life, as the oil easily becomes rancid. Therefore, whole meal flour should be
stored in a cool, dry area, and that old stock should be used first before the new stock.

• Wheat germ which contains many nutritious vitamins and minerals is used in mixed grain
products.

• Semolina is the coarsely ground endosperm of wheat. It may be used in cakes and
biscuits or by itself in puddings. It is most commonly used as dusting flour for oven bottom
breads and in the production of pasta dough to add extra gluten and firmer consistency.
A similar product is polenta made from corn.

• White flours are milled with different specifications of protein levels for use in various
bakery products. Treated white flour is available as high ratio flour.

Flours can be purchased in various forms. Bakery and pastry cooks use a wider variety of flours
than chefs do. The types of flour most chefs use are as follows:

Types Protein Content Uses

Weak (soft) flour -9% protein Sponges or shortbread
biscuits in which eggs provide
additional structure

Medium Flour -11% protein Yeast goods (e.g., Danish

pastries)

Strong (hard) flour 12+% protein Bread and puff pastries

High Protein 15% protein Pasta and high protein bread

–durum wheat added to flour
for this purpose

In most kitchens, bakers purchase flour which can be weakened by adding corn flour or wheat
starch (add- 10% for cakes) or can be hardened by adding semolina, durum wheat, or dry gluten
(add 2-5% for bread). By adding baking powder, plain flour into self-raising flour.

➢ Some examples of flour choice that do not quite follow the rule include:

• Using strong flour to make heavy fruit cakes. The higher protein content helps support
the large amount of fruit used in the recipe, which prevents the fruit from sinking to the
bottom of the cake batter during the baking process.

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 • Using baker's flour for making sweet yeast products. The high fat and sugar levels in
sweet yeast bun doughs tend to soften and shorten the protein in the flour. Baker’s flour,
therefore, produces a softer bun.

• Using high-ratio flours in conventional cake recipes. This results in a more tender and
softer texture of cake.

• Using pastry flour to make scones. Pastry flour produces a white crumb.

• Using strong flour to make choux paste. Some of the proteins in the flour are
inactivated during the panada cooking process, so starting with higher protein content
helps provide a better structure for the choux products.

STARCHES

✓ Wheat, maize (corn), rice, and potato starch are the most commonly used commodities in
pastries and desserts. Sago and tapioca can also be used, but because of their structure,
they do not easily break up. They are, however, easy to digest and do not contain gluten,
so they are suitable for special diets.

✓ Starches are produced by washing the starch grains and then drying and grinding them.
They will set once heated. Wheat sets at ~93°C, corn at ~83°C, potato at ~73 °C. If heated
higher, they tend to lose their setting properties which can be observed in some sauces;
if they are kept in the bain-marie for a while, they start to break and do not thin out.

✓ Modified starches are used for cold setting and form a gel with cold liquids. They are often
used in instant puddings, canning, and frozen foods. Some of them are based on wheat
which should not be served to celiac guests.

SALT

Salt is very important in pastry cooking as it acts as a counterbalance for sweetness. Small
amounts of salt should be added to all pastes. One should be careful in using salted butter
due to its salt content. Generally, unsalted butter is used in baking to control the amount of
salt added to the recipes. In egg wash, small amounts of salt, and sugar can enhance the
flavor and color.

In pastry, salt

✓ strengthens the gluten in flour and promotes crust and color in yeast products

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 ✓ reduces staling and extends the storage life

✓ retards fermentation so care has to be taken when making yeast products to prevent
direct contact of the yeast with the salt

✓ must be weighed carefully as more than 2% of salt in bread will retard the yeast too
much and affect the end product

WATER

Water is an important commodity used in sweets and baking. If water is too hard (contains high
mineral content), it may need to be distilled to prevent the minerals from affecting the gluten and
yeast development. Water is used for hygienic purposes like washing of fruits and to enhance the
development of gluten doughs. It also provides steam in baking and, therefore, gives lift to
products such as puff pastry. It can be added to the oven during the baking to provide extra steam
and lift by sprinkling water on the baking tray or by injecting steam into the modern convection
oven. Profiteroles and baguettes are made using this method. The amount of liquid added to
mixtures and doughs is always approximate as flours have different absorption rates.

