Assignment

Subject: clinical pathology

Muhammad shoaib
Hepatitis

BS-AHS MLT 6TH Semester

Submitted To: Mr. Anees- Ur – Rahman

 Hepatitis

Is a medical condition characterized by inflammation of the liver? There are several types
of hepatitis, including viral hepatitis (such as hepatitis A, B, and C) and non-viral hepatitis
(such as autoimmune hepatitis and drug-induced hepatitis). Clinical pathology of hepatitis
can vary depending on the type of hepatitis and the stage of the diseases
Common signs and symptoms: of viral hepatitis include fatigue, jaundice (yellowing of
the skin and eyes), abdominal pain, and loss of appetite. Laboratory tests that can be used
to diagnose and monitor viral hepatitis include liver function tests (such as aspartate
aminotransferase (AST) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT)), viral serology tests (such as
hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) and hepatitis C antibody (HCV Ab)), and viral load
tests (such as hepatitis B DNA and hepatitis C RNA).

Non-viral hepatitis usually presents with similar symptoms as viral hepatitis, but it is not caused
by a virus. The pathology of non-viral hepatitis is typically characterized by infiltration of
inflammatory cells in the liver and injury to the liver cells.
 use of liver function tests (such as aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alanine
aminotransferase (ALT)) and viral serology tests (such as hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg)
and hepatitis C antibody (HCV Ab)) in the diagnosis and monitoring of viral hepatitis
Liver function tests (LFTs) such as aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alanine
aminotransferase (ALT) are commonly used to diagnose and monitor viral hepatitis. These
enzymes are normally present in the liver and are responsible for catalyzing certain chemical
reactions. However, when the liver is damaged or inflamed, these enzymes can leak out of the
liver cells and into the bloodstream, resulting in elevated levels of AST and ALT in the blood.
AST and ALT levels can be used to diagnose viral hepatitis and to monitor the
progression of the disease. In general, AST levels are more elevated than ALT levels in viral
hepatitis, but both enzymes can be elevated in certain types of viral hepatitis such as hepatitis
B, C and D.
Viral serology tests such as hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) and hepatitis C antibody
(HCV Ab) are used to diagnose viral hepatitis and to monitor response to treatment. These tests
detect the presence of viral proteins or antibodies in the blood that are specific to a particular
type of viral hepatitis. For example, a positive test for HBsAg indicates the presence of the
hepatitis B virus in the blood and is a sign of an active infection.
A positive HCV Ab indicates the presence of antibodies to the hepatitis C virus, which
means the person has been exposed to the virus at some point, but it does not necessarily
mean that the person has an active infection.
During viral hepatitis, the liver undergoes a range of pathological changes. The
main changes that occur include inflammation, necrosis, and fibrosis.
Inflammation is the initial response of the liver to viral infection. Inflammation is characterized
by the infiltration of white blood cells, such as lymphocytes and neutrophils, into the liver
tissue. This infiltration leads to the activation of immune cells and the release of cytokines and
other inflammatory mediators, which can contribute to the damage of liver cells.
Necrosis refers to the death of liver cells. During viral hepatitis, necrosis can occur as a result of
both direct viral infection and indirect injury caused by inflammation. Necrosis can lead to the
formation of areas of dead tissue (necrotic foci) within the liver.
Fibrosis is the excessive formation of fibrous tissue in the liver. Fibrosis is a sign of chronic injury
and is a result of the liver's attempt to repair the damage caused by viral hepatitis. Fibrosis can
lead to the formation of scar tissue, which can impede the normal function of the liver.
In the case of viral hepatitis B and C, chronic hepatitis can develop and lead to cirrhosis, a
severe form of fibrosis that can cause serious health complications such as liver failure and liver
cancer.
In general, the degree of pathological changes in the liver during viral hepatitis can vary
depending on the type of viral hepatitis, the stage of the disease, and the individual's immune
response to the virus
Non-viral hepatitis refers to liver inflammation that is not caused by a viral infection. Some
examples of non-viral hepatitis include autoimmune hepatitis and drug-induced hepatitis.
Autoimmune hepatitis is a chronic inflammatory disease of the liver that is caused by the
immune system mistakenly attacking the liver cells. The exact cause of autoimmune hepatitis is
not known, but it is believed to be a combination of genetic and environmental factors.
Symptoms of autoimmune hepatitis can include fatigue, jaundice, abdominal pain, and loss of
appetite. Diagnosis of autoimmune hepatitis is typically made through a combination of
laboratory tests, such as elevated levels of liver enzymes and the presence of certain
autoantibodies in the blood, along with imaging studies and liver biopsy. Treatment for
autoimmune hepatitis typically involves the use of immunosuppressive medications, such as
prednisone and azathioprine. The pathological changes that occur in autoimmune hepatitis are
similar to those of viral hepatitis, including inflammation, necrosis and fibrosis, however, in
autoimmune hepatitis, the inflammatory cells that infiltrate the liver are mainly composed of
lymphocytes and plasma cells, and fibrosis is more prominent.
Drug-induced hepatitis refers to liver inflammation that is caused by the use of certain
medications. Medications that can cause drug-induced hepatitis include antibiotics, non-
steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), and certain herbal supplements. Symptoms of
drug-induced hepatitis can include fatigue, jaundice, abdominal pain, and loss of appetite.
Diagnosis of drug-induced hepatitis is typically made through a combination of laboratory tests,
such as elevated levels of liver enzymes, and a review of the person's medication history.
Treatment for drug-induced hepatitis typically involves discontinuing the medication that is
causing the liver injury. The pathological changes that occur in drug-induced hepatitis are
similar to those of viral hepatitis, including inflammation, necrosis and fibrosis, however, in
drug-induced hepatitis, the inflammatory cells that infiltrate the liver are mainly composed of
neutrophils and eosinophil
The treatment options for viral hepatitis vary depending on the type of viral
hepatitis and the stage of the disease.
1. Antiviral therapy is the primary treatment for viral hepatitis caused by hepatitis B and C.
Antiviral drugs such as lamivudine, adefovir, entecavir, and tenofovir are used to inhibit
the replication of the virus and to slow the progression of the disease. In the case of
hepatitis C, direct acting antivirals (DAAs) have been developed and have shown high
cure rates.
2. Interferon therapy is a treatment option for viral hepatitis B and C. Interferon are
naturally occurring proteins that are produced by the body in response to viral
infections. They can be used as a treatment for viral hepatitis to stimulate the immune
system and inhibit viral replication.
3. Liver transplantation is an option for patients with advanced liver disease caused by viral
hepatitis. Liver transplantation involves the replacement of a diseased liver with a
healthy liver from a donor. This treatment is usually recommended for patients with
end-stage liver disease caused by viral hepatitis.

4. In some cases, supportive care such as management of symptoms and complications,

nutrition support, and vaccinations are also important in the management of viral
hepatitis.

Thank you