SUGAR

Sugar is produced from sugar cane or sugar beet and is a carbohydrate that can be absorbed
more rapidly by the body. It provides no other value besides energy. Sugar is used in cooking
for the following purposes:

• As a sweet seasoning agent or for conserving

• To increase tenderness

• To provide softer texture to the product

• To promote browning and crust development as it competes with the, gluten for the
available liquid

• To raise the temperature necessary for gluten to coagulate and, therefore increasing and
improving the volume of the product

• To retain moisture which adds to the texture of the finished product

• To assist in the absorption of air when beating egg whites or Genoese mixtures

• For garnishing such as sprinkling product with icing sugar or more elaborate garnishes
with spun of blown sugar

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 Sugar is available in many forms. In cooking and pastry cooking, granulated sugar is mainly
used. It produces a variety of products with distinctive flavors, When sugar is creamed with
fat, the sharp crystals attract small air bubbles, and the finer the sugar, the more air can
incorporate into the mixture. The main types of sugar are the white, brown, and golden syrup
sugar.

White sugar is sold as:

✓ Granulated sugar used for boiling sugar, conserving, and making sweet sauces

✓ Caster sugar, which is finer and is used in pastry goods

✓ Icing sugar, a finely-ground sugar, used in pastes or garnishes

✓ Fondant, which has a soft toffee consistency and is used in garnish or as confectionary
filling

✓ Sugar nibs, which are used in garnish on yeast goods or biscuits

❖ Cube sugar is made in the refinery from first-quality sugar liquor and set in
molds. It is mainly used in coffee or sugar showpieces.

❖ Brown sugar is unrefined raw sugar used for its flavor and color in heavier
cakes such as cakes for wedding and other occasions.

❖ Raw sugar has varying degrees of coloring and still contains parts of the sugar
syrup. It has less “caramel color” than brown sugar.

❖ Golden syrup is a byproduct of sugar refining and can be used in cakes,

sauces, and garnishes.

Glucose is used in the production of spun sugar and stabilizing sorbets. It is also referred
to as corn syrup as it is often produced from high fructose corn syrup. Corn syrup acts as
a sweetener and enhances the “chewy” texture of a product. It also extends shelf life due
to its hygroscopic properties (attracts and absorbs water). This is also important in sugar
work as it prevents the re-crystallization of sugar syrups used in making stock syrups and
confectionary products like fudges and toffees. It converts sucrose into glucose and
fructose in the production of fondant.

In pulled and blown sugar pieces, glucose gives the sugar plasticity for pulling and blowing.

▪ Treacle is produced from molasses and is used in heavy cakes.

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 ▪ Honey is the first sugar used by humans. It contains invert sugar and, thus, requires
adjustments in recipes to allow for faster browning,

▪ Maple syrup is produced from the sap of maple trees. However, due to the high price of
the natural product, people resort to the use of artificial maple syrup. It is used in
pancakes and sweets in American and Canadian dishes.

▪ Palm sugar is produced from the sap of sugar or palmyra palm, reduced and set. It
provides a coconut-like flavor. It can be used in Eastern cuisine desserts but is suitable
for Western desserts.

The temperature stages of sugar

Two measures are taken in the stages of sugar: the first is the temperature of the mixture,
and the second is the concentration of sugar in the liquid. These are measured with a
saccharometer and expressed in Baumé. For citrus-based ices using citrus juice, water,
and sugar, it is important to have the correct Baumé measure. Alternatively, sugar syrup
can be produced by boiling water for one minute and by adding sugar.

✓ Light syrup uses 500 g sugar and 1 liter of water and measures 20 degrees
Baumé

✓ Medium syrup uses 500 g sugar and 750 mL water and measures 24 degrees
Baumé

✓ Heavy or concentrated syrup uses equal amounts of water and sugar and
measures 30-32 degrees Baumé

Term Degrees Celsius Degrees Baume

Stock syrup 102° 30-32° Bé
Thread 106°
Feather (soft ball) 112°
Firm ball 120°
Soft crack 150°
Caramel 160°C- 180°C
Color 180°C+

The different temperature stages of sugar have a variety of applications for desserts. Boiling
the sugar to the thread or soft ball stage makes it ideal for parfait mixture, Italian meringue, or
icing. Firm ball and soft crack are for confectionary use while caramel is for fruit-dipping,
spinning of sugar, and caramel sauce or ice cream.

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EGGS

Eggs are used extensively in baking as they tenderize, provide structure, add color, and give
excellent nutritional value to the product.

The egg consists of the following parts: shell (10%), egg white (60%), and egg yolk
(30%). The egg white is also referred to as albumen.

Shell It is porous and lets air evaporate; thus, older eggs have egg yolks on the
side and a large air sack.

Egg white It is made up of the thick and thin albumen. It contains mainly protein and
no fat.

Egg yolk The egg yolk is rich in fat (cholesterol) and protein. It thickens and
enriches the product.

Eggs, which are easily digestible, contain all the vitamins (A, B, D, and E) except C and a
wide range of essential trace elements (zinc, iron, iodine, phosphorus, and potassium). They are
one food source that contains all the essential amino acids needed in one’s diet.

In pastry cooking, the whole egg (egg white and egg yolk) is used. It acts as an
emulsifier holding together the fat and the water and assisting in diluting the sugar in the
mixture. It helps the cake to retain its shape. The albumen traps air and helps provide extra
volume in a cake, éclair, or meringue.

Eggs that can be purchased come in various forms:

✓ Fresh shell (whole) eggs

✓ Fresh or frozen egg pulp

✓ Dried eggs or meringue powder

For pastry recipes, it is necessary to weigh the liquid eggs rather than simply placing the
required amount of individual eggs. Most recipes in general assume a 50 g+ egg.

Shell eggs take time to be cracked, so for bulk production, fresh or frozen egg pulp is an
ideal alternative. Eggs should be stored or thawed correctly to prevent cross-contamination.
Being porous, they can pick up odors in the cool room.

Dried eggs are reconstituted by adding water gradually. Meringue powder contains starch
and fillers. It should be used according to instructions.

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FATS

Fats and oils are used in pastes as well as in pastry products.

“The melting point determines whether fat is considered as oil. If the fat has a low melting
point and remains liquid at room temperature, it is referred to as oil. If it hardens, then it is
called fat.”

Fats in pastries play important functions as they

✓ add flavor

✓ aerate the paste or dough

✓ tenderize and enhance the texture

The fat that prevents the gluten from forming long strands is referred to as shortening.
Most pastry fats used in baking are based on vegetable oils that have been hydrogenated to keep
them firm at room temperature. The hydrogenation process provides extra aeration.

➢ Oils. The most common oils used in pastry cooking are olive oils that can be added to
bread dough for Mediterranean-style breads with soft crumb, Corn, soy, and canola oils
can be added to muffins or cake mixtures such as carrot cake. They are also used to fry
sweets.

➢ Butter. This is the best form of fat used in baking. Its superior flavor, greatly appreciated
by customers is used in first-class pastries. It is idea| for short crust paste, brioche, and
biscuits. Butter is produced by churning cream. It can be either salted or unsalted. It needs
to be used with care due to its low melting point. Butter assists with mechanical aeration
as ix aids the incorporation of air when it is creamed with sugar. It also helps develop the
texture of shortbread as it prevents the gluten from forming long strands. Unsalted butter
is used in icing or in ganache where the sak interferes with the flavor.

➢ Pastry butter. It is hydrogenated like margarine; hence, it has stability and a higher
melting point. It can be used for croissants and Danish products where the paste is easily
rolled out but the natural flavor of butter remains. It also prevents palate cling (a term
used to describe a layer formed on the roof of the mouth).

➢ Animal fats. These are used less in pastry cooking as their flavor interferes with fine-
baked goods. Special recipes and regional dishes utilize them. They need to be
refrigerated as they can go rancid.

➢ Lard. It is rendered pork fat that has excellent properties for shortening. It is mainly used
in creamed savory pastry, hot water paste, and pie or quiche bases.

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 ➢ Dripping. It is rendered beef fat used in special ethnic pastries and pie fillings. It was
used in the past for deep-frying.

➢ Suet. It is the fat around the kidney of veal and beef. It is used in many English
traditional sweets and pastes such as steak and kidney pie, puddings, or fruit mince.

MANUFACTURED FATS

➢ Cake margarine is made from vegetable and/or animal fats and is more stable than butter. It
is easier to handle. It has an acceptable flavor for a range of products. It is cheaper than butter
and is often used in producing bulk of products.

➢ Puff pastry margarine is also referred to as pastry margarine. The fat is very stable, making
it easier to roll the puff paste into its required layers. Because it is made of a blend of animal
and vegetable fats, it leaves a feeling of “fat coating” or “tallow” layer on the roof of the mouth
which is referred to as palate cling.

➢ Short paste margarine has little elasticity and achieves a “short” baked product.

➢ Shortenings differ from margarine as they do not contain water. They have no flavor and
absorb liquid when emulsifying cake fillings. Pastry cooks use them for bulk production and
fillings. High-ratio fats contain emulsifiers to absorb the extra moisture added into high-ratio
cakes,

➢ Deep-frying compounds can be a blend of animal fats/oils and are treated to extend the
shelf life of the fat to prevent breakdown. They need to be heated to 180°C without smoking.
Neutral fats such as cotton seed oil are best. Deep-frying compounds for pastry should be
stored separate from the normal fryer as the flavors can be affected.

➢ Bread fats are used by bakers to improve the volume of the dough and to extend its shelf
life.

➢ Confectionery fats are specialized fats used by pastry cooks for icing and compound
chocolate mixtures.

DAIRY PRODUCTS

Milk is used to moisten and enrich the product. It is used in custards and crémes to help with
setting. The fat content varies. Proper heating when making ice cream should be ensured to
destroy any potential bacteria.

The different types of milk are as follows:

✓ Pasteurized milk. Milk is heated then cooled to 3°C for a short time.

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 ✓ Ultra-high temperature (UHT) milk. Milk is subjected to a thermal treatment called
ultra-high temperature, giving the milk longer shelf life.

✓ Evaporated milk. Milk is reduced by evaporation to ~40% of its original volume. This
process intensifies the fat content. Evaporated milk can be used in sauces as a
substitute for cream.

✓ Condensed milk. It has approximately 40% sugar content and has longer storage life
once opened. It is suitable for sweet custards and sauces.

✓ Powdered milk. This type of milk can be reconstituted to drink.

✓ Low fat or skim milk. This type of milk can be used in recipes to lower, the fat content
of the food item. Care has to be taken when heating low fa or skim milk as it tends to
burn quickly.

Cream is the fat content of milk that forms a layer on top when milk is left to stand. In
factories, milk is placed in a centrifuge-the heavier skim milk is spun off while the lighter cream
(fat globules) is left behind. Cream such as créme Chantilly is a popular topping for ice cream
and parfait bases. It can also be mixed with mil} and eggs for quiche fillings.

Cream comes in various forms:

✓ Cream. It has a minimum fat content of 35%.

✓ Double cream. It has a minimum fat content of 48%.

✓ Thickened cream. The addition of gelatin makes it easier for whipping

✓ Créme fraiche. It has a “soured” double cream with yogurt.

✓ Light cream. It has a minimum fat content of ~20%.

✓ Sour cream. This type of cream contains ~15% fat and lactic acid.

✓ Imitation cream. It is made from vegetable fats. It requires no refrigeration but has no
taste or flavor.

Butter is produced from milk by churning, shaking, or beating. The fat is separated and links
together. Most butter has salt added for storage and preservation. For pastry creams or similar
items, unsalted butter should be used as too much salt affects the taste of the product.

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 Cheese is made by adding rennet to milk. This sets the milk solids, which are then drained
to remove the whey. Cheese is used in many savory applications in baking. All varieties can be
utilized from blue vein cheeses for filo parcels to mozzarella in pizza toppings. Other white mold
cheeses such as camembert can be used in quiches and for grills. Cheddar and stronger-tasting
hard cheeses such as parmesan can be used for savory biscuits and puff pastry goods.

Many other fresh cheese varieties can also be used in sweet applications. The following
are examples of cheese varieties and their uses:

✓ Yogurt is produced by warming milk and adding cultures to set the mixture to a soft
curd. Flavored varieties are also available. Yogurt can be used as a low-fat alternative in
cakes or creams or set with gelatin in yogurt panna cotta or Bavarian cream.

✓ Mascarpone is a triple cream cheese made from low-fat cream. It has a light aroma. It
can be creamed and used for fillings in cakes such as the Italian specialty tiramisu.

✓ Quark is a fresh cheese that has a slightly acidic and tangy flavor. Depending on the fat
content, quark can be dry to creamy and is used for fillings, spreads, and in
cheesecakes.

✓ Philadelphia (cream) cheese has less acidity and can be used in place of quark.

✓ Ricotta is an Italian fresh cheese with a crumbly texture that can be used instead of
quark or Philadelphia (cream) cheese.

YEAST

Yeast is a living organism, a fungus that multiplies and produces ferments by converting
starch and sugars into carbon dioxide and ethyl alcohol. The scientific name for one species of
yeast is Saccharomyces cerevisiae or sugar-eating fungus. It takes twenty billion cells to
weigh one gram. In long-fermented baked goods, the yeast contributes flavor through the
production of lactic acids. Fermentation is used in baking and in the production of beverages.

Yeast is available in three forms:

✓ Fresh and cream yeast. Fresh yeast needs to be stored in the fridge and lasts for
approximately 2 weeks, Cream yeast is used in large-scale baking.

✓ Dry and instant yeast. Instant yeast used in baking is concentrated, quite porous, and
can be added with the dry ingredients when producing dough although only about 4 of
fresh yeast is required. Dry yeast is used in homes and small restaurants. It is also
concentrated and requires ~50% of the yeast in the recipe.

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 ✓ Brewer's yeast is used in the production of beer, wine, and spirits.

Growth and maintenance of yeast:

To multiply and grow, yeast needs the following:
✓ Food in the form of sugar and starch
✓ Warmth ~35°C
✓ Moisture water, milk, or other liquids

Yeast can survive freezing for extended periods of time. In fact, some mammoths were
discovered in the Siberian ice and when they were thawed out, the yeast in their stomachs
started to ferment after 10,000 years of being frozen.

✓ If yeast is kept cold, it stays dormant (inactive in a state of rest).

✓ If yeast is heated above 52°C, it dies.

✓ Yeast products must be worked at between 20°C and 30°C. The maximum temperature
for the liquid should be 35°C.

Things to remember:

✓ Added salt slows down the fermentation process.

✓ Fresh yeast should be stored properly-wrapped and refrigerated.

✓ Yeast should be ordered and purchased in small quantities.

✓ Time is a very important factor in yeast goods. The yeast fermentation changes the
gluten, making it soft and more elastic, thus allowing the dough to be stretched even
more. The time required for proper fermentation is referred to as ripening.

✓ An underripe or mature dough has too little time to ferment while an overripe or over
mature dough has too much time to ferment. The longer a dough can ferment, the less
yeast is required. If yeast dough is produced in a hurry, more yeast is added but a
slightly yeasty flavor might come through.

Terms associated with the production of yeast goods are the following:

✓ Primary or basic ferment is a mixture of liquid, yeast, and food at 35 °C that is allowed
to ferment before making a dough.

✓ Budding refers to the splitting and multiplying of the yeast cells.

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 ✓ Develop refers to the working of the dough to improve elasticity and lengthen the gluten
strands.

✓ Prove (Proving) means to allow the yeast dough to double in size as a result of
budding.

✓ Knock back means working back of the proven yeast dough to the original size, then
proving it again. This allows for the even distribution of the yeast throughout the dough.

✓ Proofer is a cabinet with controlled temperature (20°C-30°C) and moisture (65%--80%).

Yeast goods are placed inside the proofer for the final prove before baking.

✓ Final prove refers to the prove of the yeast goods once they have been shaped or
placed in molds ready for baking.

✓ Overmature means the product has been proven too long and starts to collapse. The
finished product has big air bubbles and its texture is different.

✓ Undermature means the product has been put into the oven too early and the top may
crack. The product is too dense and has only little aeration.

✓ Leavening is a term used for pastry goods that are increased in volume through the
addition of the yeast or other rising agents such as baking powder or baking soda.
Unleavened bread is flattened out and baked and is made from a mixture of flour and
water.

OTHER FLAVORINGS AND SPICES

o Vanilla beans are the pods of the creeper Vanilla planifolia, an orchid that is grown
in Central America, Madagascar, and Indonesia. These are dried and should be
slightly moist when purchased. The beans can be split and submerged in a liquid to
extract the flavor. When washed off and stored in a canister of sugar, they produce
vanilla sugar that can be used in pastries.

o Vanilla essence is the flavor produced by dissolving vanilla pods in alcoholic

solution.

o Vanilla extract is made by percolating or macerating chopped vanilla beans with

ethyl alcohol and water.

o Poppy seeds are the black to blue seeds extracted from the poppy plant. They are
used for breads or boiled in custards or milk for fillings and cakes. Europes, Sweets
often use poppy seeds.

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• Sesame seeds are rich in oil and have a pleasant nutty aroma and are often sprinkled on
baked goods for additional flavor.

• Sunflower seeds are rich in aromatic oil and are often added to bread varieties

• Nuts are used in all their varieties from ground nuts as in almond flour to slivers and flakes
to provide color, flavor, and texture.

• Cinnamon quills (sticks) are used in drinks or liquid mixtures to extract their subtle flavor.
Varying qualities are available. Ground cinnamon is used in sugar mixtures and for flavoring
sweets.

• Cloves are rich in flavor and are added to stock syrup, stewed apples, and pea, dishes.

• Nutmeg comes from the seed of the nutmeg tree. It can be ground freshly and ig sprinkled
on custard tarts or added to stewed fruit.

• Allspice is produced from the pimento tree. It has a pronounced flavor~ a combination of
pepper, cinnamon, clove, and nutmeg.

• Ginger is produced from the ginger plant and can be used ground in pastries oy fresh like in
Asian sweets.

• Essences are used in baking to add flavor to pastries. Lemon, almond, and rum are some
essences used in cakes. They are produced using steam for distillation.

THICKENING AND SETTING AGENTS

➢ Gelatin is a setting agent made from animal bones and skin. It can be bought in sheets
or powder form. The sheets are easier to work with but are more expensive. The leaves
(sheets) should be in cold water and any excess water should be squeezed out when
removed from it. Finally, the leaves should be dissolved in hot liquid Powdered gelatin
should be soaked, dissolved in a bain marie, and then added to the liquid. If too much
gelatin is added, the end product will become rubbery. If the dissolved gelatin is added
to a cold mixture, it can form rubbery strands or lumps sather than a smooth mixture.
Hence, it is advisable to “temper” the gelatin first.

➢ Agar-agar is a gum that can be used as a vegetarian alternative to gelatin. Its produced
from seaweed and sets without refrigeration.

➢ Carrageenan is an extract from red algae seaweed that forms an elastic gel that holds
moisture.

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 ➢ Locust bean gum is made from the seed of the carob tree. It is a suspending agent,
thickener, and stabilizer used in ice cream, cheese, and agar-agar.

➢ Acacia or gum arabic is an exudation (sap) of the African acacia tree used as a
stabilizer, thickener, surface finishing agent, and humectant (attracts moisture).

➢ Sago and tapioca can be boiled with fruit juice or liquids and set once cooled down.
They do not, however, dissolve completely.

➢ Cornflour, arrow root, and other starches are diluted and added to hot liquid for
thickening. The temperature requirements of the different types of starches should be
considered.

➢ Pectin is a setting agent extracted from citrus fruit and apple pomace (fruit cell walls). It
is used in the production of jams and jellies.

➢ Hydroxypropyl methylcellulose is a general-purpose food stabilizer and thickening

agent.

CONVENIENCE PRODUCTS

Pastry cooking was the first section of the kitchen to attract commercially produced
convenience products. This is in part related to the ingredients used in pastry, their shelf life,
reduction of labor costs, and the possibility of bulk orders. In kitchens, the trend towards
increased use of convenience products is likely to continue even if food stores/establishments
do not have the raw materials/ ingredients themselves. In America, pastry convenience products
are a $4-$5 billion industry that is continuously growing.

While some consumers seem to be increasingly concerned about diet and health,
particularly with all the media's focus on obesity and diabetes, others think otherwise as
evidenced by the growth in indulgence products. This trend perhaps can be explained by
consumers rewarding themselves after periods of healthy eating.

The earliest convenience products used in pastry restaurants are sweets supplied by a
professional pastry chef or alternatively by a local establishment. The in-house chef only
finishes the dish with a garnish. Convenience products are used in pastry to save time.

The common convenience products used in pastry are as follows:

• To broaden the offerings of the baker, different bread types such as rye o, Italian breads
are easily produced with the help of bread mixes. The bake, simply needs to add water
and follow a few steps.

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 • Pizza bases can be purchased frozen, pre-baked, or even with tomaty paste on them.
Few toppings just have to be added and the pizza is ready,

• Most pastry chefs are using filo pastry instead of making strudel dough themselves
which can be labor-intensive.

• Chinese-style noodle paste, wontons, glass noodles, and Italian style pasta can be
brought in a variety of forms.

• Batters come pre-packaged in a container. The chef should add water to the butter,
shake it, and it is ready to use.

• Pikelets and waffles can be purchased pre-cooked.

• Puff pastry requires time and space to produce. Puff pastry can be bought as sheets,
blocks, or rolls with various fats used for the filling. Pre-baked vol-au-vent cases can also
be purchased.

• Danish is another pastry variety that is fairly tricky to produce. A fresh product is
untimely superior in taste if made correctly, but due to farranging circumstances, the
quality cannot be guaranteed. Danish is available as a raw paste cut into shapes and
frozen so all that is needed is a final prove and it is then baked.

Short paste is also available as sheets or rolls and in many varieties-- paste to whole meal
paste.

• Making pies with rolled base short paste is easy. The pastry chet aes 2 lot of time in
labor as he/she simply places the filling top with putt paste and the pie is ready to go.

• Quiche bases can already be bought blind-baked.

• Dried biscuits are another easy application used in catering. From commercial biscuits to
refined “home style” products, the range or variety is wide, making it easy to cater for
morning tea in an instant.

• Biscuit paste is also available in a roll. The chef should slice and bake the paste to get
the aroma and smell of a fresh product. A wide selection of cake mixes and flour mixes
is available at present. In most cases, water or egg is added to the mixture. After 5
minutes, the cake is ready. Icing can be put to enhance the cake.

Sponge can be purchased as sponge flour. The chef puts it into the mixing bowl, adds
water, whips the mixture in the prescribed time, and the mixture is ready to be used for Swiss
rolls and cakes. Finished sponge can be bought as a base or slab which can be filled and
finished to one’s enterprise needs.

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 For desserts, the range is also considerable-from individual cakes and pastry portions to
slab cakes already marked for portioning in bulk catering,

➢ Frozen desserts are another convenience product which have been used for a long time
due to the labor involved with ice cream-making.

➢ Cassata, ice cream cakes, and bulk-packed ice for individual portioning are available.

➢ Sorbets and fruit ices can also be purchased in a multitude of ways. Many dessert
varieties are available frozen and individually or bulk-packed for the needs of the various
industry sectors.

Crémes are available in powder form and can be cooked easily by following the instructions.
Custards can be had by using custard powder or by purchasing the finished product in
containers or bags. Sauces come in all shapes and tastes from bottles to bags and cartons.
Fruit-based desserts from filled flans to pre-cut fruit salad can be ordered in a multitude of
portion sizes and styles including frozen berries.

Jellies are offered from packed individual serves to instant powders. Chocolate based
desserts probably possess the biggest variety with chocolate being the consumers’ perennial
favorite. From finished chocolate pralines to hollows that can be filled with one’s own choice
of fillings, and from chocolate molds and serving shapes to baked, frozen, and other chocolate
desserts, the offers are almost limitless.

Farinaceous desserts also come as convenience products including pre-cooked rice pudding
and specialized desserts for specific diets using tapioca or similar ingredients,

Savory products are also limitless and range from individual samosas to dimsum and cheese
beignets. Traditional individual sized pies, quiches, and sausage rolls have been joined by a
vast array of flavor and taste varieties.

HOW DO CONVENIENCE PRODUCTS AND FRESH INGREDIENTS COMPARE?

“The old saying “fresh is best” seems to be the obvious answer. However, this statement does
not take all of the factors into account. Fresh ingredients require high-skill level in the kitchen,
space, equipment, separate storage areas, and time”

